Unit

SOFTWARE MANAGEMENT
DISCIPLINES

Therative Process Planning, Project Organizations and

Responsibilities, Process Automation, Project Control
and Process Instrumentation, Core Metrics,
Management Indicators, Life-cycle Expectations,
Process Discriminants

Q.1. Explain the iterative process planning with suitableexample.

(R.G.PV, May 2024)
Or
Specity the iterative process planning in detail. (R.G.PV., Dec. 2020)
Or
lustrate iterative process planning in detail. (R.G.P.V., May 2023)
Ans. Planning defines the actual sequence of intermediate results. It
involves the content and schedule of the major milestones and their
Intermediate iterations is probably the most tangibleform of the overall
risk management plan. Anevolutionary build plan is necessary because it
allows adjustment in build content and schedule as early conjecture evolves
io well-understood project circumstances. Iteration allows complete
ychronization across the project along with the global assessment of
ouure project baseline. Other micro iteration, such as monthly, weekBy or
daily builds are performed enroute to these project level synchronization
points.
(9 Inception Iterations - The foundation components of a
candidate
gve an architecture are integrated by the early prototyping activities and
system. executable
It have the framework for elaborating the difficult use cases of the
prototypeS sufficientexisting
Bcomponents, commercial components and custom
to demonstrate a candidate architecture and sufficient
Tequi rements understanding
software development plan. to establish a credible business case, vision and
 (i) Elaboration Iterations - Elaboration iterations result in
an
architecturethat includes complete framework that is required for
After the completion of architectureiteration, few difficult use casesexecution.
should
be demonstrable with the following tasks
(a) Initializing the architecture.
(b) Injecting a scenario to drive the worst-case data
flow through the processing
system.
(c) Injecting a scenario to drive the worst-case control flow
through the system.
(ii) Construction Iterations -Number of projects need
two construction iteration as follows -
atleast
(a) An alpha release would include executable capability for
all the difficult use cases.
(b) A beta release typicallygives 95% of the total product
capability breadth and achieves some of the important quality attributes.
(iv) Transition lterations - Most projects employ single iteration
totransition a beta release into the final product. Atypical project may
following six iteration as follows - have
(a) Inception iteration
(1) Architecture prototype
(b) Elaboration iteration
()Architecture prototype
(2) Architecture baseline
(c) Construction iteration
(1) Alpha release
(2) Beta release
(d) Transition iteration
(1) Product release.
Aproject that involves many stakeholders uses oneadditional inception
iteration and two additional iterations in construction to achieve a total of
nine iterations.
 a,8.What are the various strategies of design ?Which is most popular
and practical ? (R.G.PV., June 2005)
Or
Compare top-down and bottom-up design strategies.
(R.G.P.V., May 2022, Nov. 2023)
Ans. A system is actually consisting of components, having components of
their own. In other words, a system is a hierarchy of components. The
highest-levelcomponent corresponds to the total system. Such a hierarchy
can be designed by two possible approaches i.e., top-down and bottom-up.
towards the lower
The former one starts from the highest-level andmoves
the lowest
level of the hierarchy, while in contrast, the latter starts with
higher-levels to the
level component and proceeds through progressively
top-level component of the hierarchy.
the major
A top-down approach starts by identifying and decomposing
process repeats
system components into their lower-level components. This
strategies often
until the desired level of detail is achieved. Top-down design
some form ofstepwise refinement, which is the process in which
result in
design is refined to a
starting from an abstract design, in each step the
refinement is needed
better level, until reaching the level where no more
approach has
and the design can directly be implemented. The top-downmethodologies
been found tobe extremely useful for design. Most of the
are based on this approach.
primitive
Abottom-up approach of designstarts with designing the most
components and proceeds to higher-level components using lower-level
components. This method works with layers of abstraction. Beginning trom
the very bottom, operations providing a layer ofabstraction are implemented.
The operations of this layer are then implemented in more powernu
operationsand a still higher layer ofabstraction, until the stage comes where
the operations supported by the layer are the desired ones.
 Atop-down approach is appropriate in case where the specifications
afthe system are clearly known. However, if asystem is to be built from an
existing system, a bottom-up approach is more appropriate.
Pure top-down or pure bottom-up approach isoften not practical. For
heing successful using a bottom-up approach, we must have a good notion
of the top towards which design should be proceeding. Unless having a
good idea about the needed operations at the higher layers, it would be
difficult to determine what operations the current layer should support. On
the other hand, top-down approaches require some idea concerning the
feasibility of thecomponents specified during design.Also, these components
should be implementable which needs some idea concerning thefeasibility
of the lower-level parts of a component. An approach combining the two
(ie., top-down and bottom-up) approaches is providing alayer of abstraction
for the application domain via., libraries of function having the functions of
interest to the application domain.
 Give a brief introduction of project organization and responsibilities.
Or
Describe project organizations and responsibilities.
(R.G.PV., Dec. 2020)
Ans.Organization is an important partin the software line-of-business asit
fulfils the basic needs necessary to support the software development.
Similarly, project organization is the large extend about the people involved
insoftware development. Various different types of people come together
and forma team for the project organization and these teams are responsible
for the work allocated to them. In general, project organization binds some
responsibilities to the teamn and allocate some useful or decorative (designing
and all) task towards that team mnembers. This ensures the large architecture
and smallcomponents also to complete whole project.
 O.13. Explain project environment. (R.G.PV., May 2023)
Ans. The project environment refers to the external factors and conditions
that can influence a project's execution and outcomes. It encompasses.
elements such as organizationalculture, stakeholder expectations,regulatory
requirements,technological infrastructure and economic considerations.
Understanding the project environment is important for effective
planning and decision-making, as it helps project managers anticipate
challenges, identifyopportunities and adapt strategies to ensure successful
project delivery. It involves analyzing both internal and external factors that
may impact the project throughout its life cycle.
Additionally, the project environment includes social and political factors,
team dynamics, and the availability of resources. The cultural and
geographical context, as well as market conditions, also contribute to the
project environment. Project managers need to continuously assess and
respond to changes in the environment to mitigate risks, capitalize on
emerging opportunities and ensure that the project aligns with organizational
goals.
Clear communication and collaboration within the team and with
stakeholders are essential to navigate and thrive in the dynamic project
environment.
 Q,15. Explain the tasks of software management team.
Ans. The burden of delivering win conditions to all stakeholders is carried
by the software management team. For this the software project manager
spends every day worrying about balance. The fig. 3.4 shows the focus of
software management team activities over the project life-cycle.
114 Projet Manay Sem. (CS))
For planning the effort, adapting the plan to changes in the understanding
of the needs or the design and conducting the plan, management team is
responsible. Towardt this end, the teamtakesownership of resource management
and project scope, and sets operational priorities across the project life-cycle
These activities correspond to managing the expectations of al
stakeholders throughout the project life-cycle at an abstract level. Ownershin
of allaspects of quality is taken by the software management team, n
particular, it isresponsible for attaining and maintaining abalance among
these aspects so that the overall solution is sufficient for all stakeholders
and optimal for as many of them as possible. The software management
team activities are shown in fig. 3.4.
|Software Management
L

