Organizational Behaviour

UNIT-III: Dynamics of OB-I: Communication – types – interactive communication in organizations –

barriers to communication and strategies to improve the follow of communication - Decision Making:
Participative decision-making techniques – creativity and group decision making. Dynamics of OB –II
Stress and Conflict: Meaning and types of stress –Meaning and types of conflict - Effect of stress and
intra-individual conflict - strategies to cope with stress and conflict.
Dynamics of OB: Understanding the dynamics of organizational behavior is crucial for effective
management and creating a positive work culture. Organizational behavior examines how individuals,
teams, and structures within an organization interact, influence one another, and impact overall
performance. It is the study of how people in a large company or organization behave and react to each
other, and of how the organization can be made to work more effectively.

3.1 Communication:
The origin of the word “communication” is “communicare” or “communis” which means “to impart”,
“to participate”, “to share” or “to make common.” The sense of sharing is inherent in the very origin
and meaning of “communication.”
Communication includes both the transfer and the understanding of meaning. Organizational
communication' as the sending and receiving of messages among interrelated individuals within a
particular environment or setting to achieve individual and common goals.
 Communication is essentially the ability of one person to make contact with another and make
himself or herself understood. - John Adair.
 Communication is an exchange of ideas, facts, opinions or emotions of two or more persons.-
William Newman and Charles Summer.
 Communication is a process of passing information and understanding from one person to
another.- Keith Davis
 Communication is a bridge of meaning. It involves a systematic and continuous process of telling,
listening and understanding.- Louis Allen
 Communication is a process by which information is transmitted between individuals and / or
organizations so that an understanding response results.-Peter Little
 Communication is a process of transmitting and receiving verbal and non-verbal messages. It is
considered effective when it achieves the desired response or reaction from the receiver.- Murphy,
Hildebrandt, Thomas

Functions of Communication:
Communication serves four major functions within a group or organization: control, motivation,
emotional expression, and information. Communication acts to control member behavior in several
ways. Communication fosters motivation by clarifying to employees what they must do, how well they
are doing it, and how they can improve performance.
Communication plays a vital role in work groups is a primary source of social interaction for many
employees. Communication within the group is a fundamental mechanism by which members show
their satisfaction and frustrations. Communication, therefore, provides for the emotional expression of
feelings and fulfillment of social needs. Communication is to facilitate decision making

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Communication provides the information individuals and groups need to make decisions by
transmitting the data needed to identify and evaluate choices.

Communication process: The steps between a source and a receiver that result in the transfer and
understanding of meaning.
Communication is a two-way process involving the following elements: a sender, a message, a
medium, a channel, a receiver, a response and feedback. However, it is not sufficient to have just all
these elements; there should be cooperation and understanding between the two parties involved. It is
important to have a common frame of reference or context for successful and meaningful
communication, e.g. a common language or common interpretation of a gesture.
Essentially communication involves the sender or the communicator and the receiver. Both should
necessarily share a mutually accepted code e.g. a common language. The context in which the
communication takes place is called the “communication environment”. The content of the code is
sent in a certain medium (oral, written or non-verbal) using channels (air, mikes, body, pictures, text,
etc.) in the form of encoded messages. The “code” is not restricted to only language; it may also
involve the use of costumes, gestures, colors among other things.
The process of communication can be described in the following manner:
The sender sends a “message” using a “medium” and a “channel” to the “receiver”. The message
arrives in the sensory world of the receiver. The receiver’s brain filters the message onthe basis of
his/her knowledge, emotions, attitudes, and biases and gives the message a unique meaning. This
meaning may trigger a response which the mind of the receiver forms. The receiver encodes his/her
response and sends it across as “feedback” into the sensory world of the sender. This completes one
cycle of communication and the process continues in a cyclic manner, i.e. cycle after cycle, as long as
the people involved care to communicate.

Communication can take place it needs a purpose, a message to be conveyed between a sender and a
receiver. The sender encodes the message (converts it to a symbolic form) and passes it through a
medium (channel) to the receiver, who decodes it. The result is transfer of meaning from one person to
another. Exhibit 11-1 depicts this communication process .
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The key parts of this model are (1) The Sender, (2) Encoding, (3) The Message, (4) The Channel,
(5) Decoding, (6) The Receiver, (7) Noise, and (8) Feedback.
The sender initiates a message by encoding a thought. The message is the actual physical product of
the sender’s encoding. When we speak, the speech is the message. When we write, the writing is the
message. When we gesture, the movements of our arms and the expressions on our faces are the
message. The channel is the medium through which the message travels. The sender selects it,
determining whether to use a formal or informal channel. Formal channels are established by the
organization and transmit messages related to the professional activities of members. They
traditionally follow the authority chain within the organization. Other forms of messages, such as
personal or social, follow informal channels, which are spontaneous and emerge as a response to
individual choices.
The receiver is the person(s) to whom the message is directed, who must first translate the symbols
into understandable form. This step is the decoding of the message. Noise represents communication
barriers that distort the clarity of the message, such as perceptual problems, information overload,
semantic difficulties, or cultural differences. The final link in the communication process is a feedback
loop.
Feedback is the check on how successful we have been in transferring our messages as originally
intended. It determines whether understanding has been achieved.
Communication can flow vertically or laterally. We further subdivide the vertical dimension into
downward and upward directions.
Components of the communication process can be listed as follows:
1. Idea or impulse that arises in the sender’s mind
2. Formal expression of the idea or impulse using a medium and channel : encoding
3. Interpretation of the message by the receiver: decoding
4. Reaction or response of the receiver
5. Conveying the reaction/response in the feedback using a medium and channel
6. Decoding of the feedback received

Essentials of effective communication are:

1. A common communication environment
2. Cooperation between the sender and the receiver
3. Selection of an appropriate channel
4. Correct encoding and decoding of the message
5. Receipt of the desired response and feedback

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Types of communication:

Types of Communication: Formal, Informal, Interpersonal, Non-verbal Communication:

Communication can be characterized as Formal, Informal, Inter-personal and Non-verbal
communication:
1. Formal Communication:
Formal communication means the communication which travels through the formally established
channels. In other words, communication which travels through the formal chain of command or lines
of hierarchy of authority is called the formal communication. Under it, information is given through
the formally designed channel or network. It is designed, controlled and regulated by the management.

Advantages of Formal Communication: Disadvantages of Formal Communication:

 It helps in the fixation of responsibility and  It lacks personal contacts and relationship.
accountability.  It is time consuming. It takes much time to
 It helps in maintaining the lines of authority in communicate.
the organization.  It creates a bottleneck in the flow of
 It helps in maintaining discipline. information because almost all information is
 It ensures orderly flow of communication. channeled through a single executive.

