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Cambridge (CIE) A Level Physics Your notes
Production & Use of Ultrasound
Contents
The Piezoelectric Transducer
Generating & Using Ultrasound
Specific Acoustic Impedance
Intensity Reflection Coefficient
Attenuation of Ultrasound in Matter
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The Piezoelectric Transducer
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The piezoelectric transducer
The piezoelectric effect is defined as:
The ability of particular materials to generate a potential difference (p.d.) by transferring
mechanical energy to electrical energy
A transducer is any device that converts energy from one form to another
The piezoelectric effect
In the piezoelectric effect, an applied voltage causes a piezo-crystal to contract or expand, and vice
versa
Piezoelectric Crystals
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At the heart of a piezoelectric transducer is a piezoelectric crystal
Piezoelectric crystals are materials which produce an e.m.f when they are deformed Your notes
This deformation can be by compression or stretching
If a p.d. is applied to a piezoelectric crystal, then it deforms, and if the p.d. is reversed, then it expands
If this is an alternating p.d. then the crystal will vibrate at the same frequency as the alternating
voltage
Crystals must be cut to a certain size in order to induce resonance
One of the most common piezoelectric crystals is quartz, which is made from a lattice of silicon
dioxide atoms
When the lattice is distorted, the structure becomes charged creating an electric field and, as a
result, an electric current
If an electric current is applied to the crystal, then this causes the shape of the lattice to alternate
which produces a sound wave
Due to the conventional direction of electric current, it will flow from the positive to the negative
region of the crystal
A molecule in a quartz crystal
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When the compression and stretching alternates, an alternating e.m.f. is induced
Applications of the Piezoelectric Transducer
Microphone
A piezoelectric microphone detects pressure variations in sound waves
These can then be converted to an electrical signal for processing
Ultrasound
In a piezoelectric transducer, an alternating p.d. is applied to produce ultrasound waves and sent
into the patient’s body
The returning ultrasound waves induce a p.d. in the transducer for analysis by a healthcare
professional
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Generating & Using Ultrasound
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Generating ultrasound
An ultrasound is defined as:
A high frequency sound above the range of human hearing
This is above 20 kHz, although in medical applications the frequencies can be up to the MHz range
An ultrasound transducer is made up of a piezoelectric crystal and electrodes which produce an
alternating p.d.
The crystal is heavily damped, usually with epoxy resin, to stop the crystal from vibrating too much
This produces short pulses and increases the resolution of the ultrasound device
An ultrasound transducer
The structure of an ultrasound transducer
A piezoelectric crystal can act as both a receiver or transmitter of ultrasound
When it is receiving ultrasound, it converts the sound waves into an alternating p.d.
When it is transmitting ultrasound, it converts an alternating p.d. into sound waves
An ultrasound machine with a piezoelectric crystal
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Your notes
A piezoelectric crystal can act as both a receiver or transmitter of ultrasound
Worked Example
Explain the principles of the generation and detection of ultrasound waves.
Answer:
Step 1: Explain the principles of the generation of ultrasound
An alternating p.d. is applied across a piezo-electric crystal, causing it to change shape
The alternating p.d. causes the crystal to vibrate and produce ultrasound waves
The crystal vibrates at the frequency of the alternating p.d., so, the crystal must be cut to a
specific size in order to produce resonance
Step 2: Explain the principles of detection of ultrasound
When the ultrasound wave returns, the crystal vibrates which produces an alternating p.d.