Financial Administration,
Systems Engineering,
Quality Assurance

Artifacts Responsibilities
Vision, WBS, Personnel Assignments,
Requirements Set, Plans, Priorities,
Status, Assessments, Risk Management,
Business Case, Project Control, Scope
Software Development Definition, Stakeholder
Plan Satisfaction
Life-cycle Phases

Inception Elaboration Construction Transition

Team Formulation, Risk Resolution, Transition Phase Customer Satisfaction,
Elaboration Phase Construction Phase Planning, Risk Contract Closure,
Planning, Contract Planning, Full Management, Sales Support,
Baseline, Architecture Staff Recruitment, Construction Plan Next Generation
Costs Construction Costs Optimization Planning
Fig. 3.4 Software Management Team Activities
Explain the term process automation withexample.
(R.G.PV.,May 2022, Nov. 2023)
Or
What is process automation structure ?How does process automation
work ?
(R.G.P.V., May 2024)
Ans. There are lots of tools available that are employed to automate the
software development process. Many software process development
workflows use at least one tool. Each of the process workflows has a
different requirement for automation support. The automation and tool
components involved in process workflow is shown in fig. 3.9.
() Management - Workflow is the process that contains small
task links together. The automation in the tasks, resources and internal
operations of the process is called workflow automation. There are lot of
opportunities for automating the project planning and control activities ofthe
management workflow. For generating the planning artifacts, software cost
estimation tools and WBS tools are useful. Workflow management tools and
a software project control panel which can maintain an on-line version of the
status assessment are advantageous for managing against a plan.
Organization Policy Life-cycle
Process Inception Elaboration Construction Transition

