CHAPTER 1
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR ENGINEERING
1.1 INTRODUCTION
In the process of illustrating the primary functions of a reservoir engineer, namely, the
estimation of hydrocarbons in place, the calculation of a recovery factor and the
attachment of a time scale to the recovery; this chapter introduces many of the
fundamental concepts in reservoir engineering.
The description of the calculation of oil in place concentrates largely on the
determination of fluid pressure regimes and the problem of locating fluid contacts in the
reservoir. Primary recovery is described in general terms by considering the
significance of the isothermal compressibilities of the reservoir fluids; while the
determination of the recovery factor and attachment of a time scale are illustrated by
describing volumetric gas reservoir engineering. The chapter finishes with a brief
quantitative account of the phase behaviour of multi-component hydrocarbon systems.
1.2 CALCULATION OF HYDROCARBON VOLUMES
Consider a reservoir which is initially filled with liquid oil. The oil volume in the reservoir
(oil in place) is
OIP V 1 Swc res.vol. (1.1)
where V = the net bulk volume of the reservoir rock
= the porosity, or volume fraction of the rock which is porous
and Swc = the connate or irreducible water saturation and is expressed as a
fraction of the pore volume.
The product V is called the pore volume (PV) and is the total volume in the reservoir
which can be occupied by fluids. Similarly, the product V (1 Swc) is called the
hydrocarbon pore volume (HCPV) and is the total reservoir volume which can be filled
with hydrocarbons either oil, gas or both.
The existence of the connate water saturation, which is normally 10 25% (PV), is an
example of a natural phenomenon which is fundamental to the flow of fluids in porous
media. That is, that when one fluid displaces another in a porous medium, the
displaced fluid saturation can never be reduced to zero. This applies provided that the
fluids are immiscible (do not mix) which implies that there is a finite surface tension at
the interface between them.
Thus oil, which is generated in deep source rock, on migrating into a water filled
reservoir trap displaces some, but not all, of the water, resulting in the presence of a
connate water saturation. Since the water is immobile its only influence in reservoir
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR ENGINEERING 2
engineering calculations is to reduce the reservoir volume which can be occupied by
hydrocarbons.
The oil volume calculated using equ. (1.1) is expressed as a reservoir volume. Since all
oils, at the high prevailing pressures and temperatures in reservoirs, contain different
amounts of dissolved gas per unit volume, it is more meaningful to express oil volumes
at stock tank (surface) conditions, at which the oil and gas will have separated. Thus
the stock tank oil initially in place is
STOIIP n v 1 Swc / Boi (1.2)
where Boi is the oil formation volume factor, under initial conditions, and has the units
reservoir volume/stock tank volume, usually, reservoir barrels/stock tank barrel (rb/stb).
Thus a volume of Boi rb of oil will produce one stb of oil at the surface together with the
volume of gas which was originally dissolved in the oil in the reservoir. The
determination of the oil formation volume factor and its general application in reservoir
engineering will be described in detail in Chapter 2.
In equ. (1.2), the parameters and Swc are normally determined by petrophysical
analysis and the manner of their evaluation will not be described in this text1. The net
bulk volume, V, is obtained from geological and fluid pressure analysis.
The geologist provides contour maps of the top and base of the reservoir, as shown in
fig. 1.1. Such maps have contour lines drawn for every 50 feet, or so, of elevation
Well
Y X Y
OIL
WATER OWC
X OWC
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.1 (a) Structural contour map of the top of the reservoir, and (b) cross section
through the reservoir, along the line X Y
and the problem is to determine the level at which the oil water contact (OWC) is to be
located. Measurement of the enclosed reservoir rock volume above this level will then
give the net bulk volume V. For the situation depicted in fig. 1.1 (b) it would not be
possible to determine this contact by inspection of logs run in the well since only the oil
zone has been penetrated. Such a technique could be applied, however, if the OWC
were somewhat higher in the reservoir.
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR ENGINEERING 3
The manner in which the oil water contact, or fluid contacts in general, can be located
requires a knowledge of fluid pressure regimes in the reservoir which will be described
in the following section.
1.3 FLUID PRESSURE REGIMES
The total pressure at any depth, resulting from the combined weight of the formation
rock and fluids, whether water, oil or gas, is known as the overburden pressure. In the
majority of sedimentary basins the overburden pressure increases linearly with depth
and typically has a pressure gradient of 1 psi/ft, fig. 1.2.
