INTRODUCTION-The idea of tiniest unit of matter (Anu and Parmanu) was propounded by maharishi Kanad in Vedic

period in our country. Democritus, a Greek philosopher also proposed that matter is made up of extremely small particles,
the “atom”. The name atom comes from Greek language. John Dalton in 1808 published theory of atom assuming that
atoms are the ultimate indivisible particles of matter. Later the works f William Crookes (1878) , J.J. Thomson (1897)
and Goldstein proved that atom of any element contains smaller particles which are either positively charged or negatively
charged. Work of Rutherford and Neils Bohr confirmed that an atom consists of three subatomic particles, that are
electrons, protons and neutrons. It has been established that the central core of an atom consists of protons and neutrons
and is commonly called nucleus. The electrons revolve around the nucleus. The atom as a whole is electrically neutral as
the number of protons in it, is equal to the number of electrons.
The smallest indivisible particle or unit of an element is called an atom, which can take part in a chemical reaction
and may or may not exist independently. An element is a pure substance which cannot be subdivided into two or more
new substances by any means. The word “ATOM” is given by “John Dalton”.

FUNDAMENTAL PARTICLES OF AN ATOM

(a) Electron : Electron has a negative charge on it, its mass is 1/1837 times the mass of one atom of hydrogen. It is
denoted by the symbol -1e0, where 0 denotes its mass and -1 denotes its charge. Electrons in the outer most shell are called
valence electrons.
(b) Proton : Proton has a unit positive charge, it is denoted by the symbol +1p1, where 1 denotes it atomic mass and +1
denotes its charge.
(c) Neutron : Neutron has no electric charge on it. Its mass is almost equal to the mass of one atom of hydrogen. it is
denoted by the symbol 0n1, where 1 denotes its atomic mass and 0 denotes its charge.
In the neutral atom the total number of protons in the nucleus is equal to the number of electrons revolving round
the nucleus.
Property Electron Proton Neutron
1. Discovery J.J. Thomson E. Goldstein James Chadwick
2. Symbol e p n
3. Nature Negatively charged Positively charged Neutral
4. Relative charge -1 +1 0
5. Absolute charge 1.602 × 10-19 C 1.602 × 10-19 C 0
6. Relative mass 1/1837 1 1
7. Absolute mass 9.109 × 10-28 g 1.6725 × 10-24 g 1.6748 × 10-24 g

THOMSONS MODEL OF AN ATOM- After the discovery of electrons and protons J.J. Thomson (1898) tried to
explain the arrangement of electrons and protons within the tom. He proposed that an atom consists of a sphere of
positive electricity in which electrons are embedded like plum in pudding or seeds evenly distributed in red spongy
mass in watermelon. The radius of the sphere is of the other 10-8 cm which is equal to the size of the atom. Although
Thmoson’s model could explain the electrical neutrality of an atom but this model could not satisfy experimental facts
proposed by Rutherford and hence was discarded. “Proton is a sub - atomic particle having a unit positive charge
(+1.602 × 10-19 kg) & mass (1.6725 × 10-27 kg) which is about 1837 times greater than the mass of an electron.”

RUTHERFORD’S MODEL OF AN ATOM

(a) Rutherford’s Alpha Scattering Experiment : Ernest Rutherford and his coworkers performed numerous
experiments in which alpha () particles emitted from a radioactive element such as polonium were allowed to strike thin
sheets of metals such as gold and platinum.
(i) A beam of -particles (He2+) we obtained by placing polonium in a lead box and letting the alpha particles come out of
a pinhole in the lead box. This beam of -rays was directed against a thin gold foil (0.00004 cm). A circular screen coated
with zinc sulphide was placed on the other side of the foil.
(ii) About 99% of the particles passed undeflected through the gold foil and caused illumination of zinc sulphide
screen.
(iii) Very few -particles underwent small and large deflections after passing through the gold foil.
(iv) A very few (about 1 in 20,000) were deflected backward on their path at an angle of 180.
Rutherford was able to explain these observations as follows :
(i) Since a large number of -particles pass through the atom undeflected, hence, there must be large empty space within
the atom.
(ii) As some of the - particles got defleted, therefore, there must be something massive and positively charged present
in the atom.
(iii) The number of -particles which got deflected is very small, therefore, the whole positive charge in the atom is
conventratted in a very small space.
(iv) Some of the -particles retracted their path i.e. came almost straight back towards the sources as a result of their
direct collisions with the heavy mass.
- particles are made up of two protons and two neutrons and are He nuclei.