Management Workflow and Metrics Automation

Environment Change Management and Document Automation

Requirement Requirements Management

Design Visual Modeling

[Implementation Editor-computer Debugger

Assessment Auto Testing and Defect Finding

Deployment Defect Finding

Fig. 3.9 Automation and Tool Components Involved

in Process Workflow
process
(üi) Environment In a modern iterative development
Maximum
version control and configuration management is necessary. artifact
metrics approach is dependent on measuring changes in software art
baselines.Vision statement can be generated through the interaction
amongst
the system development group. Vision statement is accessible
buyer of the system.
by the
(ii)Requirement - The flow of the requirements finally reaches
subsystem, subsystem
o snallest unit. System requirments decompose into
requirements
are fulfilled by components while component requirements
smallest unit.
are generated by visual
(iv) Design The targeted tool for the design workflow is
modeling. Generally this
model is used to capturetthe design models which
model
present it in human understandable format and finally
are further used to
translate it into source code.
(v) Implementation This workflow is based on the productive
environment include editing.
iteration,which is based upon the programming
running, etc.
compiling, debugging, linking,
The assessment workflow
(vi) Assessment and Deployment
additionalcapabilities to support
requires all the tools justdiscussed as well as
and test management. To increase change freedom, testing
test automation autonmated. Defect tracking is
production must be mostly
and document assessment- It provides the change
another important tool that supports
control
necessary to automate metrics and
managenment instrumentation
baselines. It is also needed to support the deployment workflow
release
throughout the life-cycle.
4.21, Explain the following term in detail
() Process automation
(i1) Software management team. (R.G.PV, May 2023)

Ans. (i) Process Automation Refer to Q.20.

Q.15.
(i) Software Management Tam - Refer to
automation ? Why do we
22, What are the four stages of process (R.G.PV, May 2024)
need process automation ?
management are as
AnS. Four stages of process automation in project
follows -
processeS are
() Initial (Manual Process) - At this stage, most
Ilanual andad hoc. Project management relies heavily on hunnan interventton,
asks tracked using basic tools like spreadstheets, emails and paper
based systems.
 Example - Manuallyupdating project schedules,sending emails
status updates, physicalmeetings for progress reviews.
revie
Some processes begin to
(ti) Managed (Basic Automnation)
project management
be automated using simple tools and software. Basic
be implemented to help with scheduling, task tracking and
Sottware may
communication.
Using project management software for task assignments.
Example -
digital document storage.
automated email notifications for deadlines,
Defined (Integrated Automation) - Automation becomes
(iim) project management functions.
integrated across different
eadvanced and flow of
and systems are connected, providing amore seamless
Tools
information and better coordination.
Integration of project management software with other
Example - generation of status reports,
ERP systems) automated
enterprisetools (e.g.,
centralized dashboards for project tracking.
Optimized (Advanced Automation and AI) -At this stage.
(iv) technologies like artificial
fully optimized with advanced
process automation is Automation not only performs
intelligence (A) and machine learning (ML).
provides insights and predictive analytics to support decision
tasks but also
making.
scheduling, predictive
Example - Al-driven project planning and allocation and
automated resource
analytics for risk management,
optimization.
Need of Process Automation
() Increased Efficiency -
(a) Time-saving - Automation reduces the time required for
to focus on
repetitive tasks, allowing projectmanagers and team members
more strategic activities.
(b) Streamlined Processes - Automated workflows ensure
tasks are completed in a timely and efficient manner, reducing delays and
bottlenecks.
(i)Improved Accuracy
(a) Error Reduction Automation minimizes human erros,
and
documentation
ensuring data accuracy and consistency in project
reporting. processes ensure

(b) Consistent Execution - Automated standards

that tasks are performed consistently according to predefined

and procedures.
 ii) Enhanced Visibility and Control -
(a) Real-time Monitoring Automation provides real-time
Visibility into project progress, enabling better tracking and monitoring of
tasks and milestones.