across the crystal
This received signal can then be processed and used for medical diagnosis
Using ultrasound in medical imaging
In an ultrasound scanner, the transducer sends out a beam of sound waves into the body
The sound waves are reflected back to the transducer by boundaries between tissues in the path of the
beam
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For example, the boundary between fluid and soft tissue or tissue and bone
When these echoes hit the transducer, the transducer vibrates, which generates electrical signals that
are sent to the ultrasound scanner Your notes
Using the speed of sound and the time of each echo’s return, the scanner calculates the distance
from the transducer to the tissue boundary
These distances can be used to generate two-dimensional images of tissues and organs
The ultrasound gives two main pieces of information about the boundary:
Depth: the time between transmission and receipt of the pulse (the time delay)
Nature: the amount of transmitted intensity received (will vary depending on the type of tissue)
The frequency of the ultrasound is important because:
The higher the frequency of the ultrasound, the higher the resolution
The higher the resolution, the smaller the details of structures that can be distinguished
Ultrasound scan
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Using ultrasound to obtain information about an unborn child
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Worked Example
Explain the main principles behind the use of ultrasound to obtain diagnostic information about
internal body structures.
Answer:
Step 1: Describe the journey of an ultrasound pulse
A pulse of ultrasound is emitted by the piezo-electric crystal in the transducer
The pulse is reflected by the boundary between two media
The reflected pulse is detected by the ultrasound transmitter
Step 2: Explain how the reflected ultrasound pulse is used
The signal is then processed and displayed on the screen for the healthcare worker to analyse
and use for medical diagnosis
The intensity of the reflection gives information about the nature of the boundary
The time between transmission and receipt of the pulse (the time delay) gives information
about the depth of the boundary
Examiner Tips and Tricks
6 mark exam questions about this topic are very common, make sure you practice writing about
using and detecting ultrasounds in full, coherent sentences with correct spelling and grammar.
Writing short or vague answers could lose you marks, as well as misspelling words!
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Specific Acoustic Impedance
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Specific acoustic impedance
The acoustic impedance, Z, of a medium is defined as:
The product of the speed of the ultrasound in the medium and the density of the medium
This quantity describes how much resistance an ultrasound beam encounters as it passes through a
tissue
Acoustic impedance can be calculated using the equation:
Z = ρc
Where:
Z = acoustic impedance (kg m-2 s-1)
ρ = the density of the material (kg m-3)
c = the speed of sound in the material (m s-1)
This equation tells us:
The higher the density of a tissue, the greater the acoustic impedance
The faster the ultrasound travels through the material, the greater the acoustic impedance also
This is because sound travels faster in denser materials
Sound is fastest in solids and slowest in gases
This is because the closer the particles in the material, the faster the vibrations can move through
the material
At the boundary between media of different acoustic impedances, some of the wave energy is
reflected and some is transmitted
The greater the difference in acoustic impedance between the two media, the greater the reflection
and the smaller the transmission
Two materials with the same acoustic impedance would give no reflection
Two materials with a large difference in values would give much larger reflections
Air has an acoustic impedance of Zair = 400 kg m-2 s-1
Skin has an acoustic impedance of Zskin = 1.7 × 106 kg m-2 s-1
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The large difference means ultrasound would be significantly reflected, hence a coupling gel is
necessary
Your notes
The coupling gel used has a similar Z value to the skin, meaning that very little ultrasound is
reflected
Light travelling through two materials with different acoustic
impedance
Refraction and reflection of ultrasound waves at a boundary between two materials with different
acoustic impedances (in this case, Z1 < Z2 )
Worked Example
The table shows the speed of sound acoustic impedance in four different materials.
medium speed of ultrasound / m s–1 acoustic impedance / kg m–2 s–1
air 330 4.3 × 102
gel 1500 1.5 × 106
soft tisuse 1600 1.6 × 106
bone 4100 7.0 × 106
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Use this information to calculate the value for the density of bone.
Answer: Your notes
Step 1: Write down known quantities
Acoustic impedance of bone, Z = 7.0 × 106 kg m-2 s-1
Speed of ultrasound in bone, c = 4100 m s-1
Step 2: Write out the equation for acoustic impedance
Z = ρc
Step 3: Rearrange for density and calculate
Z 7 . 0 × 10
ρ= = = 1700 kg m−3
c 4100
Examiner Tips and Tricks
A common mistake is to confuse the c in the acoustic impedance equation for the speed of light -
don’t do this!
