Chapter 3: Muscle: The Primary Stabilizer and Mover of the Skeletal System

(Authors: Sandra K. Hunter, PhD; Jonathon W. Senefeld, BS; Donald A. Neumann, PT, PhD,
FAPTA)
Expanded Detailed Summary

1. Introduction to Muscle Function and Role in the Body

The chapter opens by contextualizing muscles as the fundamental components that enable
movement and stability within the musculoskeletal system. Muscles are the body's primary
source of mechanical force, facilitating not only voluntary movements but also maintaining
posture and stability against gravitational forces.

Muscles do this through complex interactions with bones, tendons, ligaments, and the nervous
system, with each element playing a specific role. The skeletal muscles, attached to bones by
tendons, are the primary movers of the body. Their ability to generate force is vital for virtually
all bodily functions. For example, when we walk, the skeletal muscles act to propel the body
forward, while simultaneously stabilizing joints to ensure safe and controlled movement. In
postural control, muscles act to hold the body upright, preventing falling under the influence of
gravity.

Moreover, muscles are essential for maintaining homeostasis. For example, during physical
activity, skeletal muscles generate heat as a byproduct of muscle contraction, which helps
regulate body temperature. Muscles are also involved in processes such as blood circulation
(through the action of the heart, which is also a muscle) and respiratory function. The chapter
underscores the idea that muscles are not just mechanical entities, but vital to the regulation of
internal processes that keep the body functioning optimally.

2. Types of Muscle Tissue and Their Characteristics

While the chapter focuses primarily on skeletal muscle, it introduces the three main types of
muscle tissue, each with unique characteristics suited to their functions in the body.

• Skeletal Muscle: Skeletal muscle is the type primarily involved in the movement of the
body. It is striated, meaning its fibers have a banded appearance under a microscope due
to the organized arrangement of actin and myosin filaments within the muscle fibers.
Skeletal muscle is also under voluntary control, meaning its actions are consciously
directed by the central nervous system. This muscle type is essential not only for
 producing movement but also for stabilizing the body’s posture. It is connected to bones
by tendons, and its contractions generate the mechanical forces that allow us to move.
• Cardiac Muscle: The cardiac muscle, found only in the heart, is responsible for pumping
blood throughout the body. Unlike skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle operates involuntarily,
meaning it is not under conscious control. It has a unique structure that includes
intercalated discs, which allow for the synchronized contraction of the heart muscle
fibers. The chapter emphasizes that cardiac muscle, although not directly involved in
movement like skeletal muscle, is crucial to bodily function by supporting the circulatory
system.
• Smooth Muscle: This muscle type is found in the walls of internal organs and blood
vessels. It operates involuntarily and is responsible for movements that are not
consciously controlled, such as the contraction of blood vessels to regulate blood
pressure, or the movement of food through the digestive system (peristalsis). Smooth
muscle is non-striated, meaning it lacks the banding pattern seen in skeletal and cardiac
muscles. While it does not generate the same rapid and powerful movements as skeletal
muscle, its function is indispensable for maintaining internal bodily processes.

The chapter then shifts to a focus on skeletal muscle, providing greater insight into its anatomical
and functional characteristics, as it is the muscle type most relevant to the study of kinesiology
and movement.

3. Muscle Structure and Anatomy

This section dives deeper into the structure and organization of skeletal muscles, examining the
tissue layers and cellular architecture that enable their function.

• Muscle Fiber Organization: Skeletal muscle is made up of large, multinucleated cells

known as muscle fibers. These fibers are grouped together into bundles called fascicles,
which are surrounded by connective tissue. Each muscle fiber contains numerous
myofibrils, long, threadlike structures composed of sarcomeres, the basic units of
contraction. Sarcomeres consist of two main protein filaments: actin (thin filaments) and
myosin (thick filaments). These proteins are the key to muscle contraction and the
generation of force.
• Myofibrils and Sarcomeres: The detailed structure of myofibrils and sarcomeres is
critical for understanding muscle contraction. Each sarcomere is bounded by Z-discs and
contains overlapping thick and thin filaments. The actin filaments are attached to the Z-
discs, while the myosin filaments sit in the center. When a muscle contracts, the actin
filaments slide over the myosin filaments, causing the sarcomere to shorten and the entire
muscle to contract. This sliding filament theory is fundamental to understanding how
muscles generate force at the microscopic level.
• Muscle Contraction Mechanism: The process begins with a nerve impulse sent from the
brain to a motor neuron, which then releases acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction
(the synapse between the motor neuron and muscle fiber). This neurotransmitter triggers
an action potential in the muscle fiber, which spreads along the muscle membrane and
into the T-tubules. The action potential stimulates the release of calcium ions from the
sarcoplasmic reticulum. The calcium binds to the protein troponin, causing a
 conformational change that exposes binding sites on the actin filament. Myosin heads,
which are in a "cocked" position due to ATP hydrolysis, bind to the actin filaments, and
through a series of molecular movements (the power stroke), the muscle contracts.
• Tendons and Connective Tissue: Tendons are critical for transmitting the force
generated by muscle contraction to bones. They are composed of densely packed
collagen fibers that are strong yet flexible, ensuring efficient force transfer. In addition to
tendons, the muscle is wrapped in various layers of connective tissue. The epimysium
surrounds the entire muscle, the perimysium surrounds fascicles (bundles of muscle
fibers), and the endomysium surrounds individual muscle fibers. These connective
tissues help with the elasticity and structural integrity of the muscle, allowing it to resist
injury during contraction and stretch.