 It obstructs free, smooth and accurate

circulation of information in an organization

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Formal communication can be Horizontal, Vertical and Diagonal:

i. Horizontal Communication:

When communication takes place between two or more persons of the same level or position of the
same department or other departments of the organization, it is known as horizontal communication.
When the finance manager communicates with the marketing manager concerning advertising
expenditures, the flow of communication is horizontal. The objective of horizontal communication is
to coordinate the efforts of different departments or persons.

Advantages of Horizontal Communication: Disadvantages of Horizontal Communication:

 Coordinating in nature. The major disadvantages of horizontal
 Frequently informal and therefore simpler communication are listed as below:
than vertical communication.  Department chiefs may remain
 Reassuring to those in charge of uninformed about what their division
implementing department policy, since it heads are thinking.
provides them with the opportunity of  It can have a disuniting effect by fostering
checking with each other and comparing clique i.e. grouping among personal at the
notes. same levels of authority.
 Expedient in terms of communication  It can distort the purpose of a department
time. policy, and even render it inoperative by
allowing too much discussion about it.
 It may actually increase misunderstanding
among division heads by permitting
informal (verbal) alterations of formal
communications.

ii. Vertical Communication:

The communication in which information is either transmitted from top to the bottom or from bottom
to the top in structural hierarchy is a vertical communication. In this way, vertical communication may
be of two types as:
a) Downward Communication:

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When messages are transmitted from superiors to subordinates along with the chain of command, it is
said to be downward communication. It refers to the transmission of information from superior to
subordinates. The most common downward communications are job instruction, official memos,
policy statements, procedures, manuals and company publications.

b) Upward Communication:
When messages are transmitted from bottom to top of the organizational hierarchy, it is said to be
upward communication. This provides feedback on the extent of effectiveness of downward
communication. It is also a means of informing the management about the viewpoints, reactions,
feelings and state of employee morale. Widely used upward communication devices include
suggestion boxes, group meetings, report to supervisors and appeal or grievance procedures. Usually
upward communication is utilized in democratic and participative management. Effective upward
communication channels are important because they provide employees with opportunities to have a
say.

Advantages of Vertical Communication: Disadvantages of Vertical Communication:

 It is authoritative and official. The major disadvantages of vertical
 It is binding to all parties involved. communication are listed as below:
 It is the most legitimate type of  It is formal and informal.
communication  It is usually slow-moving, since it must be
channeled through several levels of
authority.
 It may conceal the true motives behind the
formal message it carries.

iii. Diagonal Communication

Diagonal communication cuts across departmental lines. Such communication is in between people
who are neither in the same department nor on the same level of organizational structure. In other
words, it refers to interchange of messages between the managers and employees who are neither in
the same department nor on the same level of organizational structure. Diagonal communication refers
to communication between managers and workers located in different functional divisions. Although
both vertical and horizontal communication continue to be important, these terms no longer adequately
capture communication needs and flows in most modern organizations. The concept of diagonal
communication was introduced to capture the new communication challenges associated with new
organizational forms, such as matrix and project based organizations.
Advantages of Diagonal Communication: Disadvantages of Diagonal Communication:
 It is the most direct method of  It can destroy lines of authority and formal
communication. chains of command.
 It is the most selective method of  It can leave immediate superiors uninformed
communication. of what their subordinates are doing.
 It is one of the fastest methods of  It can lead to conflicting orders so it may

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communication. lead to further confusion.

 In critical situations, it would seem to be the  It is usually verbal and thus is untraceable if
most essential and logical type of things go wrong.
communication.

2. Informal Communication
Informal communication refers to the communication which takes place on the basis of informal
relations between the members of a group. It is personal communication in nature and not a positional
communication. It does not flow along with the formal lines of authority or formal chain of command.
Even it is not regulated by the formal rules and procedures. Normally, members of informal group use
this form of communication in order to share their ideas, views, opinions and other information. There
is lack of official instruction for communication. It is not controlled and designed by formal
organizational structure. So, it is not used to communicate formal message.
The informal communication network in a group or organization is called the grapevine. An
organization’s informal communication network. Although the rumors and gossip transmitted through
the grapevine may be informal, it’s still an important source of information.

Advantages of Informal Communication: Disadvantages of Informal Communication:

 It is more flexible.  It is difficult to fix responsibility for the
 It helps to improve decision-making. information.
 Informal communication is faster in speed  It may cause misunderstanding.
than formal communication.  It carries inaccurate, half-truth or distorted
 It works as a powerful and effective tool of information.
communication.  It is difficult to believe on information.
 It may provide feedback to managers on their  It leads to leakage of secret information.
actions and decisions.

3. Inter-personal Communication:
Inter-personal communication is the sharing of information between two or more people face-to-face
through any other direct channel. Since communicating parties get face-to-face, so it is two-way
communication. Very simply, manager or supervisors give direction and guidance to their
subordinates in their presence is the common example of inter-personal communication. Inter-personal
communication can be oral or written.
Verbal communication:
Verbal communication is any form of communication that occurs through spoken word. Its key
strength is that it tends to be perceived as a trusted and authentic form of communication. Verbal
communication tends to also have high-context elements to help with clarity of messages, such as tone
of voice, pitch, and urgency. Verbal communication occurs when we engage in speaking with others.
It can be face-to-face, over the telephone, via Skype or Zoom, etc.

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i) Oral Communication:
When message is expressed through the words of mouth or spoken words, it is said to be oral
communication. It may take place either through face-to-face conversation or through any electronic
mode such as telephone, cellular phone, intercom etc. In oral communication, source of message i.e.
sender gives the information through oral means i.e. by speaking. This means of communication is
more reliable because sender can get feedback quickly.
Advantages of Oral Communication: Disadvantages of Oral Communication:
 It is quicker and saves in time.  It has the tendency of being distorted.
 It establishes a personal touch and leads to  It is less reliable.
better understanding.  It provides no record for future reference.
 It is economical or less expensive as  It does not provide sufficient time for
compared to written communication. thinking before conveying the message.
 It is flexible and the messages can be changed
to suit the needs and response of the receiver.

ii. Written Communication:

When message is expressed through written words, it is known as written communication. It may be
expressed even through groups, charts, diagrams, pictures with or without words. In this form of
communication, information is shared to the receiver by writing or drawing. It is the formal means of
communication. Normally, information that should be kept for long time for future reference, are
transmitted by means of written communication.
Advantages of Written Communication: Disadvantages of Written Communication:
 It tends to be complete, clear, precise and  It is time consuming.
correct.  It is expensive.
 It tends to reduce misunderstanding, conflicts  It may be interpreted in a different manner by
and disputes. different people.
 It ensures transmission of information in  It tends to ineffective and unimpressive in
uniform manager, i.e. everyone concerned has case of poor drafting.
the same information.  It fails to provide feedback immediately.
 It ensures little risk of unauthorized alternation
in the messages.
 It is taken as a legal evidence by the courts.

