CHEMISTR
Y
PROJECT
INTRODUCTION
Saponification of oils
Saponification: Saponification is a chemical
reaction that involves the hydrolysis of triglycerides
(fats and oils) to produce soap and glycerol, typically in
the presence of alkaline substance such as sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide (KOH).
If the saponification value of oils increases, it means
that the oil requires more alkali (such as sodium
hydroxide) to complete the saponification reaction. This
can have several implications:
An increase in the saponification value of edible
oils can have several impacts:
*Quality and Stability
1. Reduced shelf life: Edible oils with high
saponification values may become rancid more quickly,
reducing their shelf life.
2. Off-flavors and odors: Increased saponification can
lead to the formation of off-flavors and odors, affecting
the oil's sensory quality.
3. Decreased nutritional value: High saponification
values can indicate oxidation, which can lead to a
decrease in the oil's nutritional value.
* Processing and Manufacturing
1. Difficulty in refining: Edible oils with high
saponification values can be more challenging to refine,
requiring additional processing steps.
2. Increased processing costs: Higher saponification
values can lead to increased processing costs due to
the need for additional refining steps or the use of more
expensive processing aids.
3. Reduced yield: Increased saponification can result in
a lower yield of refined oil.
* Food Safety and Regulatory Compliance
1. Regulatory non-compliance: Edible oils with high
saponification values may not meet regulatory
standards, potentially leading to non-compliance
issues.
2. Food safety concerns: High saponification values can
indicate the presence of contaminants or adulterants,
which can pose food safety risks.
* Economic Impacts
1. Reduced market value: Edible oils with high
saponification values may have a lower market value
due to their reduced quality and stability.
2. Increased costs for food manufacturers: Food
manufacturers may incur additional costs due to the
need for more expensive processing aids or the use of
alternative oils.
3. Potential losses for oil producers: Oil producers may
experience losses due to the reduced quality and
market value of their oils.
A high saponification value denotes triacylglycerols
with shorter fatty acyl chains and vice versa. As a
result, SV becomes a simple method for determining
the chain length of fatty acids in certain fats and oils.
As a point of reference, the majority of popular oils and
fats, whether they come from vegetables or animals
(sunflower, soybean, rapeseed, swine lard, cattle
tallow, chicken fat, etc.), nearly exclusively comprise
long chain fatty acids (C18 and C16). Saponification
value is mostly used to indicate the molecular weight of
triglycerol. As molecular weight decreases then it
denotes the decreasing length of fatty acid and vice
Acid value of oils
The acid value of oils, also known as the acid number
or acidity, is a measure of the amount of free fatty
acids present in an oil. It is an important parameter in
the quality control of edible oils, as high levels of free
fatty acids can affect the oil's flavor, texture, and
stability.
Definition: The acid value of an oil is defined as the
number of milligrams of potassium hydroxide (KOH)
required to neutralize one gram of oil.
The acid value of oils is important for several
reasons:
1. Flavor and aroma: High levels of free fatty acids can
impart a sour or unpleasant flavor to the oil.
2. Texture and stability: Free fatty acids can affect the
oil's texture and stability, making it more prone to
oxidation and spoilage.
3. Nutritional value: High levels of free fatty acids can
reduce the nutritional value of the oil.
4. Shelf life: Oils with high acid values may have a
shorter shelf life due to increased oxidation and
spoilage.
The acceptable limits for acid value vary depending on
the type of oil and its intended use. Generally, the
following limits are considered acceptable:
- Edible oils: 0.1-0.5 mg KOH/g
- Cooking oils: 0.5-1.0 mg KOH/g
- Industrial oils: 1.0-2.0 mg KOH/g
Several factors can affect the acid value of oils,
including:
1. Oil quality: The quality of the oil can affect its acid
value, with lower-quality oils tend to have higher acid
values.
2. Storage conditions: Improper storage conditions,
such as high temperatures or exposure to light, can
cause the acid value to increase.
3. Processing methods: The processing methods used
to extract and refine the oil can affect its acid value.
4. Type of oil: Different types of oils have varying levels
of free fatty acids, which can affect their acid value.
The acid value indicates the degree of rancidity of a
particular oil/fat. Rancid oil produces high acid.
Acidification is the breakdown of fats and other lipids
by hydrolysis and/or oxidation. Unsaturated fats are
oxidized mainly by processes mediated by free radicals,
resulting in unpleasant odors and smells
Rancidity can be reduced but not eliminated. The
content of solid and liquid oils can be reduced by
storing them at low temperatures and away from light.
This value is the quantification of the fatty acids
released as a result of the hydrolysis glycerides under
the influence of humidity, temperature and moisture.
Iodine value of oils
The iodine value of oils is a measure of the amount of
unsaturated fatty acids present in an oil. It is an
important parameter in the quality control of edible
oils, as it can affect the oil's flavor, texture, and
stability.
Definition: The iodine value of an oil is defined as
the number of grams of iodine that react with 100
grams of oil. It is expressed in units of g I2/100g.
The iodine value of oils is important for several
reasons:
1. Unsaturated fatty acid content: The iodine value is a
direct measure of the amount of unsaturated fatty
acids present in an oil.
2. Oxidation stability: Oils with high iodine values are
more prone to oxidation, which can lead to spoilage
and off-flavors.
3. Flavor and aroma: The iodine value can affect the
flavor and aroma of an oil, with higher values often
resulting in a stronger, more pronounced flavor.
4. Nutritional value: The iodine value can also affect the
nutritional value of an oil, with higher values often
indicating a higher content of essential fatty acids.
