CONTENT UPDATE: EARTH SCIENCE

 The earth is the third planet from the sun in the Solar System. The earth is approximately
1.28 x 104 km in diameter at the equator. The diameter at the poles is approximately 70 km less
than at the equator because of its rapid rotation on its axis (equatorial bulge). These make the
shape of the earth an oblate spheroid.
 The earth is divided into the following spheres: lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and
biosphere.
 The lithosphere refers to the solid part of the earth. This is a relatively rigid layer that includes
the outermost layer which is the crust and the uppermost part of the mantle. The other layers of
the earth below the mantle are the outer core and the inner core. The outer core is primarily
made up of iron and nickel. It is also inferred that it is liquid and the convections currents in this
portion of the earth are responsible for the earth’s magnetic field. On the other hand, the inner
core is primarily made up of iron and is solid.

I. THE LITHOSPHERE
ROCKS AND MINERALS
 A mineral is defined as a naturally occurring, inorganic crystalline solid element or
compound composed of an ordered arrangement of atoms with a specific chemical
composition.
 The following are the different properties of minerals: luster, hardness, color, streak,
specific gravity, crystal form, cleavage, and fracture.
 A rock is a naturally formed solid made up of one or more kinds of minerals.
 Rocks can be classified based on their origin into igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic.
 Igneous rock is formed by the process of crystallization. It is formed from hardened
magma or lava.
 Sedimentary rock is formed by the process of lithification. The process of lithification
involves compaction of sediments that settle at the bottom due to the pressure exerted
by the layers of sediment above and cementation that involves the action of chemicals
that bind these sediments together.
 Metamorphic rock can be formed form previously existing rock such as igneous and
sedimentary rocks. When they are subjected to heat and pressure, they undergo the
process of metamorphism and they are eventually converted into an igneous rock.
 The earth is a dynamic planet. Its surface continuously undergoes change. Therefore, all
the rocks on earth may have been formed from previously exiting rocks. This is the rock
cycle. The rock cycle involves processes such as weathering, erosion, deposition,
compaction, cementation, melting, crystallization, and metamorphism.

The Rock Cycle

 Rocks undergo weathering. Weathering describes the breaking down or dissolving of

rocks and minerals on the surface of the Earth. Water, ice, acids, salts, plants, animals,
and changes in temperature are all agents of weathering.
 Mechanical weathering, also called physical weathering and disaggregation, causes
rocks to crumble. Water, in either liquid or solid form, is often a key agent of mechanical
weathering. For instance, liquid water can seep into cracks and crevices in rock. If
temperatures drop low enough, the water will freeze. When water freezes, it expands. The
ice then works as a wedge. It slowly widens the cracks and splits the rock. When ice
 melts, liquid water performs the act of erosion by carrying away the tiny rock fragments
lost in the split. This specific process (the freeze-thaw cycle) is called frost weathering or
cryo-fracturing.
 Temperature changes can also contribute to mechanical weathering in a process called
thermal stress. Changes in temperature cause rock to expand (with heat) and contract
(with cold). As this happens over and over again, the structure of the rock weakens. Over
time, it crumbles. Rocky desert landscapes are particularly vulnerable to thermal stress.
The outer layer of desert rocks undergoes repeated stress as the temperature changes
from day to night. Eventually, outer layers flake off in thin sheets, a process called
exfoliation.
 Changes in pressure can also contribute to exfoliation due to weathering. In a process
called unloading, overlying materials are removed. The underlying rocks, released from
overlying pressure, can then expand.
 Chemical weathering changes the molecular structure of rocks and soil. For instance,
carbon dioxide from the air or soil sometimes combines with water in a process called
carbonation. This produces a weak acid, called carbonic acid, that can dissolve rock.
Carbonic acid is especially effective at dissolving limestone. When carbonic acid seeps
through limestone underground, it can open up huge cracks or hollow out vast networks of
caves.

