Fuels used in IC engines & alternate fuels for IC engines

Internal combustion engines are seen every day in automobiles, trucks, and buses. The name
internal combustion refers also to gas turbines except that the name is usually applied to
reciprocating internal combustion (I.C.) engines like the ones found in everyday automobiles.
There are basically two types of I.C. ignition engines, those which need a spark plug, and those
that rely on compression of a fluid. Spark ignition engines take a mixture of fuel and
air, compress it, and ignite it using a spark plug. Fig 1 shows a piston and some of its basic
components. The name ‘reciprocating' is given because of the motion that the crank mechanism
goes through. The piston- cylinder engine is basically a crank-slider mechanism, where the
slider is the piston in this case. The piston is moved up and down by
the rotary motion of the two arms or links. The crankshaft rotates which makes the two links
rotate. The piston is encapsulated within a combustion chamber. The bore is the diameter of the
chamber. The valves on top represent
induction and exhaust valves necessary for the intake of an air-fuel mixture and exhaust of
chamber residuals.

Parts of the Engine Block

• Cylinder – the part of the engine block where the combustion takes place.
• Piston – a plunger with rings that fit against the inside cylinder walls and prevent air from
leaking past
• Connecting rod – connects the piston to the crankshaft. Fastened by the wrist pin
• Crankshaft – shaft with offsets to which the connecting rods are attached

Bore and Stroke of a Cylinder

The Fig. 1. Shows the different parts viz., crankshaft, bore, connecting rod, piston, piston pin,
cylinder wall
and the combustion pressure in the cylinder.

Parts of IC engine
Piston and Connecting rod

Piston and connecting rod

Crank Shaft assembly

Crankshaft assembly
Conventional Fuel
Mobility is critical for sustainable development. The share of vehicles with internal
combustion engines exceeds 95% globally (2014). The rest are electric engines and others.
Therefore, engine fuels are one of most important energy sources. Internal combustion
engines can be intermittent (eg, Otto engine, diesel engine) or continuous (aviation turbine),
and these engines use different motor fuels to generate power. Gasolines are the main fuel
for spark ignition internal combustion engines (Otto engines), diesel fuels are for
compression ignition internal combustion engines (Diesel engines), marine fuels are for
shipping, and aviation turbine fuels (JET fuels) are used for aviation turbines. 1.1. Energy
Requirement of Vehicles for Transportation. The energy demand for transportation can be
seen on Figure 1 (1).
It is approximately 23% of the total energy consumption; 53% of the crude oil consumption
globally (2013). The change in energy demand for transportation by regions is shown in
Figures 2 and 3 (1).
The current and prospected use of engine fuels by type is also shown in Figure 3 (1).
Several types of fuels can be used in internal combustion engine, either alone or as a
blending component.
• Types of Fuels: - Otto engines (gasolines, LPG, CNG, ethanol, etc) - Diesel engines
(diesel fuels, CNG, dimethyl ether, etc) - Alternative driving (eg, electricity)
• Origin: - Produced from fossil energy carriers - Produced from renewable energy carriers
(eg, biofuels based on biomass)
• Number of Feedstock Resources: - One resource (eg, fatty acid methyl esters from only
triglyceride and/or fatty acid containing feedstocks) - Multiple resources (eg, ethanol; from
sugar crops, from crops containing starch, lignocellulose, hydration of ethylene, etc).
• Spread: - Generally used conventional fuels (crude oil-based fuels) - Alternative fuels
• Phase: - Liquid - Gas
• Place of Mobility: - Fuels of inland vehicles (eg, gasoline, diesel fuel) - Fuels of aviation
(eg, aviation gasoline, jet fuel) - Fuels of marine transportation (eg, gasoline, heavy diesel
fuels, bunker oil)
 Energy demand of vehicles
• Storageability: - Long term (years)
- Middle term (months)
- Weeks
– Days
• Infrastructure (Supply Chain):
- Conventional (existent)
- Different from conventional (must be built up)
 Project Global consumption
Conventional fuels are those derived from the liquid products of crude oil refining (gasoline,
diesel fuel, jet fuel, marine fuel). Every other is named alternative fuel.
1. Fuels for Vehicles Motor
fuels are blends of natural and/or synthetic materials and their derivatives, which must
satisfy the following general requirements:
– meet energy demand of the specific engine;
– long-term availability in quantity and quality in every location throughout the world;
– environment-friendly during the total life cycle;
– affordable price.
Nowadays, low environmental burden during the total life cycle is one of the basic
requirements. As a result, harmful effects, including acid rains, global warming, low and
high atmospheric ozone problems, smogs, soil and water contamination, adverse health
effects, endangering the flora and fauna, can be reduced or prevented. A large number of
factors determine the suitability and quality of motor fuels of different engines). Fuels for
internal combustion engines for inland mobility must meet many requirements: • high
energy content, • easy recovery and production, • available in high and constant quantity, •
contain no or very low amount of components hazardous to the environment (eg, sulfur
content)
Projection of passenger car distribution by type of energy.
Alternative Fuel
The large increase in number of automobiles in recent years has resulted in great demand for
petroleum products. With crude oil reserves estimated to last only for few decades, there has
been an active search for alternate fuels.
The depletion of crude oil would cause a major impact on the transportation sector. Of the
various alternate fuels under consideration, biodiesel, derived from vegetable oils, is the most
promising alternative fuel to conventional
diesel fuel (derived from fossil fuels; hereafter just “diesel”) due to the following reasons
• Biodiesel can be used in existing engines without any modifications.
• Biodiesel is made entirely from vegetable sources; it does not contain any sulfur, aromatic
hydrocarbons, metals
or crude oil residues.
• Biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel; emissions of carbon monoxide and soot tend to be reduced
compared to conventional diesel fuel.
• Unlike fossil fuels, the use of biodiesel does not contribute to global warming as CO2 emitted
is once again absorbed by the plants grown for vegetable oil/biodiesel production. Thus CO2
balance is maintained.
• The Occupational Safety and Health Administration classify biodiesel as a non-flammable
liquid.
• The use of biodiesel can extend the life of diesel engines because it is more lubricating than
petroleum diesel fuel.
• Biodiesel is produced from renewable vegetable oils/animal fats and hence improves fuel or
energy security and economy independence.