The positively charged heavy mass which occupies only a small space as compared to the total space occupied by the
atom is called nucleus.
(b) Rutherford’s Nuclear Model of Atom :
Rutherford proposed a new picture of the structure of the atom. Main feature of this model are as follows-
(i) The atom of an element consists of a small positively charged “Nucleus” which is situated at the centre of the atom
and which carries almost the entire mss of the atom.
(ii) The electrons are distributed in the empty space of the atom around the nucleus in different concentric circular
paths (orbits).
(iii) The number of electrons in the orbits is equal to the total number of protons in the nucleus.
(iv) Volume of nucleus is very small as compared to the volume of atom.
(v) Most of the space in the atom is empty.
The stability of such a system in which negatively charged electrons surround a positively charged nucleus was explained
by proposing that the electrons revolve around the nucleus at very high speed in circular orbits. This arrangement is
just like our solar system. The high sped of the moving electrons given them a centrifugal force acting away from the
nucleus. The centrifugal force balance the electrostatic force of attraction acting between the nucleus and the electrons.
(c) Drawback (defects) in Rutherford’s Model :
(i) Rutherford did not specify the number of electrons in each orbit.
(ii) According to electromagnetic theory, if a charged particle (electron) is accelerated around another charged particle
(nucleus) then there would be continuous radiation of energy. This loss of energy would slow down the speed of
electron and eventually the electron would fall into the nucleus. But such a collapse does not occur. Rutherford’s model
could not explain this theory.

BOHR’S MODEL OF AN ATOM- Rutherford’s model of the atom was unable to explain certain observations with
regard to the atom i.e. stability of the atom and the occurrence of the atomic spectra. Neils Bohr accepted Rutherford’s
idea that the positive charge and most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in its nucleus with the electrons present at
some distance away.
According to Bohr’s theory -
(i) Electrons revolve around the nucleus in well defined orbits or shells, each shell having a definite amount of energy
associated with the electrons in it. Therefore, these shells are also called energy levels.
(ii) The energy associated with the electrons in an orbit increases as the radius of the orbit increases. These shells are
known as K, L, M, N etc. starting from the one closest to the nucleus.
(iii) An electron in a shell can more to a higher or lower energy shell by absorbing or releasing a fixed amount of energy.
(iv) The amount of energy absorbed or emitted is given by the difference of energies associated with the two energy
levels.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE An atom consists of two parts :

(a) Nucleus : Nucleus is situated in the centre of an atom. All the protons & neutrons are situated in the nucleus,
therefore, the entire mass of an atom is almost concentrated in the nucleus. The overall charge of nucleus is
positive due to the presence of positively charged protons (neutrons present have no charge). The protons &
neutrons are collectively called nucleons. The radius of the nucleus of an atom is of the order of 10-15 m.
(b) Extra nuclear region : In extra nuclear part or in the region outside the nucleus, electrons are present which
revolve around the nucleus in orbits of fixed energies. These orbits are called energy levels. These energy levels
are designated as K, L, M, N and so on.
The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in a shell is given by the formula 2n2 (where n =
number of shell i.e. 1, 2, 3--)
Shell n 2n2 max. no. of e-
K 1 2(1)2 2
L 2 2(2)2 8
M 3 2(3)2 18
N 4 2(4)2 32
Each energy level is further divided into subshells designated as s.p.d.f.
1st shell (K) contains 1 subshell (s)
2nd shell (L) contains 2 subshells (s,p)
3rd shell ( M) contains 3 subshells (s,p,d)
4th shell (N) contains 4 subshells (s,p,d,f).

ORBITALS Like shells are divided into subshells, subshells further contain orbitals.
An orbital may be defined as a “Region in the three - dimensional space around the nucleus where the probability of
finding an electron is maximum. The maximum capacity of each orbital is that of two electrons.”

The total number of nucleons is equal to the mass number (A) of the atom.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGUATION OF AN ATOM
(i) Each of the orbits can accommodate a fixed number of electrons. Maximum number of electrons in an orbit is equal
to 2n2, where ‘n’ is the number of the orbit.
If n = 1 then 2n2 = 2, n = 2 then 2n2 = 8, n = 3 then 2n2 = 18, n = 4 then 2n2 = 32
(ii) In the outermost shell of any atom, the maximum possible number of electrons is 8, except in the first shell
which can have at the most 2 electrons.
(iii) The arrangement of the electrons is different shells is known as the electronic configuration of the element. The
pictorial representations of Bohr’s model o hydrogen, helium, carbon, sodium and calcium atoms having 1, 2, 6, 11 and 20
electrons respectively are shown in the figure where the centre of the circle represents the nucleus.
If the outermost shell has 8 electrons it is said to be an octet. If the first shell has its full quota of 2 electrons, it is
said to be duplet.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION OF ELEMENTS UPTO ATOMIC NUMBER 30-

Atomic number Symbols of the element Name of the element Electronic configuration
1 H Hydrogen 1
2 He Helium 2
3 Li Lithium 2,1
4 Be Beryllium 2,2
5 B Boron 2,3
6 C Carbon 2,4
7 N Nitrogen 2,5
8 O Oxygen 2,6
9 F Fluorine 2,7
10 Ne Neon 2,8
11 Na Sodium 2,8,1
12 Mg Magnesium 2,8,2
13 Al Aluminium 2, 8,3
14 Si Silicon 2 ,8, 4
15 P Phosphorus 2, 8,5
16 S Sulphur 2,8,6
17 Cl Chlorine 2,8,7
18 Ar Argon 2,8,8
19 K Potassium 2,8,8,1
20 Ca Calcium 2,8,8,2

