Unit 6: Evolution

Evolution means change, change in the form and behavior of organisms between generations.
Evolution means descent with modification. So we can come up with a working definition of the
process of evolution as:

77
The change in genetic composition of a population over successive generations, which may be
caused by meiosis, hybridization, natural selection or mutation. This leads to a sequence of events
by which the population diverges from other populations of the same species and may lead to the
origin of a new species. It is the scientific theory used by biologists to study the genetic variation
in a population. There are many theories about how life originated on the planet earth. Evolution,
or change over time, is the process by which modern organisms have descended from ancient
organisms.
The entire spectrum of life, ranging from microscopic organisms through developed forms to the
most complex ones, is believed to have come about through the process of evolution. This process
operates at the chemical, organismal and community levels.
The origin of life
Evolution is a process of gradual development from simpler forms through gradual changes. There
are several theories and views regarding the origin of life on the Earth. Some of the major once
are
Presented below:
→ Special creationism
→ Spontaneous generation
→ Eternity of life
→ Cosmozoan theory
→ Biochemical origin
1.Special creationism Theory
Special creation theory attributes the origin of life to a divine event that was masterminded by the
supernatural being, God. Special creation states that at some stage, some supreme being created
life on Earth. Special creation is nearly always linked to religion, whereas an acceptance of
evolution is linked to scientific thinking. There are fundamental differences between the two that
mean it is unlikely that the difference between the scientific theory of evolution and special
creation will ever be resolved. Science describes the natural world around us using a means of
observation and empirical testing using instruments.
Religion mainly focuses on spiritual matters that, by their very nature, cannot be seen, touched or
measured effectively. Religion deals with philosophical matter that relates to morality and
concerns between humans and their God. Religion is less concerned with empirical observable

78
facts and testable hypotheses but rather with faith, the belief in things that cannot be proven.
Science relies on provable events; religion relies on believing in that which cannot be proven.
There are different forms of creationism theory.
Young Earth creationism
This form of creationism today suggests that the Earth is only a few thousand years old. Young
Earth creationists often believe the Earth was created in six 24-hour days. While they agree that
the Earth is round and moves around the Sun, they interpret all geology in the light of Noah’s
flood.
Old Earth creationism
There are several types of creationism that are considered Old Earth. They vary in different aspects
of how they explain the age of the Earth while still holding to the story found in Genesis. Those
who believe in Old Earth creationism accept the evidence that the Earth is very old but still
maintain that all life was created by God.
Day-age and gap creationism
These are similar in that each interprets the beginnings of the creation story as actually having
taken much longer than six Earth days. Gap creation discusses a large gap between the formation
of the Earth and the creation of all the animals and humans. The gap could be millions or billions
of years. This gets around the scientific evidence that the Earth is several billion years old without
having to believe in the process of evolution itself.
Progressive creationism
This type of creationism accepts the Big Bang as the origin of the Universe. It accepts the fossil
record of a series of creations for all of the organisms catalogued. However, it does not accept
these as part of a continuing process; each is seen as a unique creation. Modern species are not
seen as being genetically related to ancient ones.
Theistic evolution/Evolutionary creationism
This view of evolution maintains that God ‘invented’ evolution and takes some form of an active
part in the ongoing process of evolution. It also invokes the role of God in areas not discussed by
science, like the creation of the human soul.
Intelligent design
This is the newest version of creationism and maintains that God’s handiwork can be seen in all
of creation if one knows where to look. Advocates of intelligent design offer sophisticated