A lot of research work has been carried out using vegetable oil both in its neat form and
modified form. Studies have shown that the usage of vegetable oils in neat form is possible but
not preferable . The high viscosity of vegetable oils and the low volatility affects the
atomization and spray pattern of fuel, leading to incomplete combustion and severe carbon
deposits, injector choking and piston ring sticking. Methods such as blending with
diesel, emulsification, pyrolysis and transesterification are used to reduce the viscosity of
vegetable oils. Among these, the transesterification is the most commonly used commercial
process to produce clean and environmentally friendly fuel.

A large number of studies on performance, combustion and emission using raw vegetable oils
and methyl/ethyl esters of sunflower oil, rice bran oil, palm oil, mahua oil, jatropha oil, karanja
oil, soybean oil, rapeseed oil and rubber seed oil have been carried out on Compression
Ignition(CI) engines. The purpose of this report is to review previous studies that look into the
effect of bio-diesel on CI engine from the viewpoint of performance, combustion
and emissions.
Production of biodiesel
Vegetable oils are chemically complex esters of fatty acids. These are the fats naturally present
in oil seeds, and known as tri-glycerides of fatty acids. The molecular weight of these tri-
glycerides would be of order of 800 kg/m3or more. Because of their high molecular weights
these fats have high viscosity causing major problems in their use as fuels in CI engines. These
molecules have to be split into simpler molecules so that they have viscosity
and other properties comparable to standard diesel oils. Modifying the vegetable oils (to make
them lighter) can be achieved in many ways, including; Pyrolysis, Micro emulsification,
Dilution and Transesterification. Among these, transesterification is the most commonly used
commercial process to produce clean and environmentally friendly
light vegetable oil fuel i.e. biodiesel.

ALTERNATIVE FUELS FOR

INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
This section focuses on physical and chemical characteristics, applications, and production
pathways of biofuels including biodiesel and bioalcohols. In addition, there will be a brief
introduction to other nonbiofueld ICE alternative fuels.