(b) Data-driven Decision Making Automated systems

ponerate comprehensive reports and analytics, supporting informed decision
information.
making based on accurate and up-to-date
(iv) Better Resource Management
(a) Optimal Resource Allocation - Automation helps in
and availability,
efficiently allocatingresources by analyzing project needs
reduced waste,
leading to better utilization and
resource
(b)Capacity Planning-Automated tools can forecast
management.
requirements and availability, assisting in capacity planning and
(v) Improved Collaboration and Conmunication
(a)Centralized Information -Automation centralizes project
stakeholders and promoting
information, making it easily accessible to all
beter collaboration.
communication
(b)Automated Notifications - Automated
deadlines, and
tools keep team members informed about task assignments,
changes, improving coordination and reducing communication gaps.
(vi) Scalability -
(a) Handling Complexity - Automated systenms can handle
complex projects with multiple tasks, dependencies, and stakeholders
more
efficiently than manual methods.
of
(b) Scaling Projects - Automation enables the scaling
and more complex
Poject management processes to accommodate larger
projects without a proportional increase in effort.
(vii) Cost Savings
(a) Reduced Labor Costs - By automating repetitive and
me-consuming tasks,organizations can reduce labor costs and reallocate
Tesources to more value-added activities.
(b) Improved Budget Management - Automation helps in
eeTacking and controlling project costs, reducing the risk ofbudget overruns.
What is project control and process instrumentation ? Explain
the four steps in project control process. (R.G.P.V., May 2024)
Ans. The progress towardI project goals andthe quality of software products
ust be measurable throughout the software development cycie. Merte
values provide an important perspective for managing the process. Metrics
trends provide another. The most useful metrics are extracted directly from
the evolving artifacts. Objectives analysis and automated data collection
are crucial to the success of any metrics program. Subjective asseSsments
and manual collection techniques are likely to fail.
Four steps in project control process are as follows
(i) Planning and Scheduling Establishing a detailed project
plan and schedule that outlines all tasks, milestones, resources, and timelines.
(a) Activities - Developing a work breakdown structure
(WBS), creating a Gantt chart or similar schedule, defining roles and
responsibilities, and setting up project baselines.
(b) Tools - Project management software (e.g., Microsoft
project, Primavera), scheduling tools,WBS tools.
(ii) Monitoring and MeasuringContinuously tracking project
progresS against the baseline plan to identify any deviations or issues.
(a)Activities - Collecting data on project performance, such
as task completion., budget usage, and resource allocation. Comparing actual
performance to planned performance.
(b) Tools Dashboards, progress reports, earned value
management (EVM), key performance indicators (KPIs).
(üi) Analyzing and Reporting- Evaluating the collected data to
understand the project'scurrent status and predict future performance.
(a) Actiyities Analyzing variances between planned and
actual performance, conducting risk assessments, and forecasting project
outcomes. Reporting findings to stakeholders.
(b) Tools-Analysis software, risk management tools, reporting
templates, performance metrics.
(iv) Controlling and Correcting Implementing corrective
actions to address any deviations or issues identified during monitoring
and analysis.
(a) Activities - Making adjustments to the project plan,
reallocating resources, updating schedules, and managing changes to sCope,
budget, or timelines. Ensuring that corrective actions areeffective.
(b) Tools Change management systems, corrective action
plans, issue tracking systems, project control meetings.
0.24. Explain process instrumentation. (R.G.P.V., Dec.2020)

Ans. Refer to Q.23.

 o.25.Explain the project control. (R.G.PV., Dec. 2020)
Ans. Refer to Q.23.
o.26. What are the various success factors in project control system ?
List afew problems that could arise in project control.
(R.G.PV., May 2024)
Ans. Success factors in project control systems are as follows
()Clear Objectives and Scope Definition -Having well-defined
project goals and scope ensures clarity and alignment among stakeholders.
(ii) Effective Planning and Scheduling - Thorough planning and
realistic scheduling lay a strong foundation for project execution.
(iü) Resource Allocation and Management - Proper allocation
of resources (human, financial, and material) and efficient management
contribute to project success.
(iy) Risk Management - Proactively identifying, assessing, and
mitigating risks helps in avoiding potential issues and minimizing disruptions.
() Communicationand Stakeholder Engagement - Open and
effective communication with stakeholders fosters collaboration and ensures
alignment throughout the project life-cycle.
(vi) Monitoring and Control Regular monitoring of project
performance against predefinedmetrics allows for timely adjustments and
corrective actions.
(vi) Aduptability and Flexibility -The ability to adapt to changes
and unforeseen circumstances without compromising project objectives is
crucial.

