18/2/2019

SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES
ATOMS Discovery of Electron In 1830, Michael Faraday showed that if electricity is
passed through a solution of an electrolyte, chemical
reactions occurred at the electrodes

BONDS partially evacuated tubes, known as cathode ray discharge tubes.

AND stream of particles

MOLECULES cathode rays consist of negatively

charged particles, called electrons
bright spot

Charge to Mass Ratio of Electron

STRUCTURE OF ATOM
In 1897, British physicist J.J. Thomson measured the ratio of electrical charge (e)
to the mass of electron (me ) by using cathode ray tube and applying electrical and
Atoms are the fundamental building blocks of matter magnetic field perpendicular to each other as well as to the path of electrons

subdivisions of matter would ultimately yield atoms lighter the particle, greater the deflection.
which would not be further divisible.
The word ‘atom’ has been derived from the Greek ef
word ‘a-tomio’ which means ‘uncutable’ or ‘non-
divisible’. Absence of both

The atomic theory of matter was first proposed on a

firm scientific basis by John Dalton, a British school
mf
teacher in 1808. His theory, called Dalton’s atomic
theory,

Charge on the Electron

The major problems before the scientists at that time were R.A. Millikan (1868-1953) devised
a method known as oil drop
experiment (1906-14), to
• to account for the stability of atom after the discovery of determine the charge on the
electrons. He found that the
sub-atomic particles,
charge on the electron to be
• to compare the behaviour of one element from other in – 1.6 10–19 C.
terms of both physical and chemical properties The present accepted value of
electrical charge is – 1.6022 10–19
• to explain the formation of different kinds of molecules C.
by the combination of different atoms
• to understand the origin and nature of the characteristics
of electromagnetic radiation absorbed or emitted by
atoms.
Millikan concluded that the magnitude of electrical charge, q, on the droplets is always an
integral multiple of the electrical charge,

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Discovery of Protons and Neutrons Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom

Electrical discharge carried out in the modified cathode ray tube led Rutherford and his students (Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden)
to the discovery of particles carrying positive charge, also known as bombarded very thin gold foil with α–particles.
canal rays. α–particle scattering experiment

The characteristics of these positively charged particles High energy α–particles

radioactive source
(i) unlike cathode rays, the positively charged particles depend upon
the nature of gas present in the cathode ray tube. These are simply
the positively charged gaseous ions. 100
nm
(ii) The charge to mass ratio of the particles is found to depend on
the gas from which these originate.
(iii) Some of the positively charged particles carry a multiple of the
fundamental unit of electrical charge. zinc sulphide
(iv) The behaviour of these particles in the magnetic or electrical
field is opposite to that observed for electron or cathode rays.

(1 in 20,000)
bounced back
The smallest and lightest positive ion was obtained from
hydrogen and was called proton.

When electrically neutral particles having a mass slightly

greater than that of the protons was emitted. It named
these particles as neutrons.

volume occupied by the nucleus

ATOMIC MODELS
On the basis of above observations and conclusions,
Different atomic models were proposed to explain the distributions of Rutherford proposed the nuclear model of atom (after the
these charged particles in an atom. Although some of these models
discovery of protons). According to this model :
were not able to explain the stability of atoms, two of these models,
proposed by J. J. Thomson and Ernest Rutherford are discussed
(i) The positive charge and most of the mass of the atom was
below. densely concentrated in extremely small region. This very small
Thomson Model of Atom portion of the atom was called nucleus by Rutherford.
proposed that an atom possesses a (ii) The nucleus is surrounded by electrons that move around the
spherical shape (radius approximately nucleus with a very high speed in circular paths called orbits.
10–10 m) in which the positive charge Thus, Rutherford’s model of atom resembles the solar system in
is uniformly distributed. The electrons which the nucleus plays the role of sun and the electrons that of
are embedded into it in such a manner revolving planets.
as to give the most stable electrostatic (iii) Electrons and the nucleus are held together by electrostatic
arrangement forces of attraction.
this model was able to explain the
overall neutrality of the atom

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How are Electrons Distributed in Different Orbits (Shells)?