14.7 Pressure (psia)
Depth
(ft) FP GP
overburden
pressure
overpressure (OP)
underpressure
normal hydrostatic
pressure
Fig. 1.2 Overburden and hydrostatic pressure regimes (FP = fluid pressure;
GP = grain pressure)
At a given depth, the overburden pressure can be equated to the sum of the fluid
pressure (FP) and the grain or matrix pressure (GP) acting between the individual rock
particles, i.e.
OP FP GP (1.3)
and, in particular, since the overburden pressure remains constant at any particular
depth, then
d FP d GP (1.4)
That is, a reduction in fluid pressure will lead to a corresponding increase in the grain
pressure, and vice versa.
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR ENGINEERING 4
Fluid pressure regimes in hydrocarbon columns are dictated by the prevailing water
pressure in the vicinity of the reservoir. In a perfectly normal case the water pressure at
any depth can be calculated as
dp
pw D 14.7 (psia) (1.5)
dD water
in which dp/dD, the water pressure gradient, is dependent on the chemical composition
(salinity), and for pure water has the value of 0.4335 psi/ft.
Addition of the surface pressure of one atmosphere (14.7 psia) results in the
expression of the pressure in absolute rather than gauge units (psig), which are
measured relative to atmospheric pressure. In many instances in reservoir engineering
the main concern is with pressure differences, which are the same whether absolute or
gauge pressures are employed, and are denoted simply as psi.
Equation (1.5) assumes that there is both continuity of water pressure to the surface
and that the salinity does not vary with depth. The former assumption is valid, in the
majority of cases, even though the water bearing sands are usually interspersed with
impermeable shales, since any break in the areal continuity of such apparent seals will
lead to the establishment of hydrostatic pressure continuity to the surface. The latter
assumption, however, is rather naive since the salinity can vary markedly with depth.
Nevertheless, for the moment, a constant hydrostatic pressure gradient will be
assumed, for illustrative purposes. As will be shown presently, what really matters to
the engineer is the definition of the hydrostatic pressure regime in the vicinity of the
hydrocarbon bearing sands.
In contrast to this normal situation, abnormal hydrostatic pressure are encountered
which can be defined by the equation
dp
pw D 14.7 C (psia) (1.6)
dD water
where C is a constant which is positive if the water is overpressured and negative if
underpressured.
For the water in any sand to be abnormally pressured, the sand must be effectively
sealed off from the surrounding strata so that hydrostatic pressure continuity to the
surface cannot be established. Bradley2 has listed various conditions which can cause
abnormal fluid pressures in enclosed water bearing sands, which include:
temperature change; an increase in temperature of one degree-Fahrenheit can
cause an increase in pressure of 125 psi in a sealed fresh water system.
geological changes such as the uplifting of the reservoir, or the equivalent,
surface erosion, both of which result in the water pressure in the reservoir sand
being too high for its depth of burial; the opposite effect occurs in a downthrown
reservoir in which abnormally low fluid pressure can occur.
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR ENGINEERING 5
osmosis between waters having different salinity, the sealing shale acting as the
semi-permeable membrane in this ionic exchange; if the water within the seal is
more saline than the surrounding water the osmosis will cause an abnormally
high pressure and vice versa.
Some of these causes of abnormal pressuring are interactive, for instance, if a
reservoir block is uplifted the resulting overpressure is partially alleviated by a decrease
in reservoir temperature.
The geological textbook of Chapman3 provides a comprehensive description of the
mechanics of overpressuring. Reservoir engineers, however, tend to be more
pragmatic about the subject of abnormal pressures than geologists, the main questions
being; are the water bearing sands abnormally pressured and if so, what effect does
this have on the extent of any hydrocarbon accumulations?
So far only hydrostatic pressures have been considered. Hydrocarbon pressure
regimes are different in that the densities of oil and gas are less than that of water and
consequently, the pressure gradients are smaller, typical figures being
dp
0.45 psi / ft
dD water
dp
0.35 psi / ft
dD oil
dp
0.08 psi / ft
dD gas
Thus for the reservoir containing both oil and a free gascap, shown in fig. 1.3; using the
above gradients would give the pressure distribution shown on the left hand side of the
diagram.