 DIASTROPHISM
 Diastrophism refers to the movement of the earth’s crust. It involves the formation of
faults and folds which are both involved in mountain building. It also explains the
occurrence of earthquakes.
 Forces within the earth cause continual changes on its surface. The solid crust of the
earth—including both the continents and ocean basins—consists of separate sections that
overlie a hot, almost molten layer.
 The theory of plate tectonics is a unifying theory of continental drift and seafloor
spreading theories. The current position of continents on the globe is thought to be the
result of the break-up and subsequent movement of the plates making up the
supercontinent, Pangea, about 250 million years ago. Pangea is formed from the collision
of continents that formed from the original crust of the earth and started moving around 2
½ billion years ago.
 The surface of the earth undergoes continuous cycles of building structures and tearing
them down. Weathering is the process of wearing structures down while erosion refers to
moving the weathered materials. Canyons, gullies, and valleys are the result of
weathering and erosion by rivers and streams.
 The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth’s solid outer crust, the lithosphere, is
separated into plates that move over the asthenosphere, the molten upper portion of the
mantle. Oceanic and continental plates come together, spread apart, and interact at
boundaries all over the planet.
 Each type of plate boundary generates distinct geologic processes and landforms. At
divergent boundaries, plates separate, forming a narrow rift valley. Here, geysers spurt
super-heated water, and magma, or molten rock, rises from the mantle and solidifies into
basalt, forming a new crust. Thus, at divergent boundaries, oceanic crust is created.
 At convergent boundaries, plates collide with one another. The collision buckles the
edge of one or both plates, creating a mountain range or subducting one of the plates
under the other, creating a deep seafloor trench. At convergent boundaries, continental
crust is created and oceanic crust is destroyed as it subducts, melts, and becomes
magma. Convergent plate movement also creates earthquakes and often forms chains of
volcanoes.
 Transform boundaries are places where plates slide sideways past each other. At
transform boundaries lithosphere is neither created nor destroyed. Many transform
boundaries are found on the sea floor, where they connect segments of diverging mid-
ocean ridges.
 Rocks respond to stress (being squeezed or pulled apart) near the Earth’s surface by
breaking. When rocks break and there is no offset along either side of the break, the
break is called a fracture or joint.
 A normal fault is one in which the rocks above the fault plane, or hanging wall, move
down relative to the rocks below the fault plane, or footwall. A reverse fault is one in
which the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall. When rocks on either side of a
nearly vertical fault plane move horizontally, the movement is called strike-slip.
 VOLCANISM

 Volcanism is the eruption of molten rock (magma) onto the surface of a planet. A volcano
is a vent through which magma and gases are discharged. Magma that reaches the
surface is called “lava.” Volcanos are named for Vulcan — the Roman god of fire!
 Volcanism is the result of a planet losing its internal heat. Volcanos can form where rock
near the surface becomes hot enough to melt. On Earth, this often happens in association
with plate boundaries (check out the section on tectonism). Where two plates move apart,
such as at mid-ocean volcanic ridges, material from Earth's interior slowly rises up, melts
when it reaches lower pressures, and fills in the gap. Where one plate is being subducted
under another, chambers of magma may form. These magma bodies feed the volcanic
islands that mark subduction zones.
 Although most volcanic activity takes place at plate boundaries, volcanism also can occur
within the plate interiors at hotspots. Hotspots are thought to be from large “plumes” of
extremely hot material rising from deep in Earth's interior. The hot material rises slowly,
eventually melting as it reaches lower pressures near Earth's surface. When the material
erupts it forms massive lava flows of fine-grained dark volcanic rock — basalt. The broad,
gentle shield volcanos of Hawai'i come from a hotspot.
 The Ring of Fire, also referred to as the Circum-Pacific Belt, is a path along the Pacific
Ocean characterized by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes. The majority of
Earth’s volcanoes and earthquakes take place along the Ring of Fire.