(vii) Ouality Assurance and Control- Ensuring that deliverables

eelqualty standards and expectations is essential for customer satisfaction
and project success.
Problems that couldarise in project control
() Scope Creep-Uncontrolled expansion of project scope beyond
what was originally planned, leading to delays and increased costs.
poor cost
(i) Budget Overruns - Exceeding the allocated budget due to
estimation, unforeseen expenses, or mismanagement of financial
TeSources.
(u)Schedule Slippage - Missing project deadlines ormilestones
due to po0r
planning, resource shortages, or unexpected delays.
 (iv) Poor Communication- Ineffective communication among
team members, stakeholders, or with external parties can lead to
misunderstandings, conflicts, and delays.
(v) Risk Management Issues - Failure to identify, assess, or
mitigate risks adequately can result in project failures or disruptions.
(vi)Resource Constraints-Insufficient or misallocated resources
can hinder project progress and impact deliverable quality.
(vii) Lack of Stakeholder Engagement Disengaged or
uninvolved stakeholders may lead to decisions that do not align with project
objectives or stakeholder expectations.
(viiü) Quality Issues - Deliverables that do not meet quality
-

standards can lead to rework, customer dissatisfaction, and additional costs.

 Q.28. Explain the three management indicators metrics in detail.
Or
Explain the management indicators. (R.G.PV.,
(R.G.P.V., Dec.
Dec. 2020,
2020, May 2023)
Ans. Technical progress, financial status, and staffing progress are the three
Tundamental sets of management metrics.Generally, management can assess
Whether a project is on budget and on schedule by examining these
perspectives. Financial status isvery well understood; it always has been.
MIOSt managers know their resource expenditures in terms of costs and
schedule.
 (i) Work and Progress - The number of activities of an iterative
development project can be determined by defining a planned calculate of
the work in an objective measure, then tracking progress against that plan.
Each major organizational team should have at least one main progress
perspective that it is measured against.
Default perspectives of this metric should be as follows -
(a) Software architecture team perspectives are use cases
demonstrated.
(b) Software development team perspective are SLOC under
baseline change management, SCOs closed.
(c) Software assessment team perspectives are SCOs opened,
test hours executed, evaluation criteria met.
(d) Software management team perspective are milestones
completed.
(i) Budgeted Cost and Expenditures Measuring cost
expenditures over the project life-cycle is always essential to maintain
management control. A much more objective assessnment of technical
progress can be performed to compare with cost expenditures through the
judicial use ofthe metrics for work and progress. Generally tracking financial
progress takes on an organization-specific format. Use of an earned value
system is one common approach tofinancial performance measurement,
which gives highly detailed cost and schedule insight. Modern software
processes are amenable to financial performance measurement through an
earned value approach. Generally the basic parameters of an earned value
system, expressed in units ofdollars, are as follows -
(a) Expenditure Plan- This is the planned spending protile
for a project over its planned schedule. Generally this profile tracks the
staffing profilefor most software projects.
(b) Actual Progress - This is the technical accomplishment
relative to the planned progress underlying the spending profile. In a healthy
project, the actual progress tracks planned progress closely.
(c) Actual cost - This is the actual spending protile tor a
project over its actual schedule. In a healthy project, this profile tracksthe
planned profile closely.
(d) Earned Value This is the value which shows the
planned cost of the actualprogress.
(e) Cost Variance - This is the difference betwveen e
actual cost and the earned value. Positive values correspond to over-buag
conditions; negative values correspond to under-budget conditions.
 Sh

(0 Schedule Variance
This is the difference among the
planned
cost and the earned value. Positive values correspond to behind-
dule conditions; negative values correspond to ahead-of-schedule
schedule

conditions.

(ii) Staffing and eam Dynamics An iterative development

should
start with asmall team until the risks in the requirements and
nhitecture have been suitably resolved. Depending on the overlap of
iterations and other project-specific circumstances, staffing can vary. For For
discrete, one-of-a-kind development efforts
(like building a corporate
typical. It is
information system). the staffing profile in fig. 3.10 would be
reasonable to expect the maintenance team to
be smaller than the
product
development team for these sorts of developments.For a commercial
development, the sizes of the maintenance and development
teams may be
involved,
the same. When long-lived, continuously improved products are
better releases.
1 maintenance is just continuous construction of new and
Elaboration Construction Transition
Inception
Effort -65% Effort- 10%
Effort - 5% Effort -20%
Schedule 30% Schedule -50% Schedule- 10%
Schedule-10%