Drawbacks of Rutherford’s model of the atom
The distribution of electrons into different orbits of an atom was
suggested by Bohr and Bury.
The orbital revolution of the electron is not expected The following rules are followed for writing the number of electrons
to be stable. in different energy levels or shells:
Any particle in a circular orbit would undergo
acceleration. (i) The maximum number of electrons present in a shell is given by
During acceleration, charged particles would radiate the formula 2n2, where ‘n’ is the orbit number or energy level index,
energy. 1,2,3,….Hence the maximum number of electrons in different shells
are as follows:
Thus, the revolving electron would lose energy and
finally fall into the nucleus. first orbit or K-shell will be = 2 × 12 = 2,
If this were so, the atom should be highly unstable and second orbit or L-shell will be = 2 × 22= 8,
hence matter would not exist in the form that we third orbit or M-shell will be = 2 × 32 = 18,
know. We know that atoms are quite stable. fourth orbit or N-shell will be = 2 × 42= 32, and
so on

(ii) The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in

the outermost orbit is 8.
BOHR’S MODEL OF ATOM (iii) Electrons are not accommodated in a given shell, unless the
In order to overcome the objections raised against inner shells are filled. That is, the shells are filled in a step-wise
manner.
Rutherford’s model of the atom, Neils Bohr put
forward the following postulates about the model of
an atom:

(i) Only certain special orbits known as discrete

orbits of electrons, are allowed inside the atom.

(ii) While revolving in distinct orbits the electrons do

not radiate energy.

These orbits or shells are called energy levels. Energy levels

in an atom are shown in Fig. Atomic Number and Mass Number
Atomic number (Z) = number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
or number of electrons in a neutral atom

mass number (A) = number of protons (Z)+ number of neutrons (n)

• The number of protons in the atom is called atomic number, which

determines its identity and chemical properties.
• Atomic numbers of naturally occurring atoms ranges from 1 (for H,
smallest) to 92 Uranium (the largest)
• Atoms are so small, not imagine their sizes, 1 proton= apprx
1/(6x1023)
• Subatomic particles, measurement called Dalton (Da),
• Neutron and proton exactly 1 Da each, whereas the mass of
electron is only about 1/2000 neutron or proton

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The composition of any atom can be represented by using the MASS NUMBER
normal element symbol (X) with super-script on the left hand side as The mass of an atom is practically due to protons and neutrons
the atomic mass number (A) and subscript (Z) on the left hand side as alone. These are present in the nucleus of an atom. Hence protons
the atomic number 14 and neutrons are also called nucleons. Therefore, the mass of an
6 C atom resides in its nucleus.
For example,
Isobars are the atoms with same mass number but different atomic mass of carbon is 12 u because it has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, 6 u +
number for example, 614C and 147N. 6 u = 12 u.
On the other hand, atoms with identical atomic number but different Similarly, the mass of aluminium is 27 u (13 protons+14neutrons).
atomic mass number are known as Isotopes. The mass number is defined as the sum of the total number of
protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom.
• important point to mention regarding isotopes is that chemical In the notation for an atom, the atomic number, mass number and
properties of atoms are controlled by the number of electrons, symbol of the element are to be written as:
which are determined by the number of protons in the nucleus.
• Number of neutrons present in the nucleus have very little effect
on the chemical properties of an element.
• Therefore, all the isotopes of a given element show same
chemical behaviour

Isotopes
1 Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and In nature, a number of atoms of some elements have been
identified, which have the same atomic number but different mass
electrons in 8035Br . Atomic number (Z) numbers.
mass number (A)
Solution
In this case, 8035Br , Z = 35, A = 80, species is neutral
Number of protons = number of electrons
= Z = 35
Number of neutrons = 80 – 35 = 45,