79
arguments, often based on cell biology and mathematics, to give the impression of complex
scientific arguments and to create equal stature with mainstream scientific thought. These
arguments attack different parts of evolutionary theory, with the idea that if one part of
evolutionary theory can be found to be incorrect then it follows that all of evolution must be
incorrect. The term intelligent design is used to mask the fact that it’s a form of creationism cloaked
in scientific-sounding ideas.
2. Spontaneous Generation = Abiogenesis Theory
This theory states that life has originated from non-living organic matter abiogenetically, i.e.
without the intervention of living things.
Spontaneous generation suggests that life can evolve ‘spontaneously’ from non-living objects. It
was only a few hundred years ago that people still believed this to be true. For example, people
believed that rotting meat turned into flies and that wine produced bacteria as it went sour.
Different scientists disprove this theory including the work of Francisco Redi to disprove the idea
of rotting meat producing flies and the work of Louis Pasteur to finally show that not even micro-
organisms could be produced by spontaneous generation. Lazzaro Spallanzani is also one of the
famous scientist who disproved this theory.
3.The eternity of life theory
This theory regards life as eternal as matter itself. It asserts that life only change its form but is
never created from dead (non-living) substances. Simply it states that life has no origin and has
always existed. In this theory of life, there is no beginning and no end to life on Earth and so it
neither needs special creation nor does it need to be generated from non-living matter. Supporters
of this theory believe that life is an inherent property of the Universe and has always existed as has
the Universe. At the time when such theories were being propounded, many eminent scientists
including Albert Einstein believed that the Universe was unchanging. They reasoned that ‘if life
is found today in an unchanging Universe, then it must always have been there’.
4.The cosmozoan theory = Panspermia theory
It asserts that life has an extra –terrestrial origin. According to this theory, life has reached this
planet Earth from other cosmological structures, such as meteorites, in the form of highly resistant
spores. This idea was proposed by Richter in 1865 and supported by Arrhenius in 1908 and by
other contemporary scientists. The theory did not gain any significant support as it lacks evidence.
It is strongly linked to the ‘eternity of life’ theory of the origin of life on Earth.

80
5.The biochemical theory
This theory states that the first form of life evolved from a set of chemicals. The current ideas we
have about how life may have evolved on Earth as a result of biochemical reactions (sometimes
called abiogenesis) owe much to two biologists working early in the twentieth century:
→ Aleksandr Oparin, a Russian biologist who first put forward his ideas in 1924,
→ John Haldane, an English biologist independently put forward almost identical ideas in
1929 (before Oparin’s book had been translated into English).
They both suggested that:
✓ the primitive atmosphere of the Earth was a reducing atmosphere with no free oxygen as
opposed to the oxygen-rich atmosphere of today
✓ there was an appropriate supply of energy, such as lightning or ultraviolet light, and
✓ this would provide the energy for reactions that would synthesize a wide range of organic
compounds, such as amino acids, sugars and fatty acids.
Oparin’s Heterotrophic Hypothesis
He forwarded a hypothesis on the origin of the first form of life (protobionts). He suggested that
the atmosphere of the primitive earth was not as it is known today. Oxygen was totally absent in
the primaeval atmosphere. Oparin suggested that the simple organic compounds could have
undergone a series of reactions leading to more and more complex molecules. He proposed that
the molecules might have formed colloidal aggregates, or ‘coacervates’ (a Latin word acervus
meaning pile). in an aqueous environment The coacervates were able to absorb and assimilate
organic compounds from the environment in a way similar to the metabolism of cells. These
coacervates were the precursors of cells and would be subject to natural selection, eventually
leading to the first true cells.
Autotrophs evolution on Earth
Paleontological evidence suggests that the first form of life were heterotrophic prokaryotes which
were also anaerobic (respiring without O2) and dependent on the organic molecules which had
accumulated in the seas. The first organisms appeared about 4 billion years ago they were
prokaryotes. They had no true nucleus. It seems likely also that they had RNA rather than DNA as
their genetic material. Later the organic molecules were depleted. In such an environment
organism which could survive were those able to synthesize organic substances from simple
inorganic substances and these are autotrophs (either chemosynthetic or photosynthetic).

81
It seems likely that they gave rise to three distinct lines of evolution leading to:
• archaebacteria – prokaryotes including thermophilic sulphobacteria (primitive sulphobacteria
use hydrogen sulphide as the energy source), methanobacteria and halophilic bacteria
• eubacteria – prokaryotes; ordinary bacteria and cyanobacteria (blue-green bacteria and
sometimes known as blue-green algae)
• eukaryotes – eventually evolving into protoctistans, fungi, plants, animals (nearly all are aerobic)
One great change that affected the evolution of early life forms was the shift from the reducing
atmosphere to an atmosphere containing oxygen. This took place about 2.4 billion years ago.
Where did this oxygen come from? There is only one process we know of that can have produced
it photosynthesis.
Cyanobacteria are photo-autotrophs; they use light as a source of energy, and CO2 as a source of
carbon (photosynthesis). They are among the earliest of autotrophs, using, not chlorophyll, but
another pigment, phycocyanin (which gives them their blue green appearance), to capture light
energy. Other primitive autotrophs used not light as a source of energy but chemical reactions and
are called chemo-autotrophs. Chemoautotrophs use the energy from chemical reactions to
synthesize all necessary organic compounds, starting from carbon dioxide. They generally only
use inorganic energy sources. Most are bacteria or archaea that live in hostile environments such
as deep sea vents and are the primary producers in ecosystems on the sea beds. Scientists believe
that the first organisms to inhabit Earth were chemo-autotrophs.