At the oil-water contact, at 5500 ft, the pressure in the oil and water must be equal
otherwise a static interface would not exist. The pressure in the water can be
determined using equ. (1.5), rounded off to the nearest psi, as
pw 0.45 D 15 (psia) (1.7)
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR ENGINEERING 6
Pressure (psia)
2250 2375 2500 Exploration
Well
5000 2265 2369
Depth GAS
(feet)
GOC : po = pw = 2385 GOC 5200'
5250
TEST RESULTS
OIL at 5250 ft
po = 2402 psia
5500 OWC : po = pw = 2490 OWC 5500' dp
dD = 0.35psi/ft
WATER
Fig. 1.3 Pressure regimes in the oil and gas for a typical hydrocarbon accumulation
which assumes a normal hydrostatic pressure regime. Therefore, at the oil-water
contact
po pw .45 5500 15 2490 (psia)
The linear equation for the oil pressure, above the oil water contact, is then
po = 0.35D + constant
and since po = 2490 psia at D = 5500 ft, the constant can be evaluated to give the
equation
po 0.35D 565 psia (1.8)
At the gas-oil contact at 5200 ft, the pressure in both fluids must be equal and can be
calculated, using equ. (1.8), to be 2385 psia. The equation of the gas pressure line can
then be determined as
po 0.08D 1969 psia (1.9)
Finally, using the latter equation, the gas pressure at the very top of the structure, at
5000 ft, can be calculated as 2369 psia. The pressure lines in the hydrocarbon column
are drawn in the pressure depth diagram, fig. 1.3, from which it can be seen that at the
top of the structure the gas pressure exceeds the normal hydrostatic pressure by
104 psi. Thus in a well drilling through a sealing shale on the very crest of the structure
there will be a sharp pressure kick from 2265 psi to 2369 psia on first penetrating the
reservoir at 5000 ft. The magnitude of the pressure discontinuity on drilling into a
hydrocarbon reservoir depends on the vertical distance between the point of well
penetration and the hydrocarbon water contact and, for a given value of this distance,
will be much greater if the reservoir contains gas alone.
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR ENGINEERING 7
At the time of drilling an exploration well and discovering a new reservoir, one of the
main aims is to determine the position of the fluid contacts which, as described in the
previous section, will facilitate the calculation of the oil in place.
Consider the exploration well, shown in fig. 1.3, which penetrates the reservoir near the
top of the oil column. The gas-oil contact in the reservoir will be clearly "seen", at
5200 ft, on logs run in the well. The oil-water contact, however, will not be seen since it
is some 225 ft below the point at which the well penetrates the base of the reservoir.
The position of the contact can only be inferred as the result of a well test, such as a
drill stem4 or wireline formation test5,6, in which the pressure and temperature are
measured and an oil sample recovered. Analysis of the sample permits the calculation
of the oil density at reservoir conditions and hence the oil pressure gradient (refer
exercise 1, Chapter 2). Together, the pressure measurement and pressure gradient are
sufficient to define the straight line which is the pressure depth relation in the oil
column. If such a test were conducted at a depth of 5250 ft, in the well in fig. 1.3, then
the measured pressure would be 2402 psia and the calculated oil gradient 0.35 psi/ft,
which are sufficient to specify the oil pressure line as
po 0.35D 565 psia (1.8)
and extrapolation of this line to meet the normal hydrostatic pressure line will locate the
oil-water contact at 5500 ft.
This type of analysis relies critically on a knowledge of the hydrostatic pressure regime.
If, for instance, the water is overpressured by a mere 20 psi then the oil-water contact
would be at 5300 ft instead of at 5500 ft. This fact can be checked by visual inspection
of fig. 1.3 or by expressing the equation of the overpressured water line, equ. (1.6) as
pw 0.45D 35 psia
and solving simultaneously with equ. (1.8) for the condition that pw = po at the oil-water
contact. The difference of 200 ft in the position of the contact can make an enormous
difference to the calculated oil in place, especially if the areal extent of the reservoir is
large.
It is for this reason that reservoir engineers are prepared to spend a great deal of time
(and therefore, money) in defining the hydrostatic pressure regime in a new field. A
simple way of doing this is to run a series of wireline formation tests5,6 in the exploration
well, usually after logging and prior to setting casing, in which pressures are
deliberately measured in water bearing sands both above and beneath the
hydrocarbon reservoir or reservoirs. The series of pressure measurements at different
depths enables the hydrostatic pressure line, equ. (1.6), to be accurately defined in the
vicinity of the hydrocarbon accumulation, irrespective of whether the pressure regime is
normal or abnormal.
Such tests are repeated in the first few wells drilled in a new field or area until the
engineers are quite satisfied that there is an areal uniformity in the hydrostatic
pressure. Failure to do this can lead to a significant error in the estimation of the
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR ENGINEERING 8
hydrocarbons in place which in turn can result in the formulation of woefully inaccurate
field development plans.