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Intensity Reflection Coefficient
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Intensity reflection coefficient
The intensity reflection coefficient α is defined as:
The ratio of the intensity of the reflected wave relative to the incident (transmitted) wave
This can be calculated using the fraction:
IR 2
(Z 2 − Z 1)
α= =
I0 (Z 2 + Z 1)
2
Where:
α = intensity reflection coefficient
IR = intensity of the reflected wave (W m-2)
I0 = intensity of the incident wave (W m-2)
Z1 = acoustic impedance of one material (kg m-2 s-1)
Z2 = acoustic impedance of a second material (kg m-2 s-1)
This equation will be provided on the datasheet for your exam
This ratio shows:
If there is a large difference between the impedance of the two materials, then most of the energy
will be reflected
If the impedance is the same, then there will be no reflection
Coupling medium
When ultrasound is used in medical imaging, a coupler is needed between the transducer and the
body
The soft tissues of the body are much denser than air
If air is present between the transducer and the body, then almost all the ultrasound energy will be
reflected
The coupling gel is placed between the transducer and the body, as skin and the coupling gel have a
similar density, so little ultrasound is reflected
This is an example of impedance matching
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Your notes
Worked Example
A beam of ultrasound is incident at right angles to a boundary between two materials as shown in the
diagram.
The materials have acoustic impedances of Z1 and Z2. The intensity of the transmitted ultrasound
beam is IT, and the reflected intensity is IR.
(a) What is the relationship between I, IT and IR?
(b) Use the data from the table to determine the reflection coefficient α for a boundary between
(i) gel and soft tissue
(ii) air and soft tissue
(c) Explain why gel is usually put on the skin during medical diagnosis using ultrasound.
medium speed of ultrasound / m s–1 acoustic impedance / kg m–2 s–1
air 330 4.3 × 102
gel 1500 1.5 × 106
soft tisuse 1600 1.6 × 106
bone 4100 7.0 × 106
Answer:
Part (a)
State the relationship between I, IT and IR:
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Incident intensity = Transmitted intensity + Reflected intensity
I = I T + IR Your notes
Part (b)(i)
Step 1: Write down the equation for intensity reflection coefficient α
2
(Z 2 − Z 1)
α= 2
(Z 2 + Z 1)
Step 2: Write down the acoustic impedances for gel and soft tissue
Gel, Z1 = 1.5 × 106 kg m-2 s-1
Soft tissue, Z2 = 1.6 × 106 kg m-2 s-1
Step 3: Calculate the intensity reflection coefficient
(1 . 6 × 106 − 1 . 5 × 106) 2 (0 . 1) 2
α= = = 0 . 001
(1 . 6 × 106 + 1 . 5 × 106) 2 (3 . 1) 2
This result means that only 0.1% of the incident intensity will be reflected, with the remaining
being transmitted
Part (b)(ii)
Step 1: Write down the acoustic impedances for air and soft tissue
Air, Z1 = 4.3 × 102 kg m-2 s-1
Soft tissue, Z2 = 1.6 × 106 kg m-2 s-1
Step 2: Calculate the intensity reflection coefficient
(1 . 6 × 106 − 4 . 3 × 102) 2 (1 . 6 × 106) 2
α= ≈ ≈1
(1 . 6 × 106 + 4 . 3 × 102) 2 (1 . 6 × 106) 2
This result means that 100% of the incident intensity will be reflected, with none being
transmitted
Part (c)
At the air-soft tissue boundary, the intensity reflection coefficient is α ≈ 1
Therefore, without gel, there is almost complete reflection, no ultrasound is transmitted
through the skin
Therefore, the gel enables almost complete transmission of the ultrasound through the skin,
with very little reflection
At the gel-soft tissue boundary, the intensity reflection coefficient is α = 0.001
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Attenuation of Ultrasound in Matter
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Attenuation of ultrasound in matter
Attenuation of ultrasound is defined as:
The reduction of energy due to the absorption of ultrasound as it travels through a material
The attenuation coefficient of the ultrasound is expressed in decibels per centimetre lost for every
incremental increase in megahertz frequency
Generally, 0.5 dB cm–1 is lost for every 1 MHz
The intensity I of the ultrasound decreases with distance x, according to the equation:
I = I 0 e −μx
Where:
I0 = the intensity of the incident beam (W m-2)
I = the intensity of the reflected beam (W m-2)
μ = the absorption coefficient (m-1)
x = distance travelled through the material (m)
The absorption coefficient μ, will vary from material to material
Attenuation is not a major problem in ultrasound scanning as the scan relies on the reflection of the
ultrasounds at the boundaries of materials
Intensity-depth graph showing attenuation
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Your notes
When the intensity is expressed in decibels, the amplitudes of the echoes can be seen to decrease
linearly
Worked Example
The thickness x of the layer of fat on an animal, as shown in the diagram, is to be investigated using
ultrasound.