Atomic Number and Mass Number Isobars

Let us consider two elements — calcium, atomic number 20, and

ATOMIC NUMBER argon, atomic number 18.
We know that protons are present in the nucleus of an atom. It is The number of electrons in these atoms is different, but the mass
the number of protons of an atom, which determines its atomic number of both these elements is 40.
number. That is, the total number of nucleons is the same in the atoms of this
pair of elements.
It is denoted by ‘Z’. All atoms of an element have the same atomic Atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, which
number, Z. have the same mass number, are known as isobars.
In fact, elements are defined by the number of protons they
possess. For hydrogen, Z = 1, because in hydrogen atom, only one An example of a series of isobars would be ⁴⁰S, ⁴⁰Cl, ⁴⁰Ar, ⁴⁰K, and
proton is present in the nucleus. Similarly, for carbon, Z = 6. ⁴⁰Ca.

Therefore, the atomic number is defined as the total number of

protons present in the nucleus of an atom.

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J. Chadwick discovered presence of neutrons in the nucleus of an

atom. So, the three sub-atomic particles of an atom are:
1 Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and
(i) electrons, (ii) protons and (iii) neutrons.
electrons in 8035Br .
• Shells of an atom are designated as K,L,M,N,….
Solution • Valency is the combining capacity of an atom.
In this case, 8035Br , Z = 35, A = 80, species is neutral • The atomic number of an element is the same as the number of
Number of protons = number of electrons protons in the nucleus of its atom.
= Z = 35 • The mass number of an atom is equal to the number of nucleons in
its nucleus.
Number of neutrons = 80 – 35 = 45,
• Isotopes are atoms of the same element, which have different mass
numbers.
• Isobars are atoms having the same mass number but different
atomic numbers.
• Elements are defined by the number of protons they possess.

Electron orbitals
The number of protons in the nucleus dictates the chemical
behavior of an element by determining the number of electrons in
the atom.
Electrons around the nucleus in the energy levels called Shells
The orbital represents the probability of finding the electron at a
particular location.
The electrons in the outermost shell determine how atoms
interact and outermost electrons are referred to as valence
electrons
The electrons energy from first shell to outermost shell goes
decreasing and outermost shell determine the fundamental
chemical properties of the atoms
The shells of atom which have filled completely, they are stable,
do not enter in chemical reactions easily
For example; Helium and Neon- filled up with electrons
Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen- 6,7,8 respectively
Extremely active for numerous chemical combinations

Outlines
• Credit for the discovery of electron {Faraday} and proton goes to
J.J. Thomson and E. Goldstein, respectively.

• J.J. Thomson proposed that electrons are embedded in a positive

sphere.

• Rutherford’s alpha-particle scattering experiment led to the

discovery of the atomic nucleus.

• Rutherford’s model of the atom proposed that a very tiny nucleus

is present inside the atom and electrons revolve around this nucleus.
The stability of the atom could not be explained by this model.

• Neils Bohr’s model of the atom was more successful. He proposed

that electrons are distributed in different shells with discrete energy
around the nucleus. If the atomic shells are complete, then the atom
will be stable and less reactive.

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Bonds also differs in the freedom of rotation they allow.

Atomic interactions Single covalent bonds permits easily for rotation, whereas double
and triple bonds are quite rigid
• Two types- inter-atomic and intra-atomic interactions; Between
the different atom and within the same atom
• Neutrons provides with half atomic mass and protons with
remaining half. Protons regulates the number and positions of
electrons –vely charged
• The overall charge of atom depend upon the ratio between proton
and electron
• Only those have imbalance in charge due to difference in the
number of proton and electron
• Interatomic interactions are the basis of formation of molecules
and their interactive properties with other molecules
• Intermolecular interactions are responsible for the structural and
functional ability of all the biomolecules
• Protein association is often mediated by intra atomic interactions
i.e. by electrostatic properties