Theories of evolution

Charles Darwin I 1859 wrote a book on the origin of species. His paper suggested that those
organisms that were best adapted to their environment would have an advantage and be able to
reproduce in greater numbers than other types, and pass on the advantageous adaptations. Because
he knew nothing of genetics, he was unable to suggest how this might take place.
In the mid-1700s, George Buffon challenged the idea that all species had been created about 6000
years ago and suggesting that, the Earth was much older than this, and that organisms changed
over time in response to environmental pressures and random events. He suggested that the
external environment has a direct influence on the structure of organisms and such changes are
heritable.

82
Lamarck and Acquired Characteristics
Lamarck, made what is now considered to be the first major advance towards modern evolutionary
thinking because he proposed a mechanism by which the gradual change in species might take
place. In 1809 he published a paper entitled ‘Philosophie Zoologique’, in which he described a
two-part mechanism by which change was gradually introduced into the species and passed down
through generations. His theory is called the ‘theory of transformation’ or, more usually, simply
‘Lamarckism’. The two parts of his theory are:
→ Use and disuse, and
→ Inheritance of acquired traits.
Use and disuse
The development of organs and their power of action is directly proportional to their use. The
disuse of organs gradually brings about their degeneration or extinction. Lamarck suggests that by
continually using a structure or process, that structure or process will become enlarged or more
developed. Conversely, any structure or process that is not used or is little used will become
reduced in size or less developed. The classic example he used to explain the concept of use and
disuse is the elongated neck of the giraffe. According to Lamarck, a given giraffe could, over a
lifetime of straining to reach high branches, develop an elongated neck. However, Lamarck could
not explain how this might happen. He talks about a ‘natural tendency towards perfection’ – but
this is not really an explanation. Another example Lamarck used to illustrate his idea was the toes
of water birds. He suggested that from years of straining their toes to swim through water, these
birds gained elongated, webbed toes to improve their swimming.
Inheritance of acquired traits
All the changes in an individual during its lifetime are transmitted to its offspring by reproductive
process. Lamarck believed that traits changed or acquired during an individual’s lifetime could be
passed on to its offspring. Giraffes that had acquired long necks would have offspring with long
necks rather than the short necks their parents were born with. This type of inheritance, sometimes
called Lamarckian inheritance, has since been disproved by the discoveries of genetics.
Therefore, Lamarck proposed that the driving force of evolution is the inheritance of acquired
characters. He believed that organisms change physically as they strive to meet the demands of
their environment, and that these changes are eventually passed to future generations. Nowadays,

83
his theories are not got acceptance because environmental changes brought about changes in the
phenotypes and have no effect on their gametes and hence their heredity.

Charles Darwin and Natural Selection

A large number of people agree that Darwin was the greatest naturalist and philosopher of the 19th
century. Just 50 years later, in 1858, Charles Darwin published his famous paper on Natural
Selection. He had developed the idea some twenty years earlier, but was afraid of the ridicule the
idea might receive. In 1858, another biologist, Alfred Russell Wallace, had come to similar
conclusions and they jointly published the scientific paper to the Linnean Society of London that
would change our thinking on the origin of species forever.
Darwin visited five of the Galapagos Islands and made drawings and collected specimens. His
main task as a naturalist on the visit was to make field observation and collection of plants and
animals throughout the voyage. In particular, Darwin studied the Finches found on the different
islands and noted that there were many similarities between them, as well as the obvious
differences. He concluded that the simplest explanation was that an ‘ancestral finch’ had colonized
the islands from the mainland and, in the absence of predators, been able to adapt to the different
conditions on the islands and, eventually, evolve into different species. Some of the finches had,
he suggested, evolved into insect eaters, with pointed beaks. Others had evolved into seed eaters
with beaks capable of crushing the seeds. Others had evolved into seed eaters with beaks capable
of crushing the seeds. One hundred and fifty years later on and geneticists have been able to
confirm Darwin’s ideas and even produced a ‘family tree’ based on the similarity of their DNA.