Listening:
The act of listening does not often make its way onto the list of types of communication. Active
listening, however, is perhaps one of the most important types of communication because if we cannot
listen to the person sitting across from us, we cannot effectively engage with them. Think about a
negotiation – part of the process is to assess what the opposition wants and needs. Without listening, it
is impossible to assess that, which makes it difficult to achieve a win/win outcome.

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Visual communication:
We are a visual society. Think about it, televisions are running 24/7, Facebook is visual with memes,
videos, images, etc., Instagram is an image-only platform, and advertisers use imagery to sell products
and ideas. Think about from a personal perspective – the images we post on social media are meant to
convey meaning – to communicate a message. In some cases that message might be, look at me, I’m in
Italy or I just won an award. Others are carefully curated to tug on our heartstrings – injured animals,
crying children, etc.

4. Non-Verbal Communication:
Communication through postures or gestures of body parts is known as the gestural or non-gestural or
non-verbal communication. Nonverbal communication refers to any form of communication that is not
transmitted through spoken word. It can include body language, facial expressions, gestures, posture,
passive communication strategies, and even what you wear (which can send signals about your
cleanliness, social class, etc.).
It is a mode of communication in which anything other than words may be used to transmit message
from one person to another. In other words, the communication of information by means of facial
expression, body movement, physical contact, gestures, etc. is called non-verbal communication. It is
the communication in which neither written nor oral means are used. It is often used to encourage the
subordinates like shaking hands, blinking eyes, smiling, clapping etc. It is most powerful means of
communication. Good managers always use this type of communication frequently whenever
necessary.

3.2 Interactive communication in organizations:

The interactive model focuses on the ongoing communication process and considers feedback from the
receiver. The interactive model of communication is a method that involves exchanging ideas,
information, or messages consistently.
It is an exchange of idea where both participants whether human or machines or art etc are active and
have effect on one other. It is a dynamic two way flow of information ie; one way & two way.
One way- example: radio, TV, news paper etc.
Why to use it?
a) Task coordination
b) Problem solving
c) Information sharing
d) Conflict resolution
The common features of the interactive model include the basic features of communication, which are
the sender, message, receiver, and feedback. It also includes more complex features, such as fields of
expertise, physical context, psychological context, and channels. The interactive model of
communication refers to the back-and-forth communication process that is seen in basic conversations.
A source sends out a message to a receiver, who then responds to that message with a reply.
Interactive communication in business organizations allows communicators to gain control over the
discourse and exchange roles in the mutual discussion.

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Channels of communication:
A channel refers to the way the messages are sent and received. The communication process takes
place through various types of channels, including in-person conversations, phone calls, and text
messages. A communication channel is the medium, mean, manner or method through which a
message is sent to its intended receiver.It refers to the method used to help the flow of information in
an organization.
a) Formal channels: Communication channels established by an organization to transmit messages
related to the professional activities of members.

b) Informal channels: Communication channels that are created spontaneously and that emerge as
responses to individual choices.

c) Downward Communication: Communication that flows from one level of a group or

organization to a lower level is downward communication. Group leaders and managers use it to
assign goals, provide job instructions, explain policies and procedures, point out problems that
need attention, and offer feedback about performance.

d) Upward Communication: Upward communication flows to a higher level in the group or

organization. It’s used to provide feedback to higher-ups, inform them of progress toward goals,
and relay current problems. Upward communication keeps managers aware of how employees feel
about their jobs, co-workers, and the organization in general. Managers also rely on upward
communication for ideas on how conditions can be improved.

e) Lateral Communication: When communication takes place among members of the same work
group, members of work groups at the same level, managers at the same level, or any other
horizontally equivalent workers, we describe it as lateral communication.

3.3 Barriers to Effective Communication:

Filtering refers to a sender’s purposely manipulating information so the receiver will see it more
favourably. A manager who tells his boss what he feels the boss wants to hear is filtering information.
The sender sends the message and the recipient is the receiver of the message.
The process of communication is never smooth as it is affected by the barriers of communication.
These barriers cause a mismatch between understanding of the message by the sender and the receiver.
These barriers can occur at any stage of the communication process.

Following are some of the barriers to effective communication:

1. Semantic barriers
2. Psychological barriers
3. Organizational barriers
4. Cultural barriers
5. Physical barriers
6. Physiological barriers

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1. Semantic barriers: Semantic barriers are also known as language barriers. These barriers are
caused due to improper communication between the sender and the receiver. The following instances
of semantic barriers can be witnessed in communication.

Poor quality of message: Message when communicated should be precise and easy to understand,
that makes it easy for the receiver to grasp the information conveyed.

Lack of clarity: Sometimes, due to the lack of clarity or complexity of the way of providing
information from the sender, there can be a case of semantic barriers.

Technical language: Language barriers also arise when the sender of the message is speaking in
technical terms while the receiver is unaware of the terms. It creates confusion and misunderstanding
between the sender and receiver by acting as a barrier to effective communication.

2. Psychological Barriers: Psychological barriers play an important role in interpersonal

communication as the state of the mind of the sender or the receiver can make it difficult to understand
the information that is conveyed, which often leads to misunderstanding.

Here are some instances where psychological barriers to communication can be seen.
1. Premature evaluation of information by the receiver even before it is transmitted can lead to barriers
in communication, as it will create premature conclusion to the message, which withholds the original
message.

2. Inadequate attention from the receiver’s end at the time of communication can lead to barriers of
communication as the information conveyed by the sender is not properly received by the receiver.

3. When information is passed within multiple sources, the final information is distorted as the
receivers of the message are not able to retain everything that was conveyed. This can cause
communication barriers.

3. Organizational barriers: Organizational barriers are those barriers that are caused due to the
structure, rules and regulations present in the organization. The various types of barriers that can be
encountered due to superior subordinate relationships where the free flow of communication is not
possible.
Sometimes the complexity of organizational structure and multiple managers make it difficult to
convey information properly, and the information gets distorted leading to miscommunication.

4. Cultural barriers: Cultural barriers are those that arise due to lack of similarities among the
different cultures across the world. A term that can be harmless in one culture can be regarded as slang
in another culture. Moreover, various beliefs can differ from one culture to another.