 EARTHQUAKES
 Any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves through
Earth’s rocks. Seismic waves are produced when some form of energy stored in Earth’s
crust is suddenly released, usually when masses of rock straining against one another
suddenly fracture and “slip.” Earthquakes occur most often along geologic faults, narrow
zones where rock masses move in relation to one another.
 Seismic waves are caused by the sudden movement of materials within the Earth, such
as slip along a fault during an earthquake. Volcanic eruptions, explosions, landslides,
avalanches, and even rushing rivers can also cause seismic waves. Seismic waves travel
through and around the Earth and can be recorded with seismometers.
 The two main types of waves are body waves and surface waves. Body waves can
travel through the Earth's inner layers, but surface waves can only move along the surface
of the planet like ripples on water. Earthquakes send out seismic energy as both body and
surface waves.
 There are two types of surface waves: Love waves and Rayleigh waves. Love waves
produce entirely horizontal motion. Rayleigh waves move the ground up and down, and
forward and backward in the direction that the wave is moving. Most of the shaking felt
from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave.
 The first kind of body wave is the P wave or primary wave, also known as a
compressional wave. It’s the fastest kind of seismic wave and the first to arrive at a
seismic station. P waves can move through solid rock and fluids, like water or the liquid
layers of the Earth. It squishes and stretches the rock it moves through just like sound
waves compress and expand the air as they move through it.
 The second type of body wave is the S wave or secondary wave, and are easy to
remember because they’re the second wave to arrive after an earthquake. An S wave is
about 1.7 times slower than a P wave. The biggest difference is that S waves can’t move
through liquids. Because S waves only move through solids, seismologists were led to
conclude that the Earth's outer core is a liquid. S waves move rock particles up and down,
or side-to-side, and are always perpendicular to the direction that the wave is traveling in
(the direction of wave propagation).
 Earth’s major earthquakes occur mainly in belts coinciding with the margins of tectonic
plates. A separate type of earthquake is associated with volcanic activity and is called a
volcanic earthquake. There is a clear correspondence between the geographic distribution
of volcanoes and major earthquakes, particularly in the Circum-Pacific Belt and along
oceanic ridges.
 The focus is the point inside the earth where the earthquake started, sometimes called
the hypocenter, and the point on the surface of the earth directly above the focus is called
the epicenter.

II. GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE AND EARTH’S HISTORY

 The Geologic Time Scale provides a framework for understanding the history of the Earth
and the development of life on our planet. It is an important tool for geologists,
 paleontologists, and other scientists, who use it to study the rock strata, fossils, and other
evidence of Earth’s past and to understand how the planet has changed over time.
 There are two methods for determining the ages of fossils: relative dating and absolute
dating. Relative dating does not offer specific dates, it simply allows to determine if one
artifact, fossil or rock strata is older than another. Meanwhile, absolute dating methods
provide more specific origin dates and time ranges, such as an age range in years.
 The Geologic Time Scale is divided into several large units of time, including eons, eras,
periods, and epochs. The largest unit of time is the eon, which is divided into eras. Eras
are further divided into periods, and periods are divided into epochs. Each unit of time is
defined by specific events and changes that took place on Earth, such as the formation of
the planet, the evolution of life, and mass extinctions.

III. THE HYDROSPHERE

 The hydrosphere refers to the liquid portion of the earth. Most of the surface of the earth is
covered by water. Almost 70% of the earth’s surface is covered by water while the remaining
30% is covered by land. However, most of this water is not fresh water but salt water found in
the oceans. These largest oceans are the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Indian
Ocean.
 Fresh water is an essential resource for daily life and industrial processes, obtained from rivers
and lakes and from water that moves below the earth's surface (groundwater). Many sources of
fresh water cannot be used because they have been polluted. It can be very expensive to clean
up polluted air and water, restore destroyed forests and fishing grounds, or restore or preserve
eroded soils of poorly managed agricultural areas.
 The hydrologic cycle refers water vapor cycling into and out of the atmosphere through
continuous evaporation of liquid water from the surface and precipitation of water back to the
surface.

IV. THE ATMOSPHERE

 The atmosphere is the gaseous envelope that surrounds the earth. It is made up of
different gases in different amounts. The table below shows the composition of the earth’s
atmosphere.