Darwin summarized his observations in two main ideas:

✓ all species tend to produce more offspring than can possibly survive
✓ there is variation among the offspring
From these observations he deduced that:
✓ There will be a ‘struggle for existence’ between members of a species (because they over
reproduce, and resources are limited)
✓ Some members of a species will be better adapted than others to their environment (because
there is variation in the offspring).
Combining these two deductions, Darwin proposed:

84
Those members of a species which are best adapted to their environment will survive and
reproduce in greater numbers than others less well adapted.
The modern theory of natural selection that was proposed by Darwin and Wallace was based on
the following principal observations and deductions:
→ Overproduction (fecundity)- the number of offspring produced by species is greater than
the number that can survive, reproduce and live to maturity. Organisms naturally have a
high reproductive potential.
→ Struggle for existence – all population sizes are limited by various environmental factors
such as food availability, space and light. This limitation of resources would result in the
struggle for existence. Due to this various struggles, only those individuals which are best
fitted to new conditions of life survive and the least fit are the first to perish and termed as
survival of the fittest.
→ Variations- the individuals in the species are not identical, but show variations in their
characteristics. These variations result in changes, which would ultimately lead to
evolution.
Neo-Darwinism
Since the publication of Darwin’s theory of natural selection, there have been many researches and
findings that made enormous contributions and modifications to the theory. Charles Darwin knew
very little of genetics. Mendel had not carried out his ground-breaking work on inheritance at the
time Darwin published his book On the Origin of Species. Genes and gene action into the theory
of natural selection to give a better understanding of what drives evolution. Genes or, more
accurately, alleles of genes determine features. A collection of different genes both expressed and
not expressed (all the alleles), present in a population of a particular species is called gene pool.
Suppose an allele determines a feature that gives an organism an advantage in its environment.
The following will happen:
o Those individuals with the advantageous allele of the gene will survive to reproduce in
greater numbers than other types.
o They will pass on their advantageous allele in greater numbers than the other types pass on
their alleles of the same gene.
o The frequency of the advantageous allele in the gene pool of the population will be higher
in the next generation.

85
 o This process repeats over many generations and the frequency of the advantageous allele
in the gene pool increases with each generation that passes.
Mutations are important in introducing variation into populations. Any mutation could produce
an allele which:
→ confers a selective advantage; the frequency of the allele will increase over time
→ is neutral in its overall effect; the frequency may increase slowly, remain stable or
decrease (the change in frequency will depend on what other genes/alleles are associated
with the mutant allele)
→ is disadvantageous; the frequency of the allele will be low and could disappear from the
population.
Especially the contribution of Mendel was substantially important to upgrade Darwin’s theory.
This resulted in advent of new school of thought called Neo-Darwinism which could be defined
as the theory of natural selection of inherited characteristics. This concept bases itself on modern
evidence from:
• Mendelian and post-mendelian genetics
• Molecular biology
• Paleontology
• Ecology and etiology

Evidence of Evolution
Over the years of evolutionary thinking scientists have accumulated an array of evidence from the
different fields of biology. These have been used to validate the modern theory of evolution. These
evidence includes:
→ Evidence from paleontology (fossil study)
It is referring to the study of ancient life. Fossils are any forms of preserved remains derived from
living organisms. It includes remains of entire organisms, hard skeletal materials, impressions,
imprints, petrifactions moulds and casts etc. They are the main direct evidence about past life.
Fossils can have grouped into two categories:
Category 1: the remains of the dead animal or plant or the imprint left from the remains, including:
• bones, teeth, skin impressions, hair

86
• the hardened shell of an ancient invertebrate such as a trilobite or an ammonite
• an impression of an animal or plant, even if the actual parts are missing.
Type I fossils can be the actual organism or part of an organism, like a piece of bone or hair or
feather as it actually was. For example, this spider has been trapped, completely unchanged, inside
the amber for millions of years. Amber is fossilized resin from trees.
Category 2: something that was made by the animal while it was living that has since hardened
into stone; these are called trace fossils and include:
• footprints, burrows, coprolite (animal faeces).
Generally, the formation of fossil is a chanceful process, depending on where organisms dies and
whether the remains escape from being eaten by scavengers, rapidly decay by microorganisms and
dispersal by wind or rain.
There are four main stages in fossil formation:
1. Death without decomposition
To start with, an animal or plant must die in or so close to water that it is covered by water
immediately after, or shortly after, death. The water insulates the remains from many of the
elements that contribute to decomposition. Bacteria will still decay the soft body parts over a long
period but leave any hard body parts unaltered.
2. Sedimentation
As time passes, sediments (tiny particles of solid matter settling out of the water) bury the
remaining hard parts of the organism. Fossilization is more likely if this happens quickly than if it
happens slowly. Sudden landslides and mudslides into the water help. Sedimentation further
insulates the organism from complete decay. The nature of the sediments themselves influences
the nature and quality of the fossil. Very fine-grained particles, like clays, will create a more
detailed fossil than coarser-grained sediments like sand. The chemical make-up of the sediments
affects the colour the fossil will be. Iron-rich sediments could give the rock (and the fossil) a
reddish colour. Phosphates may darken the rock so that it is grey or black.
3. Per-mineralization
As the sediments accumulate, the lower layers become compacted by the weight of the layers on
top. Over time, this pressure turns the sediments into rock. If water rich in minerals percolates
(seeps) through the sediments, the mineral particles stick to the particles of sediment, effectively
gluing them together into a solid mass. An important point here is that these minerals are probably