Biodiesel
Among various AFs under consideration, biodiesel is the most promising substitute for
conventional fossil
fuels due to the following reasons:
• Biodiesel can be used in existing IC engines without any modifications.
• Biodiesel is made entirely from renewable sources including plants and animal fats, and it
does not
contain sulfur, aromatics, metals, or crude oil residues.
• Biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel. Emissions of HCs, CO, and soot tend to be substantially
reduced compared to ordinary diesel fuel.
• Unlike fossil fuels, the life cycle CO2 emission of biodiesel is significantly reduced
(w70%e80%
reduction). CO2 emitted is once again absorbed by the oil production plants. Thus, CO2
balance is maintained.
• Biodiesel is classified as a non-flammable liquid.
• The use of biodiesel can extend the life of diesel engines because it is more lubricating than
petroleum
diesel fuel.
• Biodiesel is produced from renewable vegetable oils/ animal fats and hence improves energy
security and economy independence.

Standards and properties of biodiesel

The US biodiesel industry began in the early 1990s in order to produce renewable fuels,
reducing dependence on imported crude oil from energy safety consideration, and
environmental impacts as well as adverse health effects from sustainable development concern.
The American Society of Testing Materials Standards (ASTM) defines biodiesel as “a fuel
comprising mono-alkyl esters of long chain fatty acids derived from vegetable
oils or animal fats”
The first specification for pure biodiesel (B100) was approved by ASTM D6751 in 2001. Soon
after, stakeholders expressed a need for standards involving blending pure biodiesel with
finished fuel. ASTM approved up to 5 vol% (denoted as B5) biodiesel blending with
conventional diesel fuel (ASTM D975) and burner fuel (ASTM D396) in 2008. A separate
standard, ASTMD7467, was adopted for 6e20 vol% blends (B6 to B20) for on- and offroad
diesel fuel in the same year. ASTM is still improving biodiesel standards because of
conventional fuel specification and equipment changes. The increase of biodiesel blending
levels in the market also requires standards modification. In 2003, a more restrictive
specification for biodiesel, that is, EN 14214, was approved by the European Committee for
Standardization in Europe. Updates made in 2008 and 2014 were added to current EN 14214
specification.
the common properties of biodiesels when compared with conventional diesel can be listed as
follows:

• Higher kinematic viscosity: one of the major problems associated with biodiesel is that its
viscosity is usually much higher than that of diesel fuel. Biodiesel can be once or twice as
viscous as petroleum diesel. Higher viscosity leads to poorer fuel atomization and vaporization
and therefore poorer combustion condition. Nonuniform atomization may result in the fuel-rich
pocket and subsequent soot production. Thus, the US ASTM D6751-08 and EN 14214
standards limit the biodiesel viscosity in the range of 1.9e6.0 and 3.5e5.0 mm2/s, respectively.
In general, the viscosity of all esters decreases with increasing level of
unsaturation or shorter ester chain length.

• Higher density: fuel density is a key property affecting engine performance. Both air-fuel
ratio and energy content within the combustion chamber are influenced by fuel density. ASTM
D6751 does not specify the fuel density range. However, according to the EN 14214 standard,
biodiesel should have a density of 860e900 kg/m. Generally,
densities of biodiesel fuels are slightly higher than those of petroleum diesel. Blending
biodiesel with conventional diesel can increase fuel density
The density is reported to be affected by the degree of unsaturation and chain length, where
higher unsaturation and lower chain length lead to increased density

.• Poorer cold flow properties: low-temperature performance is one of the most important
considerations for the application of biodiesel. However, the low-temperature parameter has not
been clarified in the EN 14214-2005 and ASTM D6751- 08 standards. General assessment of
fuel cold flow properties includes cold filter plugging point (CFPP), cloud point (CP), and pour
point (PP). Poor cold flow properties result from the presence of long chains and saturated fatty
acid esters in biodiesel. Longer carbon chain and higher saturated degree contribute to poorer
fuel low-temperature performance.