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5. Physical barriers: Physical barriers to communication are those that arise due to certain factors like
faulty equipment, noise, closed doors and cabins that cause the information sent from sender to
receiver to become distorted, which results in improper communication.

6. Physiological barriers: Physiological barriers arise when a sender or the receiver of the
communication is not in a position to express or receive the message with clarity due to some
physiological issues like dyslexia, or nerve disorders that interfere with speech or hearing.

3.4 Strategies to improve the follow of communication:

Communication strategies are defined as systematic plans designed to promote information exchange
or engagement between an entity and its target audience. Communication strategies are often designed
to influence attitudes, behaviors, or understanding of people.
Communication strategies are deliberate plans and tactics used by individuals or entities to convey
massages effectively to target audience. They encompass the choice of channels, crafting of messes
and feedback mechanisms to ensure clarity, comprehension and desired impact.

Strategies to improve the follow of communication:

The following strategies are followed to improve communication: (or) Measures to over4come
/destroy barriers of communication.
 Establish Clear Objectives and Messaging
 Convey important points clearly and concisely.
 Use multiple modes of communication.
 Train your employees.(Writing or listening)
 Encourage two-way communication.
 Maintain awareness of your body language and nonverbal cues.
 Know your audience & Tailor Communication to Your Audience..
 Focus on what others say and acknowledge it.
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 Request and provide feedback.

 Ensure correctness of information.
 Focus on dynamism
 Improve relationships
 Adopt flat organization structure.
 Timely and Transparent Communication
 Use Multiple Channels.
 Be proactive
 Leverage Technology and Digital Platforms

3.5 Decision Making:

Decision making is the process of making choices by identifying a decision, gathering information,
and assessing alternative resolutions.
It is a process of using a step-by-step decision-making process can help you make more deliberate,
thoughtful decisions by organizing relevant information and defining alternatives.
Decision-making “as the selection of one behaviour alternative from two or more possible
alternatives.” - George Terry
“A Decision is an act of choice wherein an executive forms a conclusion about what must be done in a
given situation.- D. E. Mcfarland
“Decision-Making is a process of selection from a set of alternative courses of action which is
thoughtful to fulfill the objective of the decision problem more satisfactorily than others.”- Haynes and
Massie,
“A decision may be defined as a conscious choice among alternative courses of action.”- Philip
Kotler.
According to Koontz and O'Donnell “Decision making is the actual selection from among alternatives
course of action”.
Importance of Decision-Making:
Management is essentially a bundle of decision-making process. The managers of an enterprise are
responsible for making decisions and ascertaining that the decisions made are carried out in
accordance with defined objectives or goals.
Decision-making plays a vital role in management. Decision-making is perhaps the most important
component of a manager’s activities. It plays the most important role in the planning process. When
the managers plan, they decide on many matters as what goals their organization will pursue, what
resources they will use, and who will perform each required task.
Decision-making is one of the important functions of a manager. He has to take decisions for various
activities. Decision-making requires broad vision, imagination, experience and knowledge. A decision
has to be taken after discussing various aspects of the problem, analyzing them, developing possible
alternatives and selecting the appropriate one. The timing is also an important element of decision-
making. decision made at a right time will bring good results. A manager has to develop consistency,
firmness and conviction in his decisions. A manager changing his decisions frequently may leave his
subordinates in doubt. A decision-making skill and ability to take correct decision at appropriate time
will become a guideline for the subordinates.
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Principles of Decision Making:

Effective decision involves two important aspects—the purpose for which it is intended, and the
environmental situation in which it is taken. Even the best and correct decision may become
ineffective if these aspects are ignored; because in decision-making there are so many inside and
outside chains of unavoidable reactions. If certain principles are followed for decision-making, such
multidimensional reactions can mostly be overcome.

Characteristics:
 Decision making is an integral part of planning.
 It aims at choosing an appropriate course of action by weighing and weeding out several available
alternatives.
 It involves the judgment and discretion of the decision maker.
 It is an activity with a purpose.
 Decisions are made to solve problems, resolve crises and conflicts.
 It is all pervasive.
 Decision-making is a dynamic process as it involves a time dimension and time lag.
 Goal oriented process.
 A selection process.
 Continuous process.
 Considered as both “Art & science”.
 Reponsibities of managers.
 Positive as well as negative.
 Future course of action.

Decision making process:

Decision making is the process of making choices by identifying a decision, gathering information,
and assessing alternative resolutions.
Using a step-by-step decision-making process can help you make more deliberate, thoughtful
decisions by organizing relevant information and defining alternatives. This approach increases the
chances that you will choose the most satisfying alternative possible.

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Step 1: Identify the decision: We realize that you need to make a decision. Try to clearly define the
nature of the decision you must make. This first step is very important.

Step 2: Gather relevant information: Collect some pertinent information before you make your
decision: what information is needed, the best sources of information, and how to get it. This step
involves both internal and external “work.” Some information is internal: you’ll seek it through a
process of self-assessment. Other information is external: you’ll find it online, in books, from other
people, and from other sources.

Step 3: Identify the alternatives: As you collect information, you will probably identify several
possible paths of action, or alternatives. You can also use your imagination and additional information
to construct new alternatives. In this step, you will list all possible and desirable alternatives.

Step 4: Weigh the evidence: Draw on your information and emotions to imagine what it would be
like if you carried out each of the alternatives to the end. Evaluate whether the need identified in Step
1 would be met or resolved through the use of each alternative. As you go through this difficult
internal process, you’ll begin to favor certain alternatives: those that seem to have a higher potential
for reaching your goal. Finally, place the alternatives in a priority order, based upon your own value
system.

Step 5: Choose among alternatives: Once you have weighed all the evidence, you are ready to select
the alternative that seems to be best one for you. You may even choose a combination of alternatives.
Your choice in Step 5 may very likely be the same or similar to the alternative you placed at the top of
your list at the end of Step 4.

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Step 6: Take action: You’re now ready to take some positive action by beginning to implement the
alternative you chose in Step 5.

Step 7: Review your decision & its consequences: In this final step, consider the results of your
decision and evaluate whether or not it has resolved the need you identified in Step 1. If the decision
has not met the identified need, you may want to repeat certain steps of the process to make a new
decision. For example, you might want to gather more detailed or somewhat different information or
explore additional alternatives.