87
not the same minerals that make up the sediments (now rock). Over the course of millions of years,
these mineral particles dissolve away the original hard parts of the organism, replacing the
molecules of exoskeleton with molecules of calcite (calcium carbonate) or another mineral. In
time, the entire shell is replaced by mineral particles and these also are compressed into rock in
the shape of the original organism. As this rock is not the same as the surrounding rock, it is visible
as a fossil in the exact shape of the original organism.
4. Uplift
As the continental plates move around the Earth, colliding with each other, mountains are formed.
What were sea floors being lied up and become dry land. Now the fossil is buried under hundreds
or even thousands of feet of rock in different strata. A stratum is a layer of sediment (or
sedimentary rock) that is the same throughout the layer, but different from layers above and below.
Methods of fossil dating
Because sedimentary rocks are laid down in layers (strata) we can use the sequence of the strata
and the fossils that occur in them to deduce how the organisms have changed over time. This is
called stratigraphy. The oldest strata, and therefore the oldest fossils, will be in the lowest layers
and more recent rocks and fossils in layers above them, with the most recent being nearest to the
surface. The depth of the strata is related to their age. The thickness of each stratum is a measure
of the time period during which that stratum was formed. To do this, we biologists use one of two
techniques:
→ radiocarbon dating, or potassium–argon dating.
The commonest method used by scientists to determine the ages of rocks and hence fossils trapped
in them is radiometric dating. This method depends on the fact that some isotopes of certain
elements are radioactive i.e., they are unstable and decay into other stable or daughter elements.
Both these techniques rely on the principle that radioactive atoms decay into other atoms over
time. Radioactive carbon atoms (C14) decay into non-radioactive nitrogen atoms (N). Radioactive
potassium atoms (K40) decay into argon atoms (A40). Each has what is known as a half-life. During
this period, half of the radioactive atoms decay. So, starting with a certain number of radioactive
potassium atoms, after one half-life, 50% will still be radioactive. After a second half-life, 50% of
this 50% will have decayed and 25% of the original number will still be radioactive.

→ Evidence from body structure/comparative anatomy

88
Comparative study of the body structure of various organisms reveals evolutionary linkage
between the many organisms. This is one of the strongest forms of evidence for evolution.
Comparative anatomy looks at structural similarities of organisms and uses these to determine
their possible evolutionary relationships. It assumes that organisms with similar anatomical
features are closely related evolutionarily, and that they probably share a common ancestor.
Homologous structures – are structures having similar form, body position and embryonic
development but very different in functions in different species. Because they are so similar, they
indicate an evolutionary relationship and a common ancestor of the species that possess them.
Perhaps the best-known example of homologous structures is the forelimb of mammals. When
examined closely, the forelimbs of humans, whales, cats and bats are all very similar in structure.
Each possesses the same number of bones, arranged in almost the same way, while they have
different external features and they function in different ways:
✓ arm for manipulation in humans
✓ leg for running in cats
✓ flipper for swimming in whales =
✓ wing for flying in bats
By comparing the anatomy of these limbs, scientists have determined that the basic pattern called
a pentadactyl limb (five digits) must have evolved just once and that all organisms with this kind
of limb are descended from that original type – they share a common ancestor.
Sometimes organisms have structures that function in very similar ways. However,
morphologically and developmentally these structures are very different. We call these analogous
structures. Because they are so different structurally, even though they have the same function,
they cannot indicate that two species share a common ancestor. They simply show superficial
similarity. For example, although the wings of a bird and a mosquito both serve the same function
their anatomies are very different. The bird wing has bones inside and is covered with feathers,
while the mosquito wing has neither of these. They are analogous structures and have evolved
separately. Vestigial structure – are rudimentary (reduced in size) structures in many organisms,
which a have no known functions.
→ Evidence from comparative embryology
Embryology is the study of organisms in the early embryonic stages of development. This
development shows similarities which supports a common ancestry. For example, early in