The atmosphere of the earth is divided into several layers. From the lowermost to the
topmost, they are as follows: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and
exosphere.
  The troposphere is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere that extends from ground level
up to an altitude of about 16 km. Even though it is the thinnest layer of the atmosphere, it
contains 90% of the atmosphere’s mass and contains almost all of its water vapor and
clouds. This is also where the atmospheric pressure is greatest. All weather phenomenon
and disturbances also occur in this layer. The temperature in this layer decreases with
increasing altitude. This is known as the environmental lapse rate. This is happens
because what heats up the troposphere is the terrestrial radiation emitted by the earth
back into the atmosphere.
 The stratosphere is the layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere. It extends from
the topmost boundary of the troposphere up to an altitude of 50 km. This is where the
ozone layer can be found that is responsible for trapping ultraviolet radiation coming from
the sun so that it cannot penetrate the atmosphere and eventually reach the ground.
Because of the presence of the ozone layer which absorbs ultraviolet radiation, the
temperature in this layer increases with increasing altitude.
 The mesosphere is the layer of the atmosphere that is above the stratosphere. It extends
from the topmost boundary of the stratosphere up to an altitude of about 80 km. Unlike in
the stratosphere where the temperature increases with increasing altitude, here the
temperature decreases with increasing altitude because the air is very thin. As a result,
very little amount of thermal; energy is absorbed by the air molecules from sunlight that
passes through it.
 The thermosphere is the layer of the atmosphere that is above the mesosphere. It
extends from the topmost boundary of the mesosphere up to an altitude of about 500 km.
This layer contains very little air. As a result, even if the temperature can be as high as
20000C, this has very little significance because of its very low density. The boundary
between the mesosphere and the thermosphere is a region called the ionosphere. This
ion – rich region is produced by the interaction between high frequency solar radiation and
atoms of gases in the atmosphere that become ionized.
 The exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere that extends beyond the
topmost boundary of the thermosphere and gradually spreads out into the outer space.

 WEATHER VS CLIMATE

Weather refers to the daily condition of the atmosphere. Climate, on the other hand,
refers to the average of the weather conditions for a specific place that is taken over an
extended period of time.
The different elements of weather are as follows: air temperature, air pressure, humidity,
type and amount of cloudiness, type and amount of precipitation, and speed and direction
of wind. Today, the most commonly used climate map is the Köppen climate classification,
developed by German climatologist and amateur botanist Wladimir Köppen (1846–1940),
which divides the world into five major climate regions, based on average annual
precipitation, average monthly precipitation, and average monthly temperature.

 THE DIFFERENT ELEMENTS OF WEATHER

 Air temperature refers to the relative measure of the hotness or coldness of the
surrounding air as measured by a thermometer. Those places near the equator receive
more direct sunlight as compared to those places near the poles so the latter have higher
average temperatures.
 Air pressure refers to the force per unit area that the atmosphere exerts. The normal air
pressure or atmospheric pressure at sea level is 1 atm or 760 mmHg. As the altitude
increases, the air pressure decreases. This happens because as we gain altitude, lesser
amount of air lies above as than before. The instrument used to measure air pressure is
the barometer.
 Humidity refers to the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. It is measured in terms
of two different quantities: absolute humidity and relative humidity. Absolute humidity
refers to the actual amount of water vapor in a given mass of air. It is typically expressed
in terms of the amount of water vapor in grams contained in a kilogram of air including the
water vapor. Relative humidity, on the other hand, refers to the ratio of the actual water
vapor content to its potential water vapor holding capacity at a given temperature. When
the air temperature is high, the atmosphere has a greater capacity to store water vapor
than when the temperature is low. This happens because faster moving water vapor
particles just bounce back from each other during collisions rather than stick together
which then results to condensation. When the relative humidity is 50%, it means that a
given amount of air contains only half of its water vapor holding capacity. It also means
 that 50% of all the water molecules that evaporated condense back to liquid. When the
relative humidity is 100% percent, it means that the atmosphere is already saturated. It
cannot hold more water vapor; therefore, the amount of water molecules that evaporate is
exactly balanced by the amount of water vapor molecules that condense. The instrument
that measure humidity is the hygrometer. One type of hygrometer is the psychrometer.
 Clouds refer to an aggregate of water droplets, ice crystals, condensation nuclei in the
form of salts and dust, suspended in air. Clouds are colloidal systems supported by rising
air such as thermals and updrafts. Clouds form whenever warm air which holds a certain
amount of water vapor is cooled below the dew point temperature. This can be achieved
in a number of ways such as the rising of warm air because of convection, orographic
lifting as a blob of air is forced up the mountain slope by wind, and radiation cooling at
night which results to the formation of fog. Clouds are generally classified according to
their altitude and shape. There are ten principal cloud forms, each of which belongs to one
of the four major groups.