4. Muscle as a Stabilizer

Muscles not only move the body but also play a key role in stabilizing joints and maintaining
posture. This section explores the concept of muscle stabilization, which is essential for
preventing injury and maintaining functional movement patterns.

• Joint Stabilization: Muscles act as dynamic stabilizers at joints, helping to prevent

excessive or improper movement. For example, in the knee joint, muscles like the
quadriceps and hamstrings work to stabilize the joint during walking and running. When
the body is engaged in complex, dynamic movements, the muscles help ensure that the
joint surfaces do not move beyond their intended range of motion, thereby preventing
injury. This stabilization function is particularly crucial in weight-bearing joints, where
external forces are often applied to the body.
• Postural Control: Muscles are continuously engaged to maintain posture, even when the
body is not actively moving. The chapter explains that postural muscles, including those
of the core (such as the abdominals, erector spinae, and diaphragm), contract
subconsciously to maintain an upright posture. This process is especially important in
preventing fatigue and discomfort in the musculoskeletal system, particularly during long
periods of sitting or standing. The constant contraction of muscles to resist the force of
gravity can lead to fatigue if muscles are not properly conditioned.
• Antagonist and Synergist Muscles: Muscles don’t work in isolation during movement.
Instead, they function together in coordinated patterns. Antagonists are muscles that
oppose the primary movement of the agonist muscles. For example, during arm flexion,
the biceps brachii is the agonist, while the triceps brachii acts as the antagonist.
Synergists are muscles that assist the agonist in producing a movement, often by
stabilizing the joint or helping with the movement itself. For example, during a squat, the
hamstrings and glutes act synergistically to extend the hip while the quadriceps stabilize
the knee joint.

5. Muscle as a Mover

This section elaborates on how muscles produce movement and generate force, with an emphasis
on the mechanisms behind muscle contractions and their functional roles in various types of
activity.
 • Concentric, Eccentric, and Isometric Contractions: Muscles are capable of three types
of contractions:
o Concentric contraction: The muscle shortens while producing force, such
as when lifting a weight. This contraction produces movement in the body.
o Eccentric contraction: The muscle lengthens while producing force. This
type of contraction is important for controlling movements, such as lowering
a weight. Eccentric contractions generate more force than concentric
contractions and are often associated with muscle soreness.
o Isometric contraction: The muscle produces force without changing its
length. This type of contraction occurs when holding a position, such as
maintaining a plank or carrying a heavy object without moving.
• Movement Efficiency and Coordination: Muscles are not isolated entities but work in
coordinated groups to produce fluid, efficient movement. The chapter highlights that
proprioception—the body’s ability to sense its position in space—is vital for muscle
coordination. The nervous system constantly monitors and adjusts muscle activity to
ensure that movement is efficient and safe. Feedback from muscles and joints, combined
with motor learning, helps refine movement patterns for tasks such as walking, running,
and performing athletic movements.

6. Muscle Fiber Types and Their Functional Implications

Muscle fibers are classified based on their contractile properties and energy production methods.
These classifications are important for understanding how muscles function in different
activities.

• Type I Fibers (Slow-Twitch): These fibers are specialized for endurance and aerobic
activities. They are highly resistant to fatigue due to their abundant mitochondria and
reliance on oxidative metabolism. These fibers are ideal for activities like long-distance
running or cycling, where sustained, low-intensity effort is required.
• Type II Fibers (Fast-Twitch): These fibers are better suited for short bursts of power
and speed. Type II fibers are less resistant to fatigue compared to Type I fibers but can
generate greater force in a short amount of time. These fibers are essential for explosive
movements, such as sprinting or lifting heavy weights. Type II fibers can be subdivided
into Type IIa (fast oxidative) and Type IIb (fast glycolytic), with Type IIa being more
endurance-oriented than Type IIb.
• Fiber Recruitment: The body recruits muscle fibers in a specific order based on the
demands of the activity. Type I fibers are recruited first for low-intensity, prolonged
activities. As the intensity increases, Type II fibers are progressively recruited to meet
the higher force requirements. This recruitment pattern ensures that energy is efficiently
utilized during different types of physical exertion.

7. Factors Affecting Muscle Function

Various internal and external factors influence muscle function and performance. These include
age, training, injury, and rehabilitation.
 • Age: As individuals age, muscle mass tends to decrease in a process known as
sarcopenia, which contributes to weakness and reduced endurance. The chapter
discusses how muscle fibers become less efficient, and how the neuromuscular system
becomes slower in transmitting signals. Strength training can help mitigate these effects
and preserve muscle function.
• Training and Adaptation: Resistance training increases muscle strength and
hypertrophy (muscle growth), leading to more efficient movement and improved athletic
performance. Similarly, endurance training enhances the aerobic capacity of muscle
fibers, enabling better oxygen utilization and increased stamina.
• Injury and Rehabilitation: Muscles can be injured by strain, overuse, or trauma.
Rehabilitation focuses on restoring muscle function through a combination of
strengthening, stretching, and functional training exercises. The chapter underscores the
importance of a gradual recovery process to avoid re-injury and build muscle resilience.

8. Conclusion

The chapter concludes by reiterating the crucial role muscles play in both stabilizing the body
and enabling movement. Muscles are not just passive structures but active, dynamic tissues that
contribute to every aspect of human function. Understanding muscle anatomy, physiology, and
function is essential for healthcare professionals, kinesiology students, and anyone interested in
human movement. The chapter sets the stage for a deeper exploration of how muscles interact
with other components of the musculoskeletal system in subsequent sections.