Enhancing Large UPS Efficiency
Transcript
Slide 1
Welcome to Enhancing Large UPS Efficiency.
Slide 2: Welcome
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Slide 3: Learning Objectives
At the end of this course, you will be able to
• Recognize efficiency issues involved in UPS evaluation
• Interpret a UPS efficiency curve
• Describe types of power loss and the total cost of inefficiency
• Discuss solutions to leverage UPS efficiency including:
o Technology
o Topology
o Modularity
• Avoid mistakes that are common in UPS specification
Slide 4: Introduction
Most companies, when faced with the likelihood of downtime, and data processing errors caused by utility
power, choose to implement an Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS) between the public power distribution
system and their mission–critical loads. Traditionally, the specification and selection of UPS systems has
focused almost solely on system reliability, as represented by mean time between failure (MTBF) statistics.
However, as energy resources have become more scarce and expensive, two issues are now conspiring to
move efficiency, as much as reliability, to the forefront in UPS evaluation: (1) a focus on total cost of
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ownership (TCO) over the lifetime of the system, and (2) public and private environmental initiatives, such
as “green building” certification programs and other incentives offered by utility companies.
Slide 5: Key Concepts
Before we discuss matters of efficiency, it is imperative to understand a few key concepts. The term,
“electrical load” refers to the electrical power required to support various data center equipment components.
Computers, switchgear, networking equipment, as well as anything else that is supported by the electrical
infrastructure, is considered to be part of the load.
“UPS internal power consumption,” also known as, “loss” is power intended for the load that is, in fact,
consumed by the UPS. UPS losses provide the basis for determining UPS efficiency.
Once loss is determined, it becomes clear just how much of the input power is consumed by the IT load –
and the degree to which the UPS is efficient.
Let’s explore what exactly causes a UPS to operate inefficiently.
Slide 6: UPS Efficiency
There are two major contributors to UPS inefficiency: the inherent losses within the UPS internal modules,
and how much over-sizing and redundancy is required. Oftentimes, when specifying UPS systems, the only
efficiency value considered is the best case value published by manufacturers. This value often reflects a
UPS operating at 100% load. In fact, in most real world situations UPSs operate at 50% of load or lower.
Users rarely operate at 100% load because they often want to build in a buffer to accommodate peaks in
power consumption that could result from the dynamic power variation characteristic of modern computer
loads. If the UPS is loaded beyond 100%, it reverts to bypass mode which would expose the entire load to
random power anomalies. Another reason why UPSs are traditionally not operated at 100% load is because
many users oversize their UPS when they purchase it, in order to accommodate long term power
consumption projections. However, new UPS technologies now allow customers to “right size” rather than
oversize their NCPI equipment upon purchase. The following hypothetical example will further demonstrate
why the 100% load value is misleading.
Slide 7: UPS Efficiency
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Consider two 1 MW UPS solutions from two different manufacturers. They each have identical published
efficiencies of 93% at full load and are operated in a 2N architecture. This means that each of the
manufacturers’ solutions will consist of 2 UPSs. Each solution incurs an electrical cost of $0.10/kW hr, and
supports a 300 kW load. Many would argue that there would be no difference in the annual electrical cost of
operating these two solutions. The flaw in this conclusion is that UPSs are never operated at a 100% load
level in a 2N configuration since each side of the “N” has to be capable of supporting the full load if one side
fails.
Therefore, the maximum design load on each UPS in normal operation cannot exceed 50%.
Surveys indicate that 2N data centers operate at 20-40% of their 2N capacity. For this example, a typical
30% load is assumed, where each UPS supports 150 kW.
Slide 8: UPS Efficiency
Assume the 2 UPSs in solution A incur an annual electrical cost of $20,940 in power losses vs. $56,644 for
the UPSs in solution B. These UPS losses manifest themselves as heat which must be removed by the
cooling system. Assuming each kW of heat requires 400 watts for the cooling system to remove it, an
additional $8,376 vs. $22,651 per year is required. In this example, a typical data center lifespan of 10 years,
results in a total cost of UPS system losses of $293,165 vs. $793,021
So, how is it that the electrical losses between two seemingly identical UPS solutions can differ by almost a
factor of three? The answer lies in the efficiency curves of both UPS solutions and how they are sized
against the load. An improvement of 5 percentage points in the efficiency of a single UPS can result in an
electrical cost reduction between 18% and 84% depending on how much load is on the UPS.