Bond energy
Chemical reactions and molecular forces The spontaneous formation of bond between two atoms always
involves the release of some of the internal energy of the unbounded
Life is a chemical process involving hundreds and thousands of atoms and its conversion to another form of energy. It is called as
reactions occurring in an organized manners called metabolic bond energy
reactions or metabolism The first law of thermodynamics
Most atoms established stable partnerships with other atoms,
forming larger, multi-atomic complexes called molecules
Two or more atoms can make up to form a stable molecule (less
reactive) than individual atoms
The formation of a molecule is governed by a fundamental principle
on stability of atoms when outermost shell is filled up
Atoms joins together by sharing electrons or transfer creates
chemical bonds that keeps atom together
The two kinds of association between the atoms and molecules
Strong covalent bonds
weaker non-covalent bonds

Covalent bonds hold the atom within an individual molecular Energy changes in covalent bonds

together; but non covalent are weaker bond, broken down easily? Covalent bonds established very stable link between atoms
To break covalent bond requires greater energy than thermal
Bond energy, bond angle and freedom of rotation….
energy. Thermal energy at 250 C is less than 1 kcal/mol
All chemical bonds, either strong or weak are based on electrostatic The bond strength is measured by the amount of energy that
force must be supplied to break that bond. This is often expressed in
The number of covalent bonds that an atom can form is called the unit of kilocalories per mole (kcal/mol)
valency Ex. C-C bond in ethane need 83kcal/mol
Bond angle Ex.; the angle between two bonds originating from a Bond Energy (kcal/mol)
single atom called the bond angle C-C 83
C-H 99
C-O 84
C=O 174
O-H 111
O=O 118

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The molecules usually adopt temporary states of much higher

energy is called transition sites or activated complexes
The high energy require to get these states, often ranges of 100
kcal/mol.
Many chemical reactions, often energy differential between
reactants and products, will not occur at measurable time
Hence covalent structure of molecules remain intact for longer
periods and this higher energy inputs needed to break this bond
called activation energy

Bond angle in covalent molecules

The angles are determined by the mutual repulsion of the outer
electron orbitals of central atom

Unequal sharing of electrons electronegativity

• In certain cases, the bonded atoms exert different

attractions for the electrons of the bond, resulting in
unequal sharing of the electrons.
• The power of an atom in a molecule to attract electrons
to itself, called electronegativity
• In a covalent bond in which the atoms either identical or
have the same electronegativity, the bonding electrons
are shared equally. Such bonds are said to be non-polar,
Such cases in C-C and C-H bonds
• However, if two atoms differ in electronegativity, the
bond said to be polar, one end will be slightly negatively
charged and other positively charged

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What is a Chemical Bond?

• Force that holds together the atoms in a
substance

CHEMICAL BONDING
The attractive force which holds various constituents (atoms, ions,
etc.) together in different chemical species is called a chemical bond.
Lewis pictured the atom in terms of a positively charged ‘Kernel’ (the
nucleus plus the inner electrons) and the outer shell that could
accommodate a maximum of eight electrons. (octet of electrons)
Lewis postulated that atoms achieve the stable octet when they are
linked by chemical bonds.

Lewis Symbols: In the formation of a molecule, only the outer shell

electrons take part in chemical combination and they are known as
valence electrons. The inner shell electrons are well protected and
are generally not involved in the combination process.
Lewis

Kössel and Lewis in 1916 developed an important theory

of chemical combination between atoms known as
electronic theory of chemical bonding.

According to this, atoms can combine either by transfer of

valence electrons from one atom to another (gaining or
losing) or by sharing of valence electrons in order to have
an octet in their valence shells. This is known as octet rule.

Covalent Bond
Langmuir (1919) refined the Lewis postulations by
abandoning the idea of the stationary cubical arrangement
of the octet, and by introducing the term covalent bond.

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The formation of the Cl2 molecule can be understood in

terms of the sharing of a pair of electrons between the two
chlorine atoms, each chlorine atom contributing one
electron to the shared pair.
In the process both chlorine atoms attain the outer shell
octet of the nearest noble gas (i.e., argon).

when two atoms share one electron pair they are said to
be joined by a single covalent bond.