 Clouds that cannot be supported by updrafts or thermal usually fall as precipitation.

There are different forms of precipitation. The most common in tropical areas are mist,
rain, and drizzle. In temperate countries, precipitation takes the form of snow, hail, sleet,
and gaupel. The instrument used to measure the amount of rainfall is the rain gauge. The
amount of rainfall is typically expressed as inches of rainfall.
 Wind refers to the horizontal movement of air from a region of high pressure to a region
with low pressure. In contrast, in a convection cell, warm air that moves upward is called
updraft while cold air that sinks is called downdraft. An example of local wind is the
occurrence of sea breeze and land breeze. The direction of wind is determined by an
instrument known as the wind vane and the speed of the wind is determined from the
anemometer.

 The Greenhouse Effect

 The greenhouse effect is the way in which heat is trapped close to Earth's surface by
“greenhouse gases.” These heat-trapping gases can be thought of as a blanket wrapped
around Earth, keeping the planet toastier than it would be without them. Greenhouse
gases include carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxides, and water vapor. (Water vapor,
which response physically or chemically to changes in temperature, is called a
"feedback.") Scientists have determined that carbon dioxide's warming effect helps
stabilize Earth's atmosphere. Remove carbon dioxide, and the terrestrial greenhouse
effect would collapse. Without carbon dioxide, Earth's surface would be some 33°C (59°F)
cooler.
 Greenhouse gases occur naturally and are part of our atmosphere's makeup. For that
reason, Earth is sometimes called the “Goldilocks” planet – its conditions are not too hot
and not too cold, but just right to allow life (including us) to flourish.

 The Pressure Belts

 On the earth’s surface, there are seven pressure belts. They are the Equatorial Low, the
two Subtropical highs, the two Subpolar lows, and the two Polar highs. Except for the
Equatorial low, the others form matching pairs in the Northern and Southern
Hemispheres. There is a pattern of alternate high and low-pressure belts over the earth.
This is due to the spherical shape of the earth—different parts of the earth are heated
unequally. The Equatorial region receives a great amount of heat throughout the year.
Warm air being light, the air at the Equator rises, creating low pressure. At the poles, the
cold heavy air causes high pressure to be created/formed. It is also due to the rotation of
the earth. In the Subpolar region around latitudes 60° to 65° North and South of the
Equator, the rotation of the earth pushes up the bulk of the air toward the Equator,
creating a low-pressure belt in this region.
  The pressure gradient results in a net force that is directed from high to low pressure and
this force is called the pressure gradient force. Generally, wind flows from the high-
pressure zone to the low-pressure zone.
 However, because the Earth rotates on its axis, circulating air is deflected toward the right
in the Northern Hemisphere and toward the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This
deflection is called the Coriolis effect.

V. EARTH’S MOTION IN SPACE

 THE MOTIONS OF THE EARTH AND THE DIFFERENT SEASONS

 The earth rotates about its axis once every 24 hours. The direction of rotation is
counterclockwise as seen above the North Pole or in a direction from west to east. As a
consequence, it seems that the sun rises on the east and sets on the west. This motion of
the earth is responsible for the day and night cycle.
 As the earth rotates about its axis, it also revolves around the sun. The revolution of the
earth along its elliptical orbit around the sun lasts for 365 ¼ days. This period of revolution
of the earth around the sun is equal to one year. The distance of the earth from the sun as
well as its orbital speed varies depending on its position in its orbit. If the earth is at its
perihelion, it is closest to the sun and thus moves the fastest. When the earth is at its
aphelion, it is farthest from the sun and thus moves the slowest.