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Slide 9: UPS Efficiency
The rate of UPS efficiency is determined by dividing the IT load power by the total data center input power.
The rate of efficiency is expressed as a percent.
For example, if the IT load power were 300kW and the total input power were 320kW, the system would be
considered 93.75% efficient. Typically, measurements are taken at 0%, 25%, 50%, 75% and 100% load.
The efficiency measurements are plotted on a graph and a trend line is fitted to the points to form a curve.
Here we see the basic shape of a UPS efficiency curve. The highest point on the curve corresponds with the
highest efficiency on the Y axis and the highest load level on the X axis. In this curve, the maximum UPS
efficiency is 93%. In order to specify a UPS at a realistic load level, the customer must find or test the UPS
efficiency at a common load level such as 30%, which on this curve is 89% efficient. In cases where a data
center uses redundant UPSs such as 2N, the efficiency drops even more due to the fact that the load is split
across both UPSs. This would bring the efficiency down to 82%.
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Slide 10: UPS Efficiency Curve
If there is only one UPS efficiency number, or rated load, listed on a UPS data sheet, it is almost certainly
quoted at 100% load. UPS manufacturers quote UPS efficiency at 100% load because it represents the very
best efficiency the UPS will attain. Unfortunately, very few customers will ever reap the benefits of this
efficiency because they will never reach 100% load. Specifying a UPS based on its nameplate efficiency is
like buying a car that gets maximum fuel efficiency on the highway and using it for city driving.
Slide 11: UPS Power Loss
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UPS power loss occurs when power supplied to the UPS is not fully delivered to the data center loads. This
breakdown of the UPS input power shows power going to the IT loads, represented by the green bars, and
internal UPS losses, represented by the red bars.
At 0% load, all the input power is used by the UPS and is therefore called a “no-load” loss. This type of loss
is independent of load and is attributed to powering such things as transformers, capacitors, logic boards,
and communication cards inside of the UPS. The no-load portion of loss stays constant from zero all the
way to full load.
As more load is added to a UPS, proportional losses are created. This is due to a larger amount of power
that must be “processed” by various components in the UPSs power path. Switching losses from transistors
and resistance losses from capacitors and inductors, all contribute to proportional losses.
Square-law losses occur when the electrical current running through the UPSs components increases. The
power losses dissipated in the form of heat are proportional to the square of the current. Square-law losses
become significant at higher UPS loads.
The very nature of comparing the efficiencies of two or more UPSs means that only their losses are
evaluated. An efficiency curve alone can tell a great deal about a UPS including quantifying its proportional,
no-load, and square-law losses across all load levels.
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Slide 12: Improving Large UPS Efficiency
A UPS manufacturer can improve efficiency in the areas of no-load, proportional and square law losses. To
do so, manufacturers have three points of leverage at their disposal: technology, topology, and modularity.
By understanding how these factors impact efficiency, specifying engineers can better identify UPS systems
with lower operating costs. Let’s explore these points of leverage in further detail.
Slide 13: Technology
Large solid state UPS systems work by converting between alternating current, (AC) and direct current,
(DC). Part of this power conversion process is rapid on-off switching which leads to power losses in the form
of heat due to its inherent electrical resistance. Even when a switch is open, there is always some small
amount of heat loss due to current leakage.
Slide 14: Technology
This is analogous to the heat generated when a rope (current) is pulled quickly through a person’s hands
(switch). When the rope is held tightly (switch closed) heat is generated, when the rope is held loosely
(switch open) very little heat is generated.
Slide 15: Technology
Until the mid 1990s, the switching process was accomplished by silicon-controlled rectifiers or SCRs. These
rectifiers had high-power / high-voltage switching capabilities and were relatively inexpensive. A drawback
to SCRs was that they tended to fail “short,” which produced a short circuit at the most critical point of the
UPS – the DC bus. To compensate, protective circuits and devices had to be added to protect the DC bus
from this failure mode – which, in turn, lead to even more components that could (and would) fail. Also,
these SCRs were easy to turn on with a 1-2 volt signal to the gate, but were difficult to turn off, requiring a
reverse-bias voltage spike.