Stafing

Project Schedule

Fig. 3.10 Typical Saffing Profile

429, Ilustrate life cycle-expectations. (R.G.PV., Dec. 2020)
Or
What do you mean by life-cycle expectations ? (R.G.P.V., May 2024)
Or
Briefly explain life-cycle expectations. (R.G.PV., May 2023)
Ans, There is no formal or mathematical derivation for using the seven
ue metrics. But there were Darticular reasons for choosing them -

Falher than0) from

The quality indicators are derived from the evolving product
the artifacts.
(i) They give insight into the waste generated by the process.
 (ii) In most manufacturing processes, scrap and revwork metrics
are a standard measurement perspective.
(iv) They recognize the inherently dynamic nature of an iterative
development process. Rather than focus on the value, they explicitly
concentrate on the trends or changes with respect totime.
(v) The combination of insight from the current value and the
current trend gives tangible indicators for management action.
Q.30. Explainthe process discriminants. (R.G.PV., Dec.2020, May 2023)
Or
Explain the termprocess discriminants. (R.G.P.V., May 2022)
Ans. There are two different dimensions of the project discrimination -
() Technical dimensions (ii) Management dimensions.
Both of these dimensions can be measured from its lower to higher
complexity variability. Following table describes the differentiation between
lower and higher technical/management complexity. That is, indirectly, it
describes the factors which decide that whether the dimension has lower
technical/management complexity or higher technical/management complexity.
The higher and lower technical complexity describe in table 3.3. And the
higher and lower management complexity described in table 3.4.
Table 3.3

S.No. Higher Technical Complexity Lower TechnicalComplexity

(i) Embedded, realtime, distributed, Clear-cut automation
fault tolerant
(ii) High performance Interactive performance
(i) Portable and hence might be Single platform
multiple platform
(iv) Unprecedented Many precedent system
(v) Architectural re-engineering Application re-engineering
Table 3.4

S.No. Higher Management Lower Management

Complexity Complexity
() High scale - More number of Low scale - Limited peoples
peoples work in the team (smaller team) works in the team
(i) Large stakeholders Limited stakeholders
(iii) The final output is Project" The final outputiis Product"
 The average software project which is neither lower nor higher contains
following attributes

() Project development team contains 5 to 12 members

(ii) Completion time of projectis about for 10-12 months
(iii) External interfaces range from 5-6
(iv) Existence of few minor risks.

C3l,Explain the term process discriminants with example.

(R.G.PV., Nov. 2023)
Ans. Refer to ).30.
Example - An example of process discrimination in project
management could be seen in the allocation of resources based on project
priority.
For instance, in a scenario where acompany is managing multipleprojects
simultaneously, some projects may be deemed more critical or time-sensitive
than others. In such cases, project managers might prioritize the allocation
of key resources such as skilled personnel, funding, or specialized equipment
to the projects that are of higher strategic importance or have tighter
deadlines.
Q.32. An air traffic control project of size 500KLOCis to be developed.
Software project team has very little experience on similar projects
and the project schedule is also tight. Calculate the effort,
development time, average staff size and productivity of the project.
(R.G.P.V., May 2022, Nov. 2023)
Ans. The project size is 500 KLOC.
For embedded mode, a =3.6, b= 1.20, c= 2.5 and d =0.32.
Effort (E) = a x (Size)
=3.6 x (500).20= 6238.30 PM
Development time (D)= c x(E)
-2.5 x (6238.30)0.32 =40.96 PM
E 6238.30
Average staff size (SS) = = 152.30persons
D 40.96
KLOC
Productivity (P)
S00 0,08015 KLOC/PM=80 LOC/PM
6238.30
Q.33. Explain why a software system that is used in real-World
environment must change or become progressively less useful.
(R.G.P.V., May 2022, Nov. 2023)
Ans. Asystem that is used in a real-world environment necessarily must
change or become progressively less useful in that environment. Asoftware
not be developed completely, as the requirement changes software
becomes useless or worth so that there is need to update the system as per
the requirements. Asthe system's environment changes, new requirements
emerge and the system must be modified. When the modified system is re
introduced into the environnment, this promotes more environmental changes
so the evolution process recycles.
There are certain reasons that makes software system which is used in
real-world environment must change or become progressively less useful as -
(i) Number of users may increase, and then the burden of the system
requiring is expanding to its hardware capability to handle several connections
(ii) The business model of the company may change so the
system
become obsolete and need for a change to cope its requirements.
(ii) The law in a the particular country may impose a
standard which also affect to software systems.
particular
Q.34. What is the significance of adopting programming
coding standards ? practices and
(R.G.PV., May 2022, Nov. 2023)
Ans. Coding standards are a set of conventions that the
to standardize their computer code to some programmer follows
degree and to make the overall
program easier to read. This will make your programs
understand when it comes time for grading, but it is also easier to read and
practice. It will also allow you toquickly understand good programming
program when you or others look at it in the future. what you did in your
The main advantages of adhering to a
following - standard style of coding are the
) A coding standard gives a uniform
written by different engineers. appearance to the codes
(ii) It facilitates code understanding.
(ii) Itpromotes goodprogramming
practices.
Programming style is important for the following main reasons
() To Simplify Software Maintenance
(a) Readability implies clarity and
understandability
(b) Programs have to be read to be maintained.
 (ii) To Avoid Problems
(a) Good style can avoid common bugs and typos
(b) Good style can make mistakes clear.
To Achieve Simpliciy - Consistency is simplicity.
(iv) To Achieve Readability -
(a) By yourself and others
(b) Nowand ayear from now.