 The axis of the earth is tilted with respect to the vertical by an angle of 23 ½ degrees. As a
consequence, different places on the earth receive different amounts of insolation
(incoming solar radiation) per unit area. Areas near the equator receive more direct
sunlight than those areas closer to the poles. Also, the length of daytime and nighttime
varies depending on the location of the place and the time of the year. These factors
determine the occurrence of seasons, the periodic variation in the climate in a particular
place.
 When the tilt of the axis of the earth is directed towards the sun (June 21/22), the
northern hemisphere receives more direct sunlight. In particular, the sun is directly
overhead at noontime over the Tropic of Cancer. Except for those places in the equator,
the length of daytime and nighttime are not equal. This phenomenon is known as the
solstice. In the northern hemisphere, the length of daytime is longer than that of
nighttime. Therefore, it is summer solstice in the northern hemisphere. In the southern
hemisphere, the length of nighttime is longer than the length of daytime. Therefore,
it is winter solstice in the southern hemisphere.
 When the tilt of the axis of the earth is away from the sun (December 21/22), the
southern hemisphere receives more direct sunlight. In particular, the sun is directly
overhead at noontime over the Tropic of Capricorn. Except for those places in the
equator, the length of daytime and nighttime are not equal. This phenomenon is known as
the solstice. In the northern hemisphere, the length of nighttime is longer than that of
daytime. Therefore, it is winter solstice in the northern hemisphere. In the southern
hemisphere, the length of daytime is longer than the length of nighttime. Therefore,
it is summer solstice in the southern hemisphere.
 When the tilt of the axis of the earth is neither towards nor away from the sun
(March 21/22 and September 22/23), the northern and southern hemispheres receive the
same amount of insolation. In particular, the sun is directly overhead at noontime over the
Equator. As a consequence, the length of daytime and nighttime are equal at all latitudes.
This phenomenon is known as the equinox. On March 21/22, it is spring equinox in the
northern hemisphere and autumnal equinox in the southern hemisphere. On
September 22/23, it is autumnal equinox in the northern hemisphere and spring equinox in
the southern hemisphere.
  THE PHASES OF THE MOON

 The moon shines because it reflects the light that comes from the sun. At all times, half of
the surface of the sun is illuminated while the other half is darkened. However, the moon
shows different amounts of its sunlit half as it circles around the earth each month. These
changes refer to the phases of the moon.
 The moon cycle begins with the new moon. This occurs when the moon is in between the
earth and the sun. In this phase, the dark side faces us. However, we do not see the
moon because it is located in the daytime side of the earth. The light coming from the sum
overwhelms our supposed view of the moon.
 During the next seven days, we see more and more of the moons sunlit side. The moon is
going through its waxing crescent phase (“waxing’’ means increasing). At the
first quarter, the angle between the sun, moon, and earth is 900. At this time, we see half
of the sunlit part of the moon.
 During the next week, we see more and more of the sunlit part. The moon is going
through its waxing gibbous phase. (“gibbous” means more than half). We see a
full moon when the sunlit side of the moon faces us squarely. At this time, the sun, moon,
and earth are lined up with the earth in between.
 The cycle reverses the following two weeks, as we see less and less of the sunlit side
while the moon continues in its orbit. This movement produces the waning gibbous,
last quarter, and waning crescent phases.
 The time for one complete cycle of the phases of the moon is 29 ½ days. However, the
moon actually orbits the earth once every 27 1/3 relative to the stars. The 29 ½ day cycle
is relative to the sun and is due to the motion of the earth – moon system as it revolves
around the sun.
 The same side of the moon always faces the earth as the moon undergoes through its
different phases. This happens because as the moon revolves around the earth, it also
rotates about its axis. The time for one complete revolution of the moon is the same time
for one complete rotation.
 The orbit of the moon around the earth is not exactly circular. The moon is said to be in a
position called apogee is it is farthest from the earth and it is the position called
perigee if it is closest to the earth.