Transistors, however, do not have this problem – they require less power to turn on and off. Essentially they
are “on” when the gate signal is present, and “off” when it is not. Isolated gate bipolar transistors, or IGBTs,
have replaced SCRs as the standard switching mechanism. IGBTs are capable of higher speeds and higher
power handling allowing the power conversion process to be operated in a “high frequency pulse-width-
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modulation mode (PWM). This reduces the size of filter components required and leads to efficiency
improvements in the most recent generation of UPS products.
Slide 16: Technology
Many manufacturers today are moving from analog controls to digital signal processing controls (DSP). This
is analogous to switching from a traditional watch with gears and hands to one with digital components.
Slide 17: Technology
DSP controls are much more intelligent, can operate at much faster rates, and therefore make many more
decisions that help to improve efficiency. DSP controls also contain fewer components compared to analog
circuits.
More advanced DSP controls can improve efficiency through intelligent adaptive switching, where the main
high frequency power switches can maintain output voltage precision with fewer switching transitions. DSP
controls require much less power than prior generation controls and can adjust to reduced levels of
switching transitions when supporting lighter loads.
Slide 18: Technology
UPS topologies define how UPS power components are internally connected. Manufacturers can use
topology as a tool to reduce the losses for a particular application or size range. There are two principal
topologies used in large UPS systems: Double conversion on-line and Delta conversion on-line.
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In the case of delta conversion on-line systems, efficiency is improved mainly by reducing no-load losses,
but also by a reduction in square law losses. Delta conversion on-line uses the input transformer in a series
arrangement, UPS output voltage can be fully regulated and controlled without having to convert all
incoming power to DC and back to AC again as is done in a double conversion on-line system.
A simple way to understand the energy efficiency of the delta conversion topology is to consider the energy
required to cross a treacherous valley. Delta Conversion technology saves energy by carrying the load only
the difference (delta) between the starting and ending points by using a bridge. The Double Conversion On-
Line UPS converts the power to the battery and back again – which would be the equivalent of crossing by
walking down into the valley and back up to reach the other side.
Slide 19: Topology
Traditional double conversion UPSs generate high input harmonic current responsible for additional heating
of upstream wiring and transformers. In order to minimize this current, input filters are added to double
conversion designs an unfortunate effect of adding filters is that they interfere with engine generator voltage
regulation. These input filters are not required in a delta conversion scenario.
Slide 20: Topology
Given the efficiency advantage of the Delta Conversion, a 10 year efficiency cost analysis for a 300 kW load
demonstrates the significant cost savings over the life of the UPS. Notice how a mere 6.2 percentage points
in efficiency yields significant cost savings over the life of the UPS.
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Slide 21: Modularity
As illustrated in the efficiency curve, the closer a UPS operates to its full load capacity, the more efficient it
will be. Modularity allows users to size the UPS system as closely to the load as practicable. In other words,
it allows the UPS to operate as far right on the curve as possible.
Slide 22: Modularity
This is achieved by using modular power components in the same way that IT departments purchase
frames for blade servers and then install standard “blades” in the frame to achieve the amount of processing
required for the application. As more blades are inserted into the frame, it becomes a more powerful
computing device.
Slide 23: Modularity
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Now, imagine a UPS system that uses modular power components in the same way. For example, suppose
a UPS chassis was capable of 1 MW of power output and as the load increased on the UPS system,
standardized power modules could be added to the system to match the desired output capacity. The UPS
could scale from 200 kW up to 1 MW in incremental steps as additional power capacity is needed.
Slide 24: Modularity
The result of this architecture is that overspending in capital is avoided – only the components that are
immediately needed are purchased – and the UPS is working at a higher load level because the capacity of
the system is more closely matched to the actual load, which results in higher electrical efficiency. The
following comparison helps illustrate this right-sizing efficiency benefit.
Slide 25: Modularity- Right-Sized vs. Oversized
A 10-year efficiency cost analysis of a right-sized versus an oversized UPS system in a 2N environment will
demonstrate the savings associated with right-sizing.