The intensity of the parallel ultrasound beam entering the surface S of the layer of fat is I .
The beam is reflected from the boundary between fat and muscle.
The intensity of the reflected ultrasound detected at the surface S of the fat is 0 . 012 I .
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Medium Z / kg m–2 s–1 μ / m–1
Fat 1.3 × 106 48 Your notes
Muscle 1.7 × 106 23
Using the information in the table, calculate:
(a) The intensity reflection coefficient at the boundary between the fat and the muscle.
(b) The thickness x of the layer of fat.
Answer:
Part (a)
Step 1: Write down the equation for intensity reflection coefficient α
2
(Z 2 − Z 1)
α= 2
(Z 2 + Z 1)
Step 2: Calculate the intensity reflection coefficient
(1 . 7 × 106 − 1 . 3 × 106) 2 (0 . 4) 2
α= = = 0 . 018
(1 . 7 × 106 + 1 . 3 × 106) 2 (3) 2
This means that 0.018 of the intensity is reflected at the interface between fat and muscle
This reflected intensity will move back through the fat towards surface S
Part (b)
Step 1: Write out the known quantities
The intensity of the ultrasound pulse is affected 3 times:
Attenuation from the surface S to the fat-muscle boundary
Reflection at the boundary
Attenuation from the boundary back to the surface S
After being transmitted in the fat, the intensity at surface S is given to be 0 . 012 I .
Therefore, the intensity is 0 . 018 I at the fat-muscle boundary, and as the ultrasound moves
through the fat, it gets attenuated and the new intensity at the surface S is now 0 . 012 I
incident intensity = intensity of the reflected pulse
I 0 = 0 . 018Ie −μx
Transmitted intensity = 0 . 012 I
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Absorption coefficient, μ = 48 m-1
Thickness of fat = x
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Step 2: Write out the equation for attenuation
I = I 0 e −μx
Step 3: Substitute in values for intensity and simplify
0 . 012I = (0 . 018I × e −μx ) × e −μx
0 . 012 = 0 . 018e −2μx
Step 4: Rearrange and take the natural log of both sides
0 . 012
= e −2μx
0 . 018
⎛ 0 . 012 ⎞⎟
ln ⎜⎜ ⎟ = − 2 μx
⎝ 0 . 018 ⎠
Step 5: Rearrange and calculate the thickness x
⎛ 0 . 012 ⎞⎟ ⎛ 0 . 012 ⎞⎟
ln ⎜⎜ ⎟ ln ⎜⎜ ⎟
⎝ 0 . 018 ⎠ ⎝ 0 . 018 ⎠
x= = = 4 . 22 × 10−3 m = 0 . 42 cm
−2 μ −2 × 48
Examiner Tips and Tricks
The intensity equation will not be provided for you on your exam datasheet, so make sure you
remember this!
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