Participative Decision Making:

In a group, members may or may not participate in decisions affecting the team. Conformity often
appears more important than positive results. Win/lose situations are common. In a team, members
participate in decisions affecting the team but understand their leader must make a final ruling
whenever the team cannot decide, or an emergency exists. Positive win/win results are the goal at all
times.
Where the superior shares authority of decision making by involving subordinates is called as Group
participation in decision-making. Participative management is a management method that involves
employees in decision-making and goal setting, which can improve creativity, motivation, satisfaction
and performance. However, its implementation requires prerequisites, appropriate tools, clear
communication and a suitable corporate culture

Group Decision Making:

It is generally believed that two heads are better than one. In group decision, the final authority to take
decisions is vested in the group itself rather than in an individual.
A group decision is one in which more than two people are participating, deliberating and developing
an amicable solution to the problem. If group is diverse, better decisions may be made because
different group members may have diverse ideas based on their background and experience.
To deal with the problems, the manager is delegated with enough authority and within the extent and
scope of it decisions are made, both on important as well as less important matters.
Whatever the power and authority they have, they can exercise it only through meetings in which they
make decisions unanimously or by majority votes. Such decision is generally taken in executive body
(Board of Directors) or in various committees formed for the purpose of deciding on various matters at
the lower level of the organization.
Sometimes, the superior involves subordinates to get their cooperation and involvement in decision
making in which subordinates may be of more concern with the objective of their acceptance. Group
decisions may also be in the following form:
(i) Group participation in decision-making: Where the superior shares authority of decision making
by involving subordinates.
(ii) Group decision-making: where the members or subordinates may share the authority of decision
making with the chief executive.
(iii) Workers participation in management: Where the superior and subordinates may share the
authority of decision making with the workers.
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Organizational Behaviour

Advantages of group decisions:

(i) Creates Synergy: It is found when output is more than the inputs, which means whole is greater
than the sum of its parts. As group also creates synergy effects in the quality and productive decisions
because two or more members are involved in deliberation and amicable solution of the problems that
may increase or improve the results.

(ii) Sharing of information: In group decisions, the members of the group not only sit together
around the table for making decisions but also they contribute fruitful information and expertise which
increases understanding, clarity and facilitates movement towards a collective decision.

(iii) Team spirit: Members involved in group decision decision-making represent cooperation, trust,
and respect and develop a team spirit to get maximum contribution from them.

3.6 Conflict:
3.6.1 Introduction: The concept of conflict, being an outcome of behaviors, is an integral part of
human life. Where ever there is interaction, there is conflict. Conflict can be considered as an
expression of hostility (unfriendliness or opposition), negative attitudes, antagonism, aggression,
rivalry and misunderstanding. People with divergent personalities, perceptions, attitudes and values
occupy the positions in the organizations. These positions often have differing job charts, different
levels of status attached to them and also foster competition. Conflict exists wherever there is social
interaction. It emerges as an outcome of inter- dependencies and interactions between and among
people.

Conflict was viewed negatively and discussed with such terms as violence, destruction, and
irrationality to reinforce its negative connotation. This traditional view of conflict was consistent with
attitudes about group behavior that prevailed in the 1930s and 1940s. Conflict was a dysfunctional
outcome resulting from poor communication, a lack of openness and trust between people, and the
failure of managers to be responsive to the needs and aspirations of their employees. Traditional view
of conflict; the belief that all conflict is harmful and must be avoided.

Conflict that arises when individual employees find themselves at odds with their employing
organization’s values system is termed as Individual–Organization Conflict.
The term conflict sounds negative, but in some cases, it can actually stimulate creative problem
solving and improve the situation for all concerned parties. The outcome of a conflict is the criterion
for determining whether the conflict is functional or dysfunctional, that is,whether it has positive or
negative outcomes for the concerned parties. Conflict is inevitable and has the potential to be
dysfunctional, but if managed constructively, it can be functional and enhance performance.
Conflict is a psychological state of mind when people are in a dilemma whether to do or not to do a
thing, is a state of conflict.

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3.6.2 Meaning:
 A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected, or is
about to negatively affect, something that the first party cares about.

 Conflict is a disagreement between two or more parties, such as individuals, groups, departments,
organizations or countries, who perceive that they have incompatible concerns.

 Conflicts exist whenever an action by one party is perceived as interfering with the goals, needs or
actions of another party.

 Conflict is an inherent part of organizational life. Indeed, some level of conflict is probably
necessary for optimal organizational functioning.

 Conflict was seen as a dysfunctional outcome resulting from poor communication, a lack of
openness and trust between people, and the failure of managers to be responsive to the needs and
aspirations of their employees. Conflict was discussed with the terms violence, destruction, and
irrationality.

 Conflict can be defined as a clash between individuals arising out. of a difference in thought
process, attitudes, understanding, interests, requirements and even sometimes perceptions.

 According to Coser (1956), Conflict is a struggle between. opponents over values and claims to
scarce status, power and resources.

 Conflict is any situation in which two or more “parties” perceive that they posses mutually
incompatible goals. There are goals that are not achieved and expectations that are disappointed
any conflict consists of three component parts, goal incompatibility, attitudes, and behavior.

 According to Follett, “Conflict is the appearance of difference, difference of opinions, of

interests.” ‘Conflict’ is:
(i) It may be understood as collision or disagreement.
(ii) It occur at various levels within the individuals, between the individuals in a group and
between the group.
(iii) The nature and industry of conflict varies from individual to individual and from group to
group which create a difficult situation for manager to managers.
(iv) Conflict is a struggle between two or more forces that creates a tension that must be resolved.

Conflicts can arise for several reasons, some of them are:

• Incompatible goals
• Differences in the interpretation of facts
• Negative feelings
• Variations in values and philosophies
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• Disputes over shared success

3.6.3 Nature of Conflict:

 Conflict occurs when individuals are not able to choose among the available alternative courses of
action.
 Conflict between two individuals implies that they have conflicting perception, values and goals.
 Conflict is a dynamic process as it indicates a series of events.
 Conflict must be perceived by the parties to it. If no one is aware of a conflict, then it is generally
agree that no conflict exists.

3.6.4 Views on conflict

a) Traditional view: The early approach to conflict assumed that all conflict was bad. Conflict was
viewed negatively, and it was used synonymously with such terms as violence, destruction.
b) Human Relations view: The human relations position argued that conflict was a natural
occurrence in all groups and organizations. Since conflict was inevitable(which cannot be avoided)
it is accepted and there are even times when conflict may benefit a group’s performance.
c) Interactionist View ( Modern View): This view is based on the belief that conflict is not only a
positive force in a group but is also necessary for a group to perform effectively. This approach
encourages group leaders to maintain an ongoing minimum level of conflict – enough to keep the
group viable, self-critical and creative.