• Higher flash point: the flash point is inversely related to fuel volatility. The higher flash
point makes biodiesel safer in terms of storage, handling, and transformation. ASTM D6751 is
the most restrictive specification with respect to the minimum flash point
of biodiesel. ASTM D6751 states that B100 must have a flashpoint greater than 130 C, whereas
the European norm, EN 14214, sets a minimum value of 120C .
• Higher CN: CN is the measure of a fuel’s autoignition characteristics. Since biodiesels
mainly consist of long, straight chain hydrocarbons (with virtually no branching or aromatic
structures), it typically has a higher CN than petroleum diesel. Increasing blending level of
biodiesel increases the CN . Generally, a minimum CN of 47 can meet the ASTM standard. CN
ranges between 48 and 67 for biodiesels from different feedstocks. Some literature reported that
increasing degree of unsaturation leads to
decreasing CN. Biodiesel produced from feedstocks rich in saturated fatty acids (such as tallow
and palm) has higher CN than fuels produced from less saturated feedstocks (such as soy and
rapeseed).

• Lower heating value: biodiesels have lower massenergy density than petroleum diesel
because of their higher oxygen content. With increasing fatty acid carbon chain length (for a
constant unsaturation level), the mass fraction of oxygen decreases, and therefore the heating
value increases. The heating value of biodiesel is reported to decrease with increasing
unsaturation level. Neither ASTM nor EN standard includes heating value requirement.

Production pathways
Currently, the feedstocks for biodiesel include plant oils, such as soybean oil, sunflower oil,
corn oil, olive oil, rapeseed oil, castor oil, lesquerella oil, milkweed (Asclepias) seed oil,
Jatropha curcas, mandarin seed, Pongamia glabra (karanja), Madhuca indica (Mahua), and
Salvadora oleoides (Pilu), Calophyllum inophyllum, palm oil, linseed oil, algae, etc., and
animal fats, such as bovine fat, fish oils, pig fat, duck, beef tallow, etc., and used
cooking oil iodiesel can be produced from these oils in four different ways, namely pyrolysis/
cracking, dilution with hydrocarbons (blending), microemulsification, and transesterification.

Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis, or thermal cracking, is the decomposition of one organic substance into a variety of
small molecules by heating with or without the aid of a catalyst. Vegetable oils and animal fats
are mostly composed of triglycerides. The mechanism of triglycerides thermal decomposition is
depictedyrolyzed vegetable oils possess acceptable amounts of sulfur, water, and sediment, as
well as acceptable copper corrosion
values. Many researchers have also indicated that pyrolysis of triglycerides can produce
suitable products for diesel engines. Though biodiesel fuel produced through pyrolysis is
suitable for diesel engines, the removal of oxygen can degrade oxygenated fuels’ environmental
benefits in terms of combustion products consumption. Besides, pyrolyzate (product of
pyrolysis) has lower viscosity, flash point, and PP than petroleum diesel fuel. Furthermore,
other undesirable properties such as lower heating value, volatility, and instability can restrict
the application of pyrolysis biodiesel. Pyrolysis requires complex apparatus including
distillation equipment and is also energy consuming, which all make pyrolysis a relatively
expensive production pathway
 The mechanism of thermal decomposition of triglycerides.

Dilution with hydrocarbons (blending)

The second pathway is dilution with hydrocarbons (blending). Burning vegetable oils are
generally considered
unsatisfactory and impractical for both direct and indirect injection diesel engines. Oil
deterioration and incomplete combustion are the two severe problems
associated with the direct use of vegetable oils in diesel engineso solve these problems,
vegetable oils are usually diluted with diesel, solvent, or ethanol to reduce oil viscosity and
improve engine performance. This method does not require any chemical process. For practical
short-term use, a blending ratio of 1:10e2:10 oil to diesel fuel has been found to be successful.
However, long-term performance tests always failed because of the following reasons:
• High viscosity, acid composition content, and free fatty acid content.
• Gum formation due to oxidation and polymerization
during storage and combustion.
• Carbon deposits and lubricating oil thickening
Accordingly, to use vegetable oils in diesel engines requires significant engine modifications,
including changing of piping and injector construction materials.
Otherwise, engine maintenance costs would increase due to more severe wear as well as the
danger of engine failure.