89
development, all vertebrate embryos (including you) have gill slits and tails. However, the ‘gill
slits’ are not gills; they connect the throat to the outside, but in many species they close later in
development. However, in fish and larval amphibians they contribute to the development of gills.
→ Evidence from comparative biochemistry
Several biochemical studies indicated that all organisms share similar DNA molecules and certain
essential proteins. Various chemicals have been studied in order to find evidence of evolutionary
relationships. The idea behind this is that if organisms share very similar molecules and
biochemical pathways, then they must be closely related evolutionarily. Chemicals that have been
used in such analyses include:
DNA – the base sequences of DNA from different organisms is compared
proteins such as: cytochrome c (found in the electron transport chain of respiration) and
haemoglobin which are compared in terms of amino acid sequences.
Species that are closely related have the most similar DNA and proteins; those that are distantly
related share fewer similarities. A comparison of DNA sequences shows that it is 99.9% certain
that chimpanzees are humans’ closest relatives (98% of our DNA is the same as that of
chimpanzees). To measure the similarity of one species’ DNA with another species, we use a
technique called DNA hybridization. The technique measures the extent to which a strand of DNA
from one species can bind with (or hybridize with) a strand of DNA from another species. The
information can then be used to calculate the percentage similarity of the DNA samples.
Table. Comparison between DNA of humans and other primates
Primate Degree of relatedness
Chimpanzee 97.6%
Rhesus monkey 91.1%
Vervet monkey 84.2%
Galago 58.0%

→ Evidence from plant and animal breeding

Human have long been cultivating plants and animals from wild forms. This has allowed human
to select some desired favorable characters. Humans have been trying to improve the yields of
their crop plants and stock animals. They have done this by selective breeding, in which:
o those animals (or plants) that show the desired trait (for example, high milk yield or large
number of seeds per pod) are selected and mated, and

90
 o the offspring are monitored carefully and, again, only those with the desired trait are
allowed to breed.
This technique is known as artificial selection, by which desirable characters are preserved
whereas undesirable characters are eliminated. Over many generations, selective breeding can
bring about significant changes to the organisms involved. One example of this is the modification
by selective breeding of the wild pig (wild boar) into the many different varieties of the domestic
pig.

6.3. Speciation through natural selection/the process of evolution

The modern view of natural selection is stated briefly below:
Those members of a species which are best adapted to their environment will survive and
reproduce in greater numbers than others less well adapted. They will pass on their advantageous
alleles to their offspring and, in successive generations, the frequency of these alleles will increase
in their gene pool. The advantageous types will, therefore, increase in frequency in successive
generations.
Natural selection is the ‘driving force’ behind evolution. It is the process that brings about changes
(over time) in populations that can, eventually, lead to different populations of the same species
becoming different species. To appreciate how natural selection can eventually lead to speciation
(the formation of new species), we must be clear what we mean by a species. Speciation is a
process by which one or more new species are formed from pre-existing ones. Obviously humans
are a different species from chimpanzees. But the different races of humans are all members of the
same species.
Species is group of similar organisms with a similar biochemistry, physiology and evolutionary
history that can interbreed to produce offspring that are fertile.
This explains why all humans are members of the same species, but belong to a different species
from the chimpanzee. All types of natural selection work in the same manner (as described above),
but their influence on a population is different. The different types of selection include:
→ directional selection
→ stabilizing selection
→ disruptive selection
What is directional selection?

91
A feature may show a range of values. It operates in response to gradual changes in environmental
conditions. It favors one extreme phenotype from the population, thus reducing variation and
leading to a shift in the population mean for the selected characters. Individuals at one extreme
could have a disadvantage whereas those at the other extreme have an advantage. For example,
thicker fur (longer hair) in foxes is an advantage in a cold climate. thinner fur in foxes is an
advantage in a hot climate. If the environment were to change so that it became significantly colder,
or a group of the foxes were to establish a population in a new, colder environment, there would
be a selection pressure in favor of the foxes with long fur and against those with short fur.
They must be the result of either:
▪ new mutations, or
▪ new combinations of alleles.
In either case, if they had existed in the original population, they would have been disadvantageous
as they would prevent the foxes from being able to cool themselves effectively and so would have
died.
What is stabilizing selection?
Stabilizing or normalizing selection occurs in all populations and favors the existing means
(optimum) population, leading to a reduction in variance by eliminating the extremes from the
population. In a stable environment, individuals at both ends of the range of values for a feature
are the least well adapted. Selection often operates against both these extremes to reduce the
variability in the population and to make the population more uniformly adapted. Birth mass in
humans is an example. Babies who are very heavy or very light show a higher neonatal mortality
rate (die more frequently at, or just after, birth) than those of medium mass. Over time selection is
operating to reduce the numbers of heavy and light babies born.
What is disruptive selection?
Disruptive or diversifying selection is a rare kind of selection, but very important in bringing about
evolutionary changes. Disruptive selection is, in effect, the converse of stabilizing selection. In
this instance, individuals at both extremes of a range have some advantage over those displaying
the mean value. As a result, the frequency of those individuals at the extremes of the range will
increase over time and those in the middle of the range will decrease over time. Fluctuating
conditions in an environment may favor the presence of more than one phenotype within the
population. This leading to polymorphism (appearance of different types within the population).