Pressure (psia)
2250 2375 2500 Exploration
well
5000
GDT GAS
Depth 5150’
(feet) DPGWC
5281’
OIL COLUMN
Fig 1.3
5500 TEST RESULTS
at 5100 ft
pg = 2377 psia
DPOWC
dpg
5640’
dD = .08 psi / ft
Fig. 1.4 Illustrating the uncertainty in estimating the possible extent of an oil column,
resulting from well testing in the gas cap
Figure 1.4 illustrates another type of uncertainty associated with the determination of
fluid contacts from pressure measurements. The reservoir is the same as depicted in
fig. 1.3 but in this case the exploration well has only penetrated the gascap. A well test
is conducted at a depth of 5100 ft from which it is determined that the gas pressure is
2377 psia and, from the analysis of a collected sample (refer exercise 1.1), that the gas
gradient in the reservoir is 0.08 psi/ft. From these data the equation of the gas pressure
line can be defined as
po 0.08D 1969 psia (1.9)
Having seen no oil in the well the engineer may suspect that he has penetrated a gas
reservoir alone, and extrapolate equ. (1.9) to meet the normal hydrostatic pressure line
pw 0.45D 15 psia (1.7)
at a depth of 5281 ft, at which pw = pg. This level is marked in fig. 1.4 as the deepest
possible gas water contact (DPGWC), assuming there is no oil.
Alternatively, since the deepest point at which gas has been observed in the well is
5150 ft (GDT gas down to), there is no physical reason why an oil column should not
extend from immediately beneath this point. The oil pressure at the top of such a
column would be equal to the gas pressure, which can be calculated using equ. (1.9)
as 2381 psia. Hence the equation of the oil pressure line, assuming the oil gradient
used previously of 0.35 psi/ft, would be
po 0.35D 579 psia
SOME BASIC CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR ENGINEERING 9
and solving this simultaneously with equ. (1.7), for the condition that po = pw, gives the
oil-water contact at a depth of 5640 ft. This is marked on fig. 1.4 as the deepest
possible oil-water contact (DPOWC) and corresponds to the maximum possible oil
column. Therefore, in spite of the fact that the well has been carefully tested, there
remains high degree of uncertainty as to the extent of any oil column. It could indeed
be zero (DPGWC 5281 ft) or, in the most optimistic case, could extend for 490 ft
(DPOWC 5640 ft), or, alternatively, assume any value in between these limits. Also
shown in fig. 1.4 is the actual oil column from fig. 1.3.
Therefore, the question is always posed, on penetrating a reservoir containing only
gas; is there a significant oil column, or oil rim, down-dip which could be developed?
The only sure way to find out is to drill another well further down-dip on the structure or,
if mechanically feasible, plug back and deviate from the original hole. When planning
the drilling of an exploration well it is therefore, not always expedient to aim the well at
the highest point on the structure. Doing so will tend to maximise the chance of finding
hydrocarbons but will oppose one of the primary aims in drilling exploration wells,
which is to gain as much information about the reservoirs and their contents as
possible.
Having determined the fluid contacts in the reservoir, using the methods described in
this section, the engineer is then in a position to calculate the net bulk volume V
required to calculate the hydrocarbons in place. In fig. 1.1 (a), for instance, this can be
done by planimetering the contours above the OWC7,8.
Finally, with regard to the application of equ. (1.2), the correct figure for the STOIIP will
only be obtained if all the parameters in the equation are truly representative of their
average values throughout the reservoir. Since it is impossible to obtain such figures it
is more common to represent each parameter in the STOIIP equation by a probability
distribution rather than a determinate value. For instance, there may be several
different geological interpretations of the structure giving a spread in values of the net
bulk volume V, which could be expressed as a probability distribution of the value of
this parameter.
The STOIIP equation is then evaluated using some statistical calculation procedure,
commensurate with the quality of the input data, and the results expressed in terms of
a probability distribution of the STOIIP. The advantage of this method is that while a
mean value of the STOIIP can be extracted from the final distribution, the results can
also be formulated in terms of the uncertainty attached to this figure, expressed, for
instance, as a standard deviation about the mean9,10. If the uncertainty is very large it
may be necessary to drill an additional well, or wells, to narrow the range before
proceeding to develop the field.
1.4 OIL RECOVERY: RECOVERY FACTOR
Equation (1.2), for the STOIIP, can be converted into an equation for calculating the
ultimate oil recovery simply by multiplying by the recovery factor (RF), which is a
number between zero and unity representing the fraction of recoverable oil, thus
Ultimate Recovery (UR) (V (1 Swc ) / Boi ) RF (1.10)
