i
Essentials of
LOGIC
A Textbook-Workbook
for College Students
ROEL P. VILLOCINO, Ed. D.
Assumption College of Nabunturan
Essentials of Logic
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Copyright © Roel P. Villocino, 2016
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced
or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any
information storage and retrieval system, without prior
permission in writing from the author.
Book No._______
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
BY THE AUTHOR
Published by
RPV
Printed by
RPV
About the Cover
The cover, showing a spider clinging on to its web, exemplifies the
very nature of logical inquiry. Before resting and waiting for prey, the
spider first builds a web consisting of a network of connections so
consistent that food for the next meal is assured. Likewise, logic
builds a network of connections among essential components such as
the terms, propositions and inferences so that, from there, logical and
valid reasoning can proceed.
Cover Layout by Joyce Sheena Faith G. Torres
Cover photo taken by the author in 72 Pokana Circuit, Kaleen, ACT
Essentials of Logic
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Preface
As a branch of philosophy, Logic has brought
awareness in the students about a subject on correct
thinking. As all men desire correct thinking, it cannot be
denied it takes a long process to muster it. Although a
significant few did unrelenting search for truth that they
would exhaust all their energies for it.
As part of the higher education curriculum, Logic has
caused headaches on students. Several lamented the
principles, rules and laws required thorough understanding.
They seemed caught in a web of complexities, so to speak.
Indeed, the observations and impressions of the students
are valid. The author must concede for vanity’s sake. Back
in college, a good number of our classmates (author
included) had ‘morning-the-night-study’ sessions just so we
could study lucidly topics at hand for discussion the next
day. Burning eyebrows became the trend. But you know it
paid off since logic would help learners a lot in terms of
thinking correctly and consistently.
Aimed at providing the learners a learning kit, this book
contains the essentials of logic using easy-to-use activities
and exercises. To achieve that end, various references were
used. Primarily, the author is indebted to Andrew H.
Bachhuber, S.J. for concepts and principles of most major
topics were taken from his book, Introduction to Logic.
Essentials of Logic
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In order to trigger logical consciousness and some witty
comic reliefs, Pol Medina’s Pugad Baboy cartoons and
others are added as fillers.
You are invited to the realm of the science and art of
correct thinking and the quintessence of what philosophy is
all about.
ROEL P. VILLOCINO
December 8, 2016
Feast of the Immaculate Conception
Essentials of Logic
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Contents
Copyright Page ii
Preface iii
Contents v
List of Figures and Tables x
List of Exercises xii
Introduction to the Study of Logic
Lesson 1: Philosophy: Its Meaning and Nature
Definition of Philosophy 1
The Nature of Philosophy 3
Divisions and Branches 4
Short Historical Outline of Philosophy 4
Lesson 2: Logic: Its Meaning and Nature
The Definition of Logic 9
Mental Operations 10
Logical and Illogical 11
Natural and Scientific Logic 12
Insistence on Understanding 12
Brief History of Logic 13
The Significance of Studying Logic 14
Essentials of Logic
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The Term
Lesson 1: Preliminary Definitions and Concepts
Definition of Term 20
Words, Concepts and Terms 21
Terms as Natural and Conventional Signs 22
Significant and Nonsignificant Terms 23
Lesson 2: Comprehension and Extension of the Term
Preliminary Definitions 27
Inverse Relation Between Comprehension
and Extension 28
Lesson 3:The Classification of Terms
Terms According to Quantity 34
Terms According to Quality 34
Terms According to Incompatibility 35
The Proposition
Lesson 1: General Notion of the Proposition
The Nature of the Proposition 41
Contingent and Necessary Propositions 42
The Types of Propositions 43
Basic Elements of the Categorical
Proposition 45
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Lesson 2: Quality and Quantity of the Proposition
and Symbols A, E, I and O.
Quality of the Proposition 48
Quantity of the Proposition 49
Symbols A, E, I and O 51
The Quantity of the Predicate Term 51
Lesson 3: Logical Form
Logical Form of the Categorical Syllogism 57
Reduction to Logical Form 58
The Inference
Lesson 1: General Notion of Inference
Some Definitions 62
Formal and Material Sequence 63
Truth and Formal Validity 64
Immediate and Mediate Inference 64
Deduction and Induction 65
The Immediate Inference
Lesson 1: The Oppositional Inference
Preliminaries 70
Types of Oppositional Relations 71
Lesson 2: Eduction or the Equivalent Propositions
Preliminaries 84
Types of Eduction 84
Essentials of Logic
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The Categorical Syllogism
Lesson 1: The Structure of Categorical Syllogism
The Terms 100
The Use of Univocal Terms 101
Terms in Synonym 102
The Significance of Eduction
in Syllogism 102
The Propositions 104
The Principle of Categorical Syllogism 105
Lesson 2: General Rules of the Categorical Syllogism
Outline of the Rules 101
Lesson 3: Logical Forms of the Categorical Syllogism:
Figures and Moods
General Nature of the Figures and Moods 125
The Valid Moods of each Figure 129
Lesson 4: The Mnemonic Words
Mnemonic Words of each Figure 143
The Hypothetical Syllogism
Lesson 1: The Hypothetical Propositions
Conditional Propositions 148
Disjunctive Propositions 149
Conjunctive Propositions 150
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Lesson 2: Types of Hypothetical Syllogism
Conditional Syllogism 153
Disjunctive Syllogism 155
Conjunctive Syllogism 156
Essentials of Logic
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List of Figures and Tables
Figures
1 Inverse Ratio between Comprehension
and Extension 29
2 Diagram of the Symbols A, E, I & O 51
3 Diagram for Quantity of Predicate-
Affirmative Proposition 52
4 Diagram for Quantity of Predicate-
Negative Proposition 53
5 Six Variations of the Generic Basic Structure 58
6 Synoptic Schema of Inference 63
7 Square of Opposition 71
Tables
1 Mental Operations & External Expressions 11
2 Table of Legitimate Contradictories 71
3 Table of Legitimate Contradictories with
Truth-Value 72
4 Table of Legitimate Contraries 73
5 Table of Legitimate Contraries with
Truth-Value 74
6 Table of Legitimate Sub-contraries 74
7 Table of Legitimate Sub-contraries with
Truth-Value 75
8 Table of Legitimate Sub-alterns 76
9 Table of Legitimate Sub-alterns with
Truth-Value 78
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10 Table of Truth-Values 78
11 Table of Legitimate Obversions 85
12 Table of Legitimate Simple Conversions 87
13 Table of Legitimate Partial Conversions 88
14 Table of Legitimate Partial or Simple
Contraposition 89
15 Table of Legitimate Complete Contraposition 90
16 Table of Legitimate Partial or Simple
Inversion 91
17 Table of Legitimate Complete Inversion 92
18 Summary of Eduction Types 92
19 Table of Mnemonic Words of each Figure 144
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List of Exercises
Exercise 1 8
Exercise 2 17
Exercise 3 26
Exercise 4 31
Exercise 5 38
Exercise 6 47
Exercise 7 56
Exercise 8 60
Exercise 9 68
Exercise 10 80
Exercise 11 94
Exercise 12 110
Exercise 13 124
Exercise 14 141
Exercise 15 146
Exercise 16 157
Exercise 17 159
Essentials of Logic