92
This is part of the explanation of the evolution of Darwin’s finches. A finch with an ‘average’
length beak may not be able to obtain insects out of cracks in the bark of trees as well as one with
a longer beak.
How can natural selection lead to the formation of new species?
Natural selection provides a mechanism by which new populations of a species can arise. We have
described a species as:
A group of similar, interbreeding organisms that produce fertile offspring. If two populations
become so different that individuals from different populations cannot interbreed to produce fertile
offspring, then we must think of them as different species. There are a number of ways in which
this can occur. The two main ways are:
allopatric speciation, and
sympatric speciation.
As long as two populations are able to interbreed, they are unlikely to evolve into distinct species.
They must somehow go through a period when they are prevented from interbreeding. Both
allopatric and sympatric speciation involve isolating mechanisms that prevent different
populations from interbreeding for a period of time.
What is allopatric speciation?
If interspecific speciation occurs while the populations are geographically separated by physical
barriers, it is called allopatric speciation. In allopatric speciation, the species become isolated by
some physical feature. Examples of this could include:
o a river changing course
o a mountain range being created
o a land mass separating two bodies of water
This is a type of geographical isolation. Interbreeding between the populations becomes impossible
and speciation could result.
What is sympatric speciation?
Intraspecific speciation that occurs while the populations are inhabiting the same geographical
area, it is termed as sympatric speciation. Speciation need not involve physical separation.
The two diverging populations may inhabit the same area, but be prevented from breeding in a
number of ways, including:

93
 ✓ seasonal isolation (etiological)– members of the two populations reproduce at different
times of the year
✓ temporal isolation – members of the two populations reproduce at different times of the
day
✓ behavioral isolation – members of the two populations have different courtship patterns
Speciation following any of these methods of isolation is referred to as sympatric speciation.
An example of sympatric speciation is found in palm trees growing on Lord Howe Island of the
east coast of Australia. The soil on the island is in parts volcanic and in other parts calcareous.
Palms growing on the different soils developed different breeding seasons (as a result of nutrient
availability at different times). As a result, they were reproductively isolated and developed into
two different species.
Polyploidy cells have many sets of chromosomes per cell – sometimes four sets, sometimes eight
or more. Some human liver cells have 92 chromosomes per cell – they are tetraploid – they have
four sets of chromosomes per cell. Polyploidy has been important in plant evolution because it
has allowed otherwise infertile hybrids to become fertile again. When different species form
hybrids, very often the hybrid cannot produce offspring because all the chromosomes cannot form
bivalents (homologous pairs) in meiosis. So they cannot form sex cells and cannot reproduce.
Hybridization and polyploidy have both been important in the evolution of modern wheat from
wild grasses. Triticum vulgare is one form of modern wheat. Polyploidy, in addition to restoring
fertility to infertile hybrids, often results in bigger plants with more and bigger seeds.

What is divergent evolution?

Divergent (adaptive radiation) evolution is the accumulation of characteristics that improve
species’ ability to survive and reproduce. Divergent evolution is another name for a process we
have already met – adaptive radiation. In divergent evolution, a basic type ‘diverges’ along
different lines because of different selection pressures in different environments. If different
selection pressures are placed on populations of a particular species, a wide variety of adaptive
traits may result. There are major categories of adaptation: structural, physiological and
behavioral. Divergent evolution leads to the development of a new species. Examples of divergent
evolution (adaptive radiation) include:
✓ the evolution of the different species of finches on the Galapagos Islands

94
 ✓ the evolution of the different forms of the pentadactyl limb
What is convergent evolution?
This is a phenomenon that occurs where two or more distantly related organisms become more
alike as they develop (evolve) similar adaptation. Convergent evolution takes place when
different organisms occupy similar niches. The selection pressures on the populations are the
same and so similar adaptations evolve over time. One example is the convergent evolution of the
giant armadillo, giant pangolin, giant anteater and spiny anteater. Convergent evolution is also
responsible for the wings of a bird, a bat and the extinct pterodactyl.