3.6.5 Types of Conflicts:

Interactionist view of conflict: The interactionist view of conflict encourages conflict on the grounds
that a harmonious, peaceful, tranquil, and cooperative group is prone to becoming static, apathetic, and
unresponsive to needs for change and innovation.The major contribution of this view is recognizing
that a minimal level of conflict can help keep a group viable, self-critical, and creative.

The belief that conflict is not only a positive force in a group but also an absolute necessity for a group
to perform effectively is viewed as interactionist view of conflict.

Conflict that supports the goals of the group and improves its performance is known as functional
conflict. Functional conflict supports the goals of the group and improves its performance and is, thus,
a constructive form of conflict.

Dysfunctional conflict: A conflict that hinders group performance is a destructive or dysfunctional

conflict. Task conflict relates to the content and goals of the work. Relationship conflict focuses on
interpersonal relationships. Process conflict: Process conflict relates to how the work gets done.
Another way to understand conflict is to consider its locus, or where the conflict occurs. Here, too,
there are three basic types. Dyadic conflict is conflict between two people. Intra group conflict occurs
within a group or team. Intergroup conflict is conflict between groups or teams.

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Positives and Negatives of Conflict:

Positive: Negative
 Increased involvement  Unresolved anger
 Increased cohesion  Personality clashes
 Innovation and creativity  Less self-esteem
 Personal growth and change  Inefficiency
 Clarification of key issues  Psychological well being threatened
 Organizational vibrancy  Wastage of resources
 Individual and group identities  Negative climate
 Group cohesion disrupted.

3.6.6 Conflict Process:

The conflict process has five stages: potential opposition or incompatibility, cognition and
personalization, intentions, behaviour, and outcomes (see Exhibit 14-1).

EXHIBIT 14-1 The Conflict Process

Stage I: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility
The first stage of conflict is the appearance of conditions-causes or sources-that create opportunities
for it to arise. These conditions need not lead directly to conflict, but one of them is necessary if it is to
surface. We group the conditions into three general categories: Communication, Structure and
Personal Variables.
Communication: Communication can be a source of conflict arising from semantic difficulties,
misunderstandings, and “noise” in the communication channel. These factors, along with jargon and
insufficient information, can be barriers to communication and therefore create conflict. The potential
for conflict has also been found to increase with too little or too much communication.

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Communication is functional up to a point, after which it is possible to over communicate, increasing

the potential for conflict.
Structure: The term structure in this context includes variables such as size of group, degree of
specialization in tasks assigned to group members, jurisdictional clarity (meaning whether or not it is
clear who is in charge of what), member–goal compatibility, leadership styles, reward systems, and
degree of dependence between groups. The larger the group and the more specialized its activities, the
greater the likelihood for conflict. Tenure and conflict are inversely related; potential for conflict is
greatest when group members are younger and when turnover is high. The greater the ambiguity about
where responsibility for actions lies, the greater the potential for conflict. Jurisdictional ambiguities
increase fighting for control of resources and territory. Diversity of goals among groups is also a major
source of conflict. Reward systems, too, create conflict when one member’s gain comes at another’s
expense. Finally, if a group is dependent on another group (in contrast to the two being mutually
independent), or if interdependence allows one group to gain at another’s expense, opposing forces are
stimulated.
Personal Variables: Our last category of potential sources of conflict is personal variables, which
include personality, emotions, and values. People high in the personality traits of disagreeableness,
neuroticism, or self-monitoring are prone to tangle with other people more often—and to react poorly
when conflicts occur.13 Emotions can also cause conflict even when they are not directed at others.
An employee who shows up to work irate from her hectic morning commute may carry that anger into
her workday and create a tension-filled meeting. People are furthermore more likely to cause conflict
when their values are opposed.
Stage II: Cognition and Personalization:
If the conditions cited in Stage I negatively affect something one party cares about, then the potential
for opposition or incompatibility becomes realized in the second stage. As we noted in our definition
of conflict, one or more of the parties must be aware that antecedent conditions exist. However,
because a disagreement is a perceived conflict does not mean it is personalized. In other words, “A
may be aware that B and A are in serious disagreement . . . but it may not make A tense or anxious,
and it may have no effect whatsoever on A’s affection toward B.”For example, you may disagree
strenuously with another person’s political orientation and voting intentions but still be their close
friend. It is at the felt conflict level, when individuals become emotionally involved, that they
experience anxiety, tension, frustration, or hostility.

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Keep in mind two points. First, Stage II is important because it’s where conflict issues tend to be
defined, where the parties decide what the conflict is about. The definition of conflict is important
because it delineates the set of possible settlements. Second, emotions play a major role in shaping
perceptions. Negative emotions allows us to oversimplify issues, lose trust, and put negative
interpretations on the other party’s behaviour. In contrast, positive feelings increase our tendency to
see potential relationships among elements of a problem, take a broader view of the situation, and
develop innovative solutions.
Stage III: Intentions
Intentions intervene between people’s perceptions and emotions, and their overt behaviour. They are
decisions to act in a given way. Intentions are a distinct stage because we have to infer the other’s
intent to know how to respond to this behaviour. Many conflicts escalate simply because one party
attributes the wrong intentions to the other. For example, if a team member is late, the others may
believe that they don’t care about the project and are disrespecting the group when in fact their car
simply wouldn’t start that morning, or they missed their bus. There is slippage between intentions
and behaviour, so behaviour does not always accurately reflect a person’s intentions. Using two
dimension-cooperativeness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy the other party’s
concerns) and assertiveness (the degree to which one party attempts to satisfy her own concerns)-we
can identify five conflict-handling intentions: competing (assertive and uncooperative), collaborating
(assertive and cooperative), avoiding (unassertive and uncooperative), accommodating (unassertive
and cooperative), and compromising (midrange on both assertiveness and cooperativeness).
1. Competing- When one person seeks to satisfy his own interests regardless of the impact on the
other parties to the conflict, that person is competing. A desire to satisfy one’s interests, regardless
of the impact on the other party to the conflict. You compete when you place a bet that only one
person can win, for example.
2. Collaborating- When parties in conflict each desire to fully satisfy the concerns of all parties, there
is cooperation and a search for a mutually beneficial outcome. In collaborating, parties intend to solve
a problem by clarifying differences rather than by accommodating various points of view. A situation
in which the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the concerns of all parties. If you attempt
to find a win–win solution that allows both parties’ goals to be completely achieved, that’s
collaborating.