project is in jeopardy?
o35. What are the signs that asoftware
(R.G.PV., May 2022)

Ans. Some the signs

of; that asoftware project is in jeopardy, as follows
scope that is
() The Product Scope is Poorly Defined The
poorly defined.
the usage of the product is
are unreal, i.e
(ii) Deadlines are Unrealistic The deadlines
Sometimnes theproject
thev are just assumed and it may not go as follows. may take less time.
sometimes it
may take more time for completion and
are changes made
(üi) Changes are Managed Poorly-There development is
the product
during the development and sometimes after
very poorly. They are
completed. These changes are at times are managed
handled and managed by the teams in an improper way.
in jeopardy ?What
.36. What are the signs that a software project is situation
manager to tackle this
are the steps to be taken bya project (R.G.PV., Nov. 2023)

Ans. Refer to 0.35.

software project
Steps for a project nmanager to tackle a jeopardized
are as follows
assessmnent of the
() Assess the Situation -Conduct a thorough
and risks.
Project's current status, identifying the root causes of issues
(ü) Re-evaluate Goals and Priorities - Clarify project goals,
00jectives, and priorities with stakeholders to ensure alignment and focus.
(ui) Develop a Recovery Plan -Create a detailed recovery plan
hat includes specific actions. timelines, resource requirementS, and
responsibilities.
tasks
(iv) Prioritize and Sequence Tusks Determine critical
d prioritize them based on their impact on project outcomes. Sequence
tasks logically urce allocation andefficiency.
to optimize resource
 (v) Manage Resources Effectively - Ensure that resourcesg
(human, financial, and technical) are allocated appropriately and efficienty
managed to support recovery efforts.
(vi) Enhance Communication -Improvecommunication channels
and transparency among team members, stakeholders, and clients to foster
trust and collaboration.
(vi) Implement Risk Mitigation Strategies - ldentify and
implement proactive measures to mitigate risks that threaten project success.
Monitor risks closely and adjust strategies as necessary.
(vii)Monitor Progress - Regularly monitor and track progress
against the recovery plan's milestones and objectives. Use metrics and key
performance indicators (KPls) to assess progress objectively.
(ix) Adjust and Adapt Be prepared to make adjustments to the
recovery plan based on new developments or changing circumstances.
Remain adaptable and responsive to emerging challenges.
(3) Seek Sakeholder Support - Engage stakeholders throughout
the recovery process, keeping them informed and inyolved in decision-making
tomaintain their commitment and support.
0.37. Explain how project can be evaluated against strategic, technical
and economic criteria ? R.G.P.V., Dec. 2020)
as. Project evaluation is asystematicmethod for collecting, analyzing and
"S informationto answer questionsabout projects, policies and programs,
jarticulariy about their effectivenessand efficiency. Project evaluation is a
high level assessment of the project, to see whether it is worthwhile to
proceed with the prnject and also see whether the project will fit in the
strategic planning of the whole organization.
Strategie assessment is the first criteria for project evaluation. It is
evaluating and managing the projects, the individual projects should be seen
scomponents of aprogramme. Hence need to do programme management.
According toD.C. Ferns "a programme as a group of projects that are
managed in a coordinated way to gain benefits that would not be possible
were the projects to be managed independently".A programme in this context
is a collection of projects that all contribute to the same overallorganization
goals. Effective programme management requires that there is a well detincd
programme goal and that all the organization's projects are selected and
tuned to contribute to this goal. Evaluation of a project depends on, howit
contributes toprogramme goal and its viability, timing and resourcing
(Shn!
For successful strategic assessment, there should be strategic plan
which
defines,the organization's objectives. This provides the context for
programme and programme goals and hence, the context for
defining
assessingthe
individualI project.
Tochnical assessment is the second criteria for evaluating the project.
functionality against