The evolution of humans

There is often a lot of very loose language used in describing human evolution. There has been a
‘line of evolution’ for millions of years that has given rise to old world monkeys, new world
monkeys, the great apes and the different species of humans that have lived. But, we are Homo
sapiens and we are the latest of several humans to live on the planet. We have two features in
particular that distinguish us from other primates. These are:
a very large brain, and
bipedalism – the ability to truly walk on just two legs.
Humans and chimpanzees both evolved from a common ancestor that lived about 6 million years
ago. There were other humans before us and, before them, what we might call ‘pre-humans’. All
humans belong to the genus Homo. Ethiopia has been in the evolution of humans. Fossils of many
of the species along the early part of the timeline were found in Ethiopia. It is indeed the ‘cradle
of mankind’.
Both Lucy and Ardi are important fossils in explaining the evolution of modern humans and
chimpanzees from a common ancestor. Lucy was discovered by Donald Johanson and Tom Gray
in 1974 at Hadar in Ethiopia. Lucy is a fossil dated at about 3.2 million years. She was an adult
female of about 25 years and belonged to the species Australopithecus afarensis. Her skeleton was
about 40% completed, an unusually high proportion for a fossil skeleton. However, there is also
evidence that Lucy was also partly arboreal (tree-dwelling). She was about 107 cm (36ft) tall and
about 28 kg (62 lbs) in weight.
The Ardi fossil (together with many other similar fossils) was first discovered in 1992, in the Afar
dessert in Ethiopia, but it was only in 2009, after many years’ analysis, that research papers were

95
finally published that gave Ardi a unique position in human evolution. Ardi was 1.2 million years
older than Lucy, was also female and belonged to the species Ardipithecus ramidus. One
significant feature about Ardi was that she was also bipedal.

How has brain size changed during human evolution?

During the course of human evolution, the brain has got bigger. We know from comparing fossils
that the cranial capacity has increased with each new hominid species that evolved. However, that
is not the whole story. Besides becoming bigger overall, the brain has increased in size as a
proportion of body mass. Whereas species of Australopithecus have a brain that is between 0.7%
and 1.0% of their body mass, modern humans have a brain that is between 1.8% and 2.3% of their
body mass. The brain of Homo sapiens uses 25% of the resting energy requirement, compared
with 8% in the great apes.
A larger brain allows humans to:
→ run faster and in a more upright posture
→ plan in advance to avoid attack
→ develop and use tools and weapons
These abilities clearly also depend on other physical adaptations such as longer legs, nimbler
fingers and a straighter spine, but, without the larger brain to co-ordinate the activities, the physical
changes would not confer the same advantage.
Are we still evolving?
Homo sapiens (modern humans) first appeared in Africa and have since migrated to all other
parts of the world. As humans moved from Africa into different areas of the world, they
encountered different environments. Different selection pressures in the different environments
resulted in the different human populations evolving along different lines. For example, as humans
encountered colder climates, body features that gave a survival advantage by helping to conserve
heat were selected for. These included:
o a shorter, squatter body shape; this reduces the surface-area-to volume ratio and so reduces
the rate of heat loss by radiation
o an increased layer of adipose tissue under the skin to act as insulation
o increased hairiness; this reduces heat loss by convection

96
Humans have been evolving into different ‘races’ for thousands of years. The classification of
these races is difficult and there is some disagreement about their exact nature. One classification
is given below. In this there are three main races with several subdivisions. This is based on a
recent genetic analysis of the different races.
African (Negroid), 100 million people from Africa and Melanesians of the South Pacific.
Eurasian (Caucasoid), 1000 million people with variable skin colour ranging from white
to dark brown. Three subdivisions exist:
– Nordic – often tall, blonde and narrow-headed; includes people from Scandinavian and Baltic
countries, Germany, France, Britain
– Mediterranean – usually lighter in body build, dark and narrow-headed; includes people from
Southern France, Spain, Italy, Wales, Egypt, Jews, Arabs, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India
– Alpine – usually broad-headed, square jaws, olive skin, brown hair; includes people from
countries from the Mediterranean to Asia
East Asian (Mongoloid), most numerous of the present-day populations and split into
three groups:
– Eastern Siberians, Eskimos and the Northern American Indians
– Japanese, Koreans and Chinese
– Indonesians and Malays
However, this classification does not include the Central African pigmies, the Bushmen and the
Australoids.

, ,

97