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3. Avoiding- A person may recognize a conflict exists and want to withdraw from or suppress it. The
desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict. Examples of avoiding are trying to ignore a conflict
and avoiding others with whom you disagree.
4. Accommodating- A party who seeks to appease an opponent may be willing to place the
opponent’s interests above his own, sacrificing to maintain the relationship. We refer to this intention
as accommodating. The willingness of one party in a conflict to place the opponent’s interests above
his or her own. Supporting someone else’s opinion despite your reservations about it, for example, is
accommodating.
5. Compromising- In compromising, there is no winner or loser. Rather, there is a willingness to
ration the object of the conflict and accept a solution with incomplete satisfaction of both parties’
concerns. A situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up something is termed as
compromising.
Intentions are not always fixed. During the course of a conflict, intentions might change if the parties
are able to see the other’s point of view or to respond emotionally to the other’s behaviour. (How
many times during an argument have you thought to yourself, “Well, I would have done what you
wanted if you had said that”?) People generally have preferences among the five conflict-handling
intentions. We can predict a person’s intentions rather well from a combination of intellectual and
personality characteristics. Gender also plays a role, with females more strongly associated with
cooperative and collaborative conflict resolution styles and males more strongly associated with
competitive styles. That said, it can be difficult to separate out actual gender differences from
attribution errors of the type described in Chapter 6. For example, two people might both say, “I’m not
leaving until we resolve this,” but that statement might be perceived as competitive and combative
coming from a male but collaborative and supportive coming from a female. The degree to which
gender-based differences in conflict handling are due to perceptual error, inherent biological
differences, or learning and socialization remains highly controversial. In the meantime, people of
both genders might benefit from assessing their own style and attempting to expand their repertoire,
using alternative styles in appropriate situations.
Stage IV: Behaviour
When most people think of conflict, they tend to focus on Stage IV, because this is where conflicts
become visible. The behaviour stage includes statements, actions, and reactions made by conflicting
parties, usually as overt attempts to implement their own intentions.

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As a result of miscalculations or unskilled enactments, overt behaviours sometimes deviate from

original intentions.23 For example, someone who intends to passionately explain their point of view,
sharing information in the process, may come across as aggressive and out of control if that
information is delivered in a highly emotional tone. Stage IV is a dynamic process of interaction.

Stage V: Outcomes
The action–reaction interplay of conflicting parties creates consequences. As our model demonstrates
(see Exhibit 14-1), these outcomes may be functional, if the conflict improves the group’s
performance, or dysfunctional, if it hinders performance.

a) Latent Conflict (Stage 1): When two or more parties need each other to achieve desired
objectives, there is potential for conflict. Latent Conflict often arises when change occurs.
Conflict is likely to be caused by a budget cutback, a change in organizational direction, a
change in personal goals or the assignment of a new project to an already overloaded team.

b) Perceived Conflict (Stage 2): This is the stage at which members become aware of a problem.
Incompatibility of needs is perceived and tension begins as the parties being to worry about
what will happen. But no party feels that it is being overly threatened.

c) Felt Conflict (Stage 3): At this stage parties become emotionally involved and begin to focus
on differences of opinion and opposing interests. Internal tensions and frustration being to
crystallize, and people begin to build and emotional commitment to their position.

d) Manifest Conflict (Stage 4): At this stage parties engage in actions that help to achieve their
own objectives and ruin those of others. Conflict behaviors vary from the subtle, indirect and
highly controlled forms of interface to direct, aggressive, violent and uncontrolled struggle. At
the organizational level strikes or lock-outs are the result.
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e) Conflict Outcome (Stage 5): The conflict finally results in an outcome which may be
functional or dysfunctional. If handled well, the result is functional conflict. If mishandled, the
consequences are dysfunctional conflict.

The use of resolution and stimulation techniques to achieve the desired level of conflict is called as
conflict management.
3.6.7 Levels of conflict:

i. Intra Individual Conflict: These conflicts arise within a person and are of psychological nature.
These conflicts are generally related to the goals a person wants to achieve or roles in the manner
he wants to achieve.

ii. Inter individual Conflict: Inter personal conflict arise between two individuals having
competition for achieving scarce things, such as status, power, position, promotion or resources.

iii. Intra Group Conflict (With in the group): Intra group conflict refers to disputes among some or
all of a group’s members, which often affect the group’s performance. Family run business can be
especially prone to severe intra-group and other types of conflicts. These conflicts typically
become more intense when an owner-founder approaches retirement, actually retires or dies. The
way the two sons of the late Dhirubhai Ambani are fighting on ownership and control of Reliance
Industries is a typical example.

iv. Inter group Conflicts (Between groups): Inter group conflict arises out of the interaction of
various groups. Inter group conflict is also called organisational conflict, refers to the conflict
between groups, departments, or sections in an organisation. Conflict between groups is frequent
and highly visible.

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a) Intra Organisational Conflict: The conflict which arises with in various levels and departments
of organisation. Various kinds are: I. Horizontal Conflict II. Vertical Conflict III. Line and Staff
Conflict

v. Inter Organisational Conflict: Inter organizational interaction results in conflict among different
organizations. How ever, it is not necessary that such interaction may result in conflict.

vi. Inter Organizational Conflict may include:

i. Conflict between organizations pursuing similar objectives.
ii. Conflict between government agency and organization.
iii. Conflict between head office and a manufacturing unit.
While the last one is regularized by organizational rules and procedures, the other types of
conflicts are regulated by State laws, administrative agencies, courts, and regulatory commissions.

3.7 Stress-meaning, Effect of stress, Strategies to cope with stress and conflict:
3.7.1 Definition: In simple terms, An unpleasant psychological process that occurs in response to
environmental pressures.
 Stress in organizational behavior refers to the physiological, psychological, and behavioral
responses that individuals experience when they perceive a misalignment between the demands of
their work environment and their ability to cope with those demands.
 Stress is a dynamic condition in which an individual is confronted with an opportunity, demand,
or resource related to what the individual desires and for which the outcome is perceived to be
both uncertain and important.
 Stress can be defined as a state of worry or mental tension caused by a difficult situation. Stress is
a natural human response that prompts us to address challenges and threats in our lives. Everyone
experiences stress to some degree. The way we respond to stress, however, makes a big difference
to our overall well-being.
Adequate resources help reduce the stressful nature of demands when demands and resources
match. If emotional demands are stressing you, having emotional resources in the form of social
support is especially important. If the demands are cognitive-say, information overload-then job
resources in the form of computer support or information are more important.
 Stress management is defined as the tools, strategies, or techniques that reduce stress and reduce
the negative impacts stress has on your mental or physical well-being. A variety of techniques can
be used to manage stress. These include mental, emotional, and behavioral strategies.

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 Stress is defined in terms of how it impacts physical and psychological health; it includes mental,
physical, and emotional strain. Stress occurs when a demand exceeds an individual's coping ability
and disrupts his or her psychological equilibrium.