Consider two configurations: Configuration “A” is a 2N (system plus system) 1 MW scalable delta
conversion on-line UPS system that is right-sized with (2) 200 kW modules in each UPS. Configuration “B”
is identical to configuration “A” except that each UPS is oversized to 1 MW with (5) 200 kW modules. While
proportional losses are equivalent, the no-load losses for the oversized UPS are 2.5 times greater than the
right-sized UPS. Notice that the square-load losses are higher in configuration A. This is because square-
load losses are more pronounced at higher loads.
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Slide 26: Topology and Modularity
Taking it one step further, how much more could efficiency improve by combining the benefits of both
topology and modularity? The following comparison quantifies this improvement. For example, Configuration
“A” is a 1 MW delta conversion on-line UPS that is scalable and right-sized with (2) 200 kW modules.
Configuration “B” is a 1 MW double conversion on-line UPS that is non-scalable and therefore oversized. In
both cases, the load is assumed to be 300 kW. The efficiency of configuration “A” at 30% load is 95.6%
verses 81.28% for configuration “B”, a difference of 14.32 percentage points.
In a 2N architecture the total energy cost of configuration “B” is almost five times that of configuration “A.”
Slide 27: Additional Advantages
Increased efficiency has secondary rewards beyond a direct reduction in power consumption. For example
in the U.S., the Energy Policy Act of 2005 offers tax incentives for improving the energy efficiency of
commercial buildings. Similarly, under the Enhanced Capital Allowances (ECA) program, companies in the
U.K. can write off 100% of capital spent on qualifying energy efficiency equipment in the first tax year. In
some geographic areas (including many areas of the United States), the utilities offer incentives to high-
efficiency designs through programs targeted at reducing overall utility demand. In such programs, efficient
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users may have their electric rate reduced, or the power company may subsidize the capital cost of more
efficient technologies. These benefits further reduce TCO for power-savvy data center owners.
There are also green building designations for high-efficiency designs, which single out efficient data
centers as members of a movement that is gaining high credibility in the marketplace. Companies are
finding green designations to be a corporate plus in their marketing messages, one they can achieve with
the added benefit of lowering operating costs. Everyone wins – the company, their customers (through lower
product costs) and the environment. The green designation will draw increasing market recognition and
importance as energy resources become scarcer and more expensive.
For further information regarding what it means to go green, consider viewing DCU’s course, Going Green--
Energy Efficiency in the Data Center.
Slide 28: Additional Advantages
Recently, the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory (LBNL) published a report on UPSs as part of their
"High-Performance High-Tech Buildings" project, focused on improving energy efficiency in data centers as
well as clean rooms and laboratories. In this report energy efficiency and power quality labeling
methodology is proposed for various types of UPS systems as a way of encouraging the use of higher
efficiency UPSs.
Slide 29: Mistakes to Avoid
It is very easy for those who specify UPS systems to dismiss the efficiency improvement of one UPS over
another. Here are some important issues to remember going forward:
• A business pays for the electricity that is measured by the utility meter – This is the ultimate
benchmark for the specification of any equipment. The design of a data center power system
should comprehend the efficiency impact over the entire power train and not just the UPS.
• Perhaps the most effective method of specifying a UPS for efficiency is to request an efficiency
curve from the manufacturer that will completely describe the energy saving benefits of one UPS
over another. Note that the curve should come with input and output power data so that by using a
simple spreadsheet, the energy savings should be calculated from 0% to 100% load and at every
point in between.
• Rather than performing cost calculations on an annual basis, cost calculations should assume the
life of the data center, which is typically 10 years.
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Slide 30: Summary
To summarize, let’s review some of the information that we have covered throughout the course.
• Data centers consume a significant amount of power.
• As total cost of UPS ownership becomes a key decision factor, the differentiating value becomes
the efficiency of the systems. Once reliability is achieved, the true measure of success is the actual
efficiency, not the details of the internal technology that accomplishes it.
• New technologies may be invented, old technologies may be improved – but from the user’s
perspective, it is the efficiency curve that tells the story and, when combined with cost of equipment,
provides actionable information.
• If all systems are equally reliable, as most are, the sound business decision is to employ the most
efficient system possible.
o Contributing to a green corporate image, increasing agility, and simplifying service
requirements via modular design are additional benefits that underscore the soundness of
that choice.
Slide 31: Thank You!
Thank you for participating in this Data Center UniversityTM course.
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