 ECLIPSES
 Although the sun is 400 times larger in diameter than the moon, it is also 400 times farther
away. So, from the earth, both the moon and the earth appear to have the same size in
the sky. This allows us to see a solar eclipse. During the new moon phase, the moon is
on the daytime side of the earth. When the sun, moon, and earth are exactly aligned with
each other, the light coming from the sun is blocked by the moon. Therefore the moon
casts a shadow on earth. Because of the large size of the sun, the rays taper providing
two distinct forms of shadow on the earth. The umbra refers to the darker shadow cast by
the moon. This is where total solar eclipse is observed. The less dark shadow is the
 penumbra. This is where partial solar eclipse is observed. The solar eclipse typically lasts
for minutes only because the moon casts a relatively small shadow on earth because of
the small size of the moon.
 During the full moon phase, the moon is on the nighttime side of the earth. When the
sun, earth, and moon are exactly aligned with each other, the earth blocks the light
coming from the sun. Therefore, the moon is inside the shadow of the earth. Since the
moon just reflects the light coming from the sun, it appears dark. This is a lunar eclipse.
 However, eclipses do not always occur whenever the phase of the moon is either new or
full because the earth, moon, and sun are not always exactly aligned with each other. This
is because the plane of the orbit of the moon around the earth is tilted by 50 with respect
to the plane of the ecliptic (the plane of the orbit of the earth around the sun).
 The usual number of eclipse in a year is four. These occur as a set of one solar and
one lunar eclipse, followed six months later with another set. Occasionally the alignment is
such that the three eclipses can be squeezed into a one month period. This occurs as a
solar eclipse flanked by two lunar eclipses, or vice versa. Furthermore, it occasionally
happens that the first set of eclipses occurs at the very beginning of a year, and the third
set occurs before the year ends, resulting in six eclipses in that year. More rarely, if one of
these sets is a three – eclipse kind, the total number of eclipses can reach seven,
which is the maximum.

SOLAR ECLIPSE

LUNAR ECLIPSE

 TIDES

 The periodic rising and falling of the water level in seas and in oceans is called tides.
Tides are caused by differences in the gravitational pull between the moon and the earth
on opposite sides of the earth. The gravitational force between the moon and the earth is
stronger on the side of the earth that is nearest to the moon, and it is weaker on the side
of the earth that is farthest from the moon.
 There are two sets of tides that occur in one day, two high tides and two low tides. They
are separated by about six hours.
 There are two different types of ocean tides: the spring tide and the neap tide.
  Spring tide refers to the high tide or low tide that occurs when the sun, earth, and the
moon are aligned so that the tides due to the sun and moon coincide, making the high
tides higher than average and the low tides lower than average.
 Neap tide refers to the tide that occurs when the moon is midway between the new and
full, in either direction. Tides due to the sun and moon partly cancel, making the high tides
lower than average and the low tides higher than average.

VI. THE SOLAR SYSTEM

 The Solar System includes the Sun, the eight planets and their moons, the planetoids or
the minor planets, the asteroids, meteoroids, comets, and the interstellar gases, dust, and
ice.
 The Sun is a yellow star of average size and temperature. It is a main–sequence star that
is around 4.5 billion years old.
 The most recent definition of a planet was adopted by the International Astronomical
Union in 2006. It says a planet must do three things:

a. It must orbit a star (in our cosmic neighborhood, the Sun).

b. It must be big enough to have enough gravity to force it into a spherical shape.
c. It must be big enough that its gravity cleared away any other objects of similar size
near its orbit around the Sun.
 The planets are categorized into two: the terrestrial or the “earth-like” planets and the
Jovian or “Jupiter-like” planets. The terrestrial planets are small, rocky, dense planets
with few or no moons at all. Their rotation about their axes is relatively slow. The terrestrial
planets include Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars. The Jovian planets are gas giants with
very low densities. They also rotate about their axes relatively fast. They are also
characterized by the large number of moons that each planet has. The Jovian planets
include Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Pluto is no longer considered a planet. It is
now just a minor planet. It is believed that Pluto may be the largest body in the Kuiper
Belt. The Kuiper Belt is a disk–shaped region of the sky beyond Neptune that is
populated by many icy bodies and is a source of short–period comets.
 In between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter lies the asteroid belt. It is a region with a large
number of big chunks of rocks that include asteroids and meteoroids. An asteroid is a
small, rocky, planet-like fragment that orbits the sun. The largest asteroid is Ceres.
Meteoroids are formed from the collision of asteroids or from the debris left behind by a
comet as it grazes very close to the sun. Some meteoroids that enter the atmosphere of
the earth glow because of the burning caused by atmospheric friction. They are often
called “shooting stars” but they should be appropriately called meteors. Most of the
meteors do not survive the burning and they totally disintegrate before they ever reach the
surface of the earth. But some relatively large meteors impact the surface as meteorites.
 A comet is a body composed of ice and dust that orbits the sun, usually in a very
eccentric orbit, and that casts a luminous tail produced by solar radiation pressure when it
is close to the sun. The Oort cloud is the region beyond the Kuiper Belt that is populated
by trillions of icy bodies and is a source of long–period comets.