Tochnical assessment of a proposed system evaluates
and.Isoftware available. Where an organization has a strategic
the hardware
information system plan, this is likely to place limitations on
the nature of
solutionstthat might
be considered. The constraints will, of course, influence
cost of the solution and this must be taken into account in the cost-
the The technology
benefit analysis. It is also referred as technology evaluation.
assessiment is write up on the technical aspects of the project sector and
broadly here to include,
nlanned technical purchases. Technology is defined
products, processes, raw materials, skills and ways of
equipment, tools,
organizing production.
information about the
Technologyassessment provides an organization
technology as well as benefits of implementing new
profitability of current
technology. Ineffective technology needs to be upgraded
or replaced for
business to produce quality products or services.
such as, flexibility,
Technology assessment can happen on several levels
assure that an organization
longevity and upgrade and scale-assessments. To
technology system must be in
can remain competitive, every aspect of its improves the
excellent operating condition. Assessmenton all four levels
chances of this happening.
question of whether the
Economic assessment is based upon the
income and other benefits.
estimated costs are exceeded by the estimated
Additionally, it is usually necessaryto ask whether or not the project under
Consideration is the best of a number of options. There might be more
Candidate projects than can be undertaken at any one time and, in any case,
allocated
Projects will need to be prioritized so that the resources can be
effectively if several projects are underway.
1ne economicassessment can be done by the following ways
() Cost-benefit analysis (ii) Cash flow forecasting
(1) Various cost-benefit evaluation techniques.
() Cost-benefit Analysis -It is one of the important and com
way of carrying "economic assessment" ofa proposed information system.
This is done by comparing the expected costs of development and operation
of the System with its benefits. Any project aiming at return on investment
provide a greater benefit than putting that investment in a bank. The
standard way of evaluating economic benefits of any project is done by
"cost- benefit analysis".
Cost-benefit analysis comprises of two steps
benefits of
Step-1 - ldentifying and estimating all of the costs and
carrying out the project. units.
Step-2- Expressing these costs and benefits in common
Three types of costs are as follows
salary and other
(a) Development Costs - It includes
employment cost of staff involved.
implementation of
(b) Setup Costs - It includes the cost of
recruitment andstaff training.
system such as hardware,and also file conversion,
to operate
(c) Operational Cost - This is the cost required
the system, after it is installed.
Three categories of benefits are as follows -
making
(a) Direct Benefit Directly obtained benefits by
use of /operating the system.
example, reduction of salary bills, through the introduction ofa
For
new, computerized system.
benefits are
(b) Assessable Indirect Benefit These
obtained due to updation/upgrading the performance of current system. It is
also referred as *secondary benefits".
reduction
For example, "use ofuser friendly screen" which promotes
in errors, thus increases the benefit.
(c) Intangible Benefits - These benefits are longer term,
difficult to quantify. It is also referred as "indirect benefits".
For example, enhanced job interest leads to reduction of staff turnover,
which in turn leads lower recruitment costs.
(ü) Cash Flow Forecasting -As important as estimating the overall
costs and benefits of aprojectis producing a cash flow forecast which indicates
when expenditure and inconme will take place. It estimates overall cost and
benefits of aproject with respect to time. Aproject generates anegative cash
flow during development stage andapositive cash flow during its operating life.
(üi) Cost-benefit Evaluation Techniques It considers the timing
of the costs and benefits as well as the benefits relative to the size of the
investment. Some common methods for comparing projects on the basics
of their cash flow forecasting are
(a) Netprofit (b) Payback period (c) Return on investment
(d) Net present value (e) Internal rate of return.