VALENCY Valency of an element is the combining capacity of the atoms of the element with atoms of the same or
different elements. The combining capacity of the atoms of other elements was explained in terms of their tendency to
attain a fully - filled outermost shell (stable octet or duplet). The number of electrons gained, lost or contributed for
sharing by an atom of the element gives us directly the combining capacity or valency of the element.
Valency of an element is determined by the number of valence electrons in an atom of the element. The valency of an
element = number of valence electrons (when number of valence electrons are from 1 to 4)
The valency of an element = 8 - number of valence electrons. (when number of valence electrons are more than 4)
eg. Na has 1 valence electron, thus, its valency is 1. Cl has 7 valence electrons, thus, its valency is 8 - 7 = 1.

ATOMIC NUMBER (Z) The number of protons is the nucleus of an atom of a given element is called the atomic number
of that element. Or Atomic number is the number of protons present in the atom of an element. It is denoted. by “Z”
Atomic number = Number of protons = Number of electrons ( in a neutral atom)
Atomic number = Number of protons (in an ion)
e.g. -Atomic number of sodium is 11
-Nucleus of sodium has 11 protons.
- Nucleus of sodium has 11 units of positive charge.
- There are 11 electrons, revolving round the nucleus of sodium.
The atomic number is represented on the LHS of the symbol of the element as subscript.
MASS NUBER (A) Mass number is the number of protons and neutrons present in the atom of an element. It is
denoted by “A”. The mass number is represented either on the left hand side (LHS) or on the right hand side (RHS) of the
symbol of the element as superscript.
Mass number = Number of protons + Number of neutrons.
e.g. 13Al27
-Mass number of aluminum is 27.
-The total number of protons and neutrons is the nucleus of aluminum is 27.
-Number of protons is 13.
-Number of neutrons is = 27 - 13 = 14.
Each element has a unique atomic number which is its identity.

(a) Relation between Z, A and N

A=Z+N
Z = Number of Protons, N = Number of neutrons, A = Mass number
N=A-Z

ISOTOPES (a) Atoms of same element having the same chemical properties, but differing in mass are known as
isotopes. The isotopes of an element have the same atomic number but different atomic masses. Isotopes have the same
electrical charges means same number of protons. The difference in their masses is due to the presence of different number
of neutrons.
e.g. (a) Isotopes of hydrogen

(b) Isotopes of oxygen

All the isotopes of an element have identical chemical properties.

(b) Characteristics of Isotopes :(i) The physical properties of the isotopes of an element are different number of
neutrons in their nuclei. Hence mass, density and other physical properties of the isotopes of an element are different.
(ii) All the isotopes of an element contains the same number of electrons. So, they have the same electronic configuration
with the same number of valence electrons. Since the chemical properties of an element are determined by the number of
valence electrons in its atom, all the isotopes of an element have identical chemical properties.
(c) Reason for the fractional atomic masses of elements :
The atomic masses of many elements are in fraction and not whole number. The fractional atomic masses of elements are
due to the existence of their isotopes having different masses.
e.g. : The atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 u. Chlorine has two isotopes Cl35 and Cl37 with abundance of 75% and 25%
respectively. Thus the average mass of a chlorine atom will be 75% of Cl - 35 and 25% of Cl-37, which is 35.5 u.
Thus, the average atomic mass of chlorine is 35.5 u. Similarly, average atomic mass of copper is 63.5 u.
(d) Applications of Radioactive isotopes :
(i) In agriculture : Certain elements such as boron, cobalt, copper, manganese, zinc and molybdenum are necessary is
very minute quantities for plant nutrition. By radioactive isotopes we can identify the presence and requirements of
these elements in the nutrition of plants.
(ii) In industry : Coating on the arm of clock to seen in dark. To identify the cracks in metal casting.
(iii) In medicine : Thyroid, bone diseases, brain tumours and cancer and diagnosed, controlled or destroyed with the
help of radioactive isotopes like 27Co60,21Na24 , iodine, phosphorus etc.
(iv) Determination of the mechanism of chemical reaction : by replacing an atom or molecule by its isotope.
(v) In carbon dating : Will and Libby (1960) developed the technique of radiocarbon dating to determine the age of
plants, fossils and archeological samples.
Isotopes (Like Uranium - 238) are used in nuclear reactor to produce energy and power.

ISOBARS- the atoms of different elements with different atomic numbers, but same mass numbers are called
isobars.
e.g. C14and N14 are isobars Ca40 and Ar40 are isobars

ISOTONES-The isotones may be defined as the atoms of different elements containing same number of neutrons.
e.g. C13 and N14

ISOELECTRIC: Ion or atom or molecule which have the same number of electrons are called as isoelectronic
species.
e.g. Cl- Ar K+ Ca+2
No. of electrons 18 18 18 18
Isobars contain different number of electrons, protons and neutrons.