 Kepler’s Law of Planetary Motion

 Kepler's First Law: Each planet's orbit about the Sun is an ellipse. The Sun's center is
always located at one focus of the orbital ellipse. The Sun is at one focus. The planet
follows the ellipse in its orbit, meaning that the planet to Sun distance is constantly
changing as the planet goes around its orbit.
 Kepler's Second Law: the imaginary line joining a planet and the Sun sweeps equal areas
of space during equal time intervals as the planet orbits. Basically, planets do not move
with constant speed along their orbits. A planet is moving fastest when it is at perihelion
and slowest at aphelion.
 Kepler's Third Law: the squares of the orbital periods of the planets are directly
proportional to the cubes of the semi-major axes of their orbits. Kepler's Third Law implies
that the period for a planet to orbit the Sun increases rapidly with the radius of its orbit.

VII. STARS

 Stars are the main components of galaxies. Stars are luminous bodies. Through a
process known as thermonuclear fusion, four (4) hydrogen nuclei combine to form a single
helium atom, which becomes part of the core of the star.
 Stars do exhibit several properties that could give information about the age of the stars.
These are color, temperature, size, brightness or magnitude, and distance from the earth.
Blue stars are known to be young stars while red stars are old stars.
  Hertzsprung-Russel Diagram

 The Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (HR diagram) is one of the most important tools in the
study of stellar evolution. It plots the temperature of stars against their luminosity (the
theoretical HR diagram), or the color of stars (or spectral type) against their absolute
magnitude (the observational HR diagram, also known as a color-magnitude diagram).
 Depending on its initial mass, every star goes through specific evolutionary stages
dictated by its internal structure and how it produces energy.
a. The main sequence stretching from the upper left (hot, luminous stars) to the bottom
right (cool, faint stars) dominates the HR diagram. It is here that stars spend about
90% of their lives burning hydrogen into helium in their cores.
b. Red giant and supergiant stars occupy the region above the main sequence. They
have low surface temperatures and high luminosities which means they also have
large radii. Stars enter this evolutionary stage once they have exhausted the hydrogen
fuel in their cores and have started to burn helium and other heavier elements.
c. White dwarf stars are the final evolutionary stage of low to intermediate mass stars,
and are found in the bottom left of the HR diagram. These stars are very hot but have
low luminosities due to their small size.

 Stellar Evolution

 All stars have "lives" in the sense that they are born, age, and die. A stellar "death," or end
stage of evolution, ranges from a white dwarf for typical stars, to explosive self-destruction
as a supernova for massive stars. The initial mass of a star is the overwhelmingly
determinative property of the evolutionary path that the star will follow:

VIII. THE BIG BANG THEORY

 The universe is made up of basic units known as galaxies. Galaxies are made up of
millions and billions of stars. There are three (3) basic types of galaxies: (1) Spiral
Galaxies, (2) Elliptical Galaxies, and (3) Irregular Galaxies.
a. Spiral Galaxy:
(1) Appears bluish in color
(2) Has central body and spiral arms
(3) Example: Milky Way
b. Elliptical Galaxy:
(1) Appears reddish in color
(2) Appears elliptical
(3) Example: Andromeda
c. Irregular Galaxy:
(1) Does not exhibit any regular shape
(2) Appears like clouds
 (3) Examples: Small and big Magellanic clouds

 Accordingly, the entire universe was at one time confined to a dense, hot, super massive
ball. Then about 20 billion years ago, a cataclysmic explosion occurred, hurling massive
materials in all directions – The Universe.
 This theory is supported by empirical evidence: the RED – SHIFT phenomenon
 Hubble realized that most galaxies are receding from us. This led to the known
“Hubble’s Law: Galaxies are receding from us at a speed that is proportional to their
distance.”