If two atoms share two pairs of electrons, the covalent bond between
The Lewis dot structures can be written for other them is called a double bond.
molecules also, in which the combining atoms may be For example, in the carbon dioxide molecule, we have two double
bonds between the carbon and oxygen atoms.
identical or different. The important conditions being that:
Similarly in ethane molecule the two carbon atoms are joined by a
• Each bond is formed as a result of sharing of an electron double bond.
pair between the atoms.
• Each combining atom contributes at least one electron
to the shared pair.
• The combining atoms attain the outer shell noble gas
configurations as a result of the sharing of electrons.
• Thus in water and carbon tetrachloride molecules,
formation of covalent bonds can be represented as:

When combining atoms share three electron pairs as in the case of

two nitrogen atoms in the N2 molecule and the two carbon atoms in
the ethlyne molecule, a triple bond is formed.

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Ionic bonding is the complete transfer of valence

electron(s) between atoms.
It is a type of chemical bond that generates two
oppositely charged ions.
In ionic bonds, the metal loses electrons to become
a positively charged cation, whereas the nonmetal
accepts those electrons to become a negatively
charged anion.
Ionic bonds require an electron donor, often a
metal, and an electron acceptor, a nonmetal.

Limitations of the Octet Rule Ionic bonding is observed because metals have few electrons in their
outer-most orbitals. By losing those electrons, these metals can
The octet rule, though useful, is not universal. It is quite useful for
understanding the structures of most of the organic compounds and achieve noble gas configuration and satisfy the octet rule. Similarly,
nonmetals that have close to 8 electrons in their valence shells tend
it applies mainly to the second period elements of the periodic table.
There are three types of exceptions to the octet rule. to readily accept electrons to achieve noble gas configuration.
In ionic bonding, more than 1 electron can be donated or received to
satisfy the octet rule. The charges on the anion and cation
1 The incomplete octet of the central atom; central atom is less than
eight.; four valence electrons- Examples are LiCl, BeH2, BCl3 correspond to the number of electrons donated or received. In ionic
bonds, the net charge of the compound must be zero.
2 Odd electron molecule; nitric oxide, NO and nitrogen dioxide, NO2,
the octet rule is not satisfied for all the atoms

3 The expanded octet

In a number of compounds of these
elements there are more than eight valence
electrons around the central atom. This is
termed as the expanded octet.
H2SO4

What is an Ionic Bond? This sodium molecule donates the lone electron in its valence orbital
in order to achieve octet configuration. This creates a positively
• Loses or gains electron (e- are ripped away from charged cation due to the loss of electron.
an element)
• Attraction between opposite charges of ions
• Between metal & nonmetal
ION: Positive or negatively charged atom

This chlorine atom receives one electron to achieve its octet

configuration, which creates a negatively charged anion.

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Sodium and fluorine atoms undergoing a redox reaction to form

sodium fluoride.
Sodium loses its outer electron to give it a stable electron
configuration, and this electron enters the fluorine atom
exothermically.
The oppositely charged ions – typically a great many of them – are
then attracted to each other to form a solid.

hydrogen bond

Formation of hydrogen bonds between H2O

molecules.
Electrostatic attraction exists between partial positive
charge of H atom and the lone pair electrons of O atom
of another H2O.

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Vander Waals Forces

The central oxygen atom of each water

Its main characteristics are:-
molecule has a tetrahedral arrangement of two
lone pairs (forming hydrogen bonds) and two • They are weaker than normal covalent ionic bonds.
bond pairs.
• Van der Waals forces are additive and cannot be
1 saturated.
4 • They have no directional characteristic.
2 • They are all short - range forces and hence only
interactions between nearest need to be considered
A water molecule can instead of all the particles. The greater is the attraction if
form hydrogen bonds the molecules are closer due to Van der Waals forces.
with four other water
3 molecules. • Van der Waals forces are independent of temperature
except dipole - dipole interactions.
P. 68 / 15

In this open structure, water molecules are

further apart than they are in liquid water.

ice liquid water

melts

open structure
collapses
water molecules tend to pack
Think about
more closely together

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