The acceptable limits for iodine value vary depending
on the type of oil and its intended use. Generally, the
following limits are considered acceptable:
- Edible oils: 50-150 g I2/100g
- Cooking oils: 100-200 g I2/100g
- Industrial oils: 150-250 g I2/100g
Several factors can affect the iodine value of
oils, including:
1. Oil quality: The quality of the oil can affect its iodine
value, with lower-quality oils tend to have lower iodine
values.
2. Type of oil: Different types of oils have varying levels
of unsaturated fatty acids, which can affect their iodine
value.
3. Processing methods: The processing methods used
to extract and refine the oil can affect its iodine value.
4. Storage conditions: Improper storage conditions,
such as high temperatures or exposure to light, can
cause the iodine value to decrease.
SCOPE OF THE
PROJECT
MATERIALS AND
METHODS
Saponification of oils
Materials
Reagent required: Potassium hydroxide, absolute
ethanol, hydrochloric acid, phenolphthalein indicator, 4
different oils.
Apparatus required: Round bottom flask, volumetric
flask, burette, beaker, pipette, stand, bubbler, water
bath or heating mantle, reflux condenser, distillation
flask, condenser, balance machine, distillation unit.
Methods
Preparation of 4% ethanolic KOH: weigh 1.67g
potassium hydroxide pellets and take into a round
bottom distillation flask. Weight 1g granulated
aluminum foil and transfer it to the same flask. Measure
200ml absolute ethanol and pour it to the same
distillation flask. Attach a reflux condenser with the
flask. Heat the flask with KOH and Al foil for 45minutes.
Distil and collect 180ml ethanol after discarding first
10ml. Take some KOH pellets in the mortar. Now grind
the KOH pellets with the pestle. Take weight of 6g
ground KOH pellets. Transfer the KOH pellets in a flask
to which 4% ethanolic KOH solution will be prepared.
Now measure 150ml ethanol, collected from the
distillation and pour it into the flask containing KOH
pellets. Mix and dissolve the KOH in ethanol, keeping
the flask into the cold water.
Preparation of 0.5ml HCl: Dilute 4,1ml of conc.HCl with
distilled water to make the total volume of 100ml
Preparation of sample and blank: Bring 2 flasks of
250ml for sample and blank preparation. Take 5g of oil
in the flask. Measure 50ml of 4% ethanolic KOH and
pour into the sample flask and blank flask.
Saponification: Place the sample flask on the heating
mantle carefully. Now attach a condenser with the
sample flask. Heat the sample flask at the boiling point
for 45minutes. We can see the condensed ethanol is
falling drop-wise into the flask. After 45minutes we can
see there is no separate oil layer and the mixture look
transparent and clear. Transparent mixture indicates
the end of saponification. Cool the flask. Repeat the
same procedure for the blank and other samples.
Titration: After saponification bring the cooled sample
for titration. Add few drops of phenolphthalein indicator
solution into the flask and shake it. Take 0.5N HCl
solution in a burette. Titrate the sample against it. Note
the burette reading where the pink color disappears.
Disappearance of pink color indicates the end point.
Repeat the same process for the blank and other
samples.
Acid value of oils
Materials
Reagent required: Ethanol(alcohol), diethyl
ether,0.1N Sodium hydroxide, Phenolphthalein
indicator, 4 samples of different oils (coconut oil, caster
oil, sunflower oil, gingelly oil).
Apparatus Required: Conical flask, volumetric flask,
burette, pipette, stand bubbler.
Methods
Weigh exactly 2g of the sample and dissolve in 50 ml of
solution which containing equal amounts of alcohol and
ether solvents, which have been previously neutralized
with 0.1 N NaOH. If the sample does not dissolve in
solvent at room temperature, reflux the sample for one
hour and shake frequently and swirl gently until the oil
dissolves. After adding one millilitre of phenolphthalein
solution and shaking for thirty seconds, titrate the
mixture with 0.1 N sodium hydroxide solution until color
changes to pale pink.
Iodine value of oils
Materials
Required reagents: Starch soluble, potassium iodide,
sodium thiosulphate, carbon tetrachloride, wiji’s
solution.
Apparatus required: Balance machine, burette with
stand, measuring cylinder, IV flask, spatula, pipette,
filter paper, funnel, heating mantle.
Method
Preparation of 1% starch solution: Measure 50ml of
distilled water and take it into a glass beaker and boil
the water. Take weight of 0.5g starch soluble and
transfer it into the boiling water. Stire the starch
solution by a glass rod while boiling to dissolve it in
water. Filter the starch solution. 1% starch solution is
ready for using it in the titration as indicator.
Preparation of 0.1N sodium thiosulfate: Take weight of
2.5g sodium thiosulphate crystals and transfer it to a
100ml standard flask and make up to the mark. Heat
the solution to dissolve the crystals.
Sample and blank preparation: Take 2g of oil sample
into a IV flask. Prepare a IV flask without taking sample
into it. Pipette 25ml carbon tetrachloride and pour into
the sample and blank flask. Pipette 25ml of Wiji’s
solution and pour into the sample and blank flask and
close the flask with it’s stopper immediately. Shake
both the flasks for proper mixing. Keep both the flask in
dark for 30minutes.
Titration: Take standardized 0.1N sodium thiosulphate
solution in a burette. Note the initial reading. Measure
100ml distilled water and pour the water into the
sample washing the stopper into the flask. Measure 1ml
of 1% starch solution and keep ready to use later. Start
titration using 0.1N sodium thiosulphate. Add 1% starch
solution when the solution color is changing to lighter.
Shake the flask and resume the titration. Milky white
color solution indicates the end point of the titration.
Shake the flask vigorously. If the blue color comes
back, titrate again. Note the final burette reading. Do
the titration of blank as same as the sample. Note the
final burette reading.
Find the end point of the other samples using same
procedure.