3.7.2 Model of stress:

Challenge stressors or stressors associated with workload, pressure to complete tasks, and time
urgency operate quite differently from hindrance stressors or stressors that keep you from reaching
your goals (for example, red tape, office politics, confusion over job responsibilities).
Stress is associated with demands and resources. Demands are responsibilities, pressures,
obligations, and uncertainties individuals face in the workplace. Resources are things within an
individual’s control that he or she can use to resolve the demands.

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3.7.3 Potential Sources of Stress:

a) Environmental Factors: Environmental uncertainty influences the design of an organization’s

structure, it also influences stress levels among employees in that organization. Indeed, uncertainty
is the biggest reason people have trouble coping with organizational changes.
There are three main types of environmental uncertainty: economic, political, and technological.
The economy may be in a downturn, creating uncertainty for job futures and bank accounts. There
may be political unrest or change creating stress. Changes in the business cycle create economic
uncertainties. When the economy is contracting, for example, people become increasingly anxious
about their job security.Finally, technology can cause stress, as new developments are constantly
making employee skills obsolete, and workers fear they’ll be replaced by a machine that can do the
same. Employees are also often expected to stay connected to the workplace 24/7 because technology
allows it.

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b) Organizational Factors: There is no shortage of factors within an organization that can cause
stress. Pressures to avoid errors or complete tasks in a limited time, work overload, a demanding
and insensitive boss, and unpleasant co-workers area few examples. We’ve categorized these
factors around task, role, and interpersonal demands.
 Task demands relate to a person’s job. They include the design of the job(its degrees of autonomy,
task variety, degree of automation), working conditions, and the physical work layout. Assembly
lines can put pressure on people when they perceive the line’s speed to be excessive. Working in
an overcrowded room or a visible location where noise and interruptions are constant can increase
anxiety and stress
 Role demands relate to pressures placed on a person as a function of the particular role he or she
plays in the organization. Role conflicts create expectations that may be hard to reconcile or
satisfy. Role overload occurs when the employee is expected to do more than time permits. Role
ambiguity means role expectations are not clearly understood and the employee is not sure what to
do. Individuals who face high situational constraints (such as fixed work hours or demanding job
responsibilities) are also less able to engage in the proactive coping behaviors that reduce stress
levels. When faced with hassles at work, they will not only have higher levels of distress at the
time, but they’ll also be less likely to take steps to eliminate stressors in the future.
 Interpersonal demands are pressures created by other employees. Lack of social support from
colleagues and poor interpersonal relationships can cause stress, especially among employees with
a high social need. A rapidly growing body of research has also shown that negative co-worker and
supervisor behaviors, including fights, bullying, incivility, racial harassment, and sexual
harassment, are especially strongly related to stress at work.

c) Personal factors: Finally, there are personal factors that can cause stress such as personal
relationships (ie; Marital difficulties, breaking of a close relationship, and discipline troubles with
children), family issues, economic problems (ie; problems of overextended financial resources,)
and personality issues/ characteristics.
d) Individual Differences: The three sources of stress factors leads to individual. Individuals might
experience stressful commutes to work, or a stressful couple of weeks helping at a work event, but
those kinds of temporary, individual stresses are not what we’re looking at here. We’re looking for
a deeper, longer-term stress. the sources of stress, but differences within an individual determine
whether that stress will be positive or negative. Those individual differences include Perception,

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Job Experience, Social Support, Belief in locus of control, Self-efficacy & Hostility (ie; suspicious
and distrustful of their co-workers).
Family stress-marriages that are ending, issues with children, an ailing parent—these are
stressful situations that an employee really can’t leave at home when he or she comes to work.
Financial stress, like the inability to pay bills or an unexpected new demand on a person’s
cash flow might also be an issue that disturbs an employee’s time at work.
Finally, an individual’s own personality might actually contribute to his or her stress. People’s
dispositions-how they perceive things as negative or positive can be a factor in each person’s
stress as well.
3.7.4 Consequences of Stress:
Stress shows itself in a number of ways, such as high blood pressure, ulcers, irritability, difficulty
making routine decisions, loss of appetite, accident proneness, and the like.
Effect of Stress and Intra-individual Conflict:
a) Physical problems-Immune system problems, Cardiovascular system problems,
Musculoskeletal system problems & Gastrointestinal system problems.
b) Psychological problems-Anger, anxiety, depression, nervousness, irritability, tension, and
boredom.
c) Behavioral problems-Direct behaviors include under-eating or overeating, sleeplessness,
increased smoking and drinking, and drug abuse.
Stressors are additive: High levels of stress can lead to the following symptoms
 Physiological: Stress could create changes in metabolism, increase heart and breathing rates
and blood pressure, bring on headaches, and induce heart attacks.
 Psychological: Job dissatisfaction, tension, anxiety, irritability, boredom, and procrastination
(laziness). Greatest when roles are unclear in the presence of conflicting demands.
 Behavioral: Behavior-related stress symptoms include reductions in productivity, absence, and
turnover, as well as changes in eating habits, increased smoking or consumption of alcohol,
rapid speech, fidgeting, and sleep disorders.
 Work place related: Increased Absenteeism, Turnover, Workplace Violence,
Stress also has consequences for the individual experiencing stress. These can include physiological
factors such as blood pressure, headaches, and strokes. Psychological factors are also a result of stress
including dissatisfaction, tension, and boredom. These outcomes are most prevalent when roles are

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unclear. Finally, there can also be behavioral consequences such as change in job behaviors, an
increase in drinking and smoking, change in eating habits, and sleep disorders.

Consequences of stress on individual and organization

3.7.4 Managing Stress (or) strategies to cope with stress and conflict:
 Increasing physical exercise
 Relaxation training
 Expanding social support network
 Organizational Approaches
 Improved personnel selection and job placement
 Training
 Use of realistic goal setting
 Redesigning of jobs
 Increased employee involvement
 Improved organizational communication
 Offering employee sabbaticals (time-off)
 Establishment of corporate wellness programs
 Stress needs to be managed and maintained at a healthy level. Individuals often manage stress
through time management techniques, physical exercise or expanding their social support
network. Organizations can also help employees manage stress by providing training, realistic
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goal setting, solid designing of jobs, offering employee sabbaticals, and establishing a wellness
program.
3.7.5 Coping Strategies for Stress and Conflict:
Individual coping strategies: Exercise, Relaxation, Behavioral self-control, Cognitive therapy,
Networking.
Organizational coping strategies: Reorganization initiatives, Work and life benefit policies and
programs. In case of downsizing: Be proactive, Acknowledge survivors’, emotions, Communicate
after the downsizing, Clarify new roles etc.

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