Microemulsification

Microemulsification is a potential solution for solving the problem of high vegetable oil
viscosity by forming
microemulsions (cosolvency). A microemulsion is a colloidal equilibrium dispersion of
optically isotropic fluid microstructures formed spontaneously from two normally immiscible
liquids and one or more ionic or nonionic amphiphiles Microemulsions are clear,
stable isotropic fluids with three components: an oil phase, an aqueous phase, and a surfactant.
The components
of a biodiesel microemulsion include diesel fuel,vegetable oil, alcohol, and surfactant and
cetane improver in suitable proportions. Alcohols, such as
methanol and ethanol, are used as viscosity lowering additives, higher alcohols are used as
surfactants, and alkyl nitrates are used as cetane improvers. All microemulsions with butanol,
hexanol, and octanol can meet the maximum viscosity limitation for diesel engines
. The oil droplet dimension is generally within 1e150 nm range. Microemulsification can
improve
spray properties by explosive vaporization of the low boiling constituents in the micelles.
Microemulsion reduces
biodiesel viscosity and improves spray performance,and increases CN as well. However,
continuous use of microemulsified diesel in engines
causes problems such as irregular injector needle sticking,heavy carbon deposits, and
incomplete combustion

Transesterification

Transesterification (also called alcoholysis) is the reaction of a fat or oil with an alcohol to form
esters and glycerol, which is the most common biodiesel production
technology. Oils and fats (triglycerides) are converted to alkyl esters through transesterification,
with reduced
viscosity to near diesel fuel levels. Thus, the product has similar properties to petroleum-based
diesel fuel,
enabling its use as a drop-in fuel, that is, usage in existing petroleum diesel engines without any
modification.

The first step is the conversion of triglycerides to diglycerides, which is followed by the
conversion of
diglycerides to monoglycerides and of monoglycerides to glycerol, yielding one methyl ester
molecule from
each glyceride at each step. A triglyceride has a glycerin molecule as its base with three long-
chain fatty acids attached. The characteristics of the oil/fat are determined
by the nature of the fatty acids attached to the glycerin. The nature of the fatty acids can, in
turn, affect the characteristics of the biodiesel he general chemical reaction depicting
transesterification
of triglycerides.

Bioethanol

Bioethanol is a promising renewable and sustainable liquid fuel for tackling today’s global
energy crisis and
the worsening environment quality. During the early 1900e1970s, bioethanol was ignored
because of its high production cost compared to petrol. The outbreak
of oil crisis and technology development made it a promising AF for SI and CI engines.
Bioethanol is commercially used in some countries, presenting several advantages in relation to
gasoline, mainly concerning engine performance and efficiency. The physicochemical
properties of bioethanol are summarized in
and the favorable properties of this bioalcohol are listed below:
• Bioethanol has a higher octane number, preventing
engine knocking and early ignition and leading to high antiknock value
• Its higher oxygen content allows cleaner combustion and reduces soot, CO, and HC emissions
compared to fossil fuels .
• It helps to reduce up to 80% life cycle CO2 emission compared to fossil fuels .
• It has broader flammability limits, higher flame speed, higher heat of vaporization and shorter
ignition timing, which enhance fuel combustion compared to fossil fuels.
• It is biodegradable and does not contain aromatics, olefins, and diolefin.

However, bioethanol also has several disadvantages:

• It is miscible with water and therefore it is corrosive to engine components.
• It can increase internal wear and generate a spark, which is undesirable to electric fuel pumps.

Biobutanol
Biobutanol is another promising renewable fuel that presents several advantages for use in
ICEs. Butanol can be used as gasoline additives, presenting straightchain
or branched structures, corresponding to nbutanol, isobutanol, and tert-butanol. Applications of
butanol-gasoline blends and neat butanol have also been demonstrated on engines without
modifications. Normal butanol occupies the best compatibility with gasoline. Biobutanol could
be an option in terms
of blending with diesel to reduce soot and other hazardous
emissions.
Compared to most commonly used lower-carbon bioalcohol fuels, n-butanol has some
beneficial features.
Some of the main physical and chemical properties of gasoline, diesel, methanol, ethanol, and
n-butanol are listed.
Advantages of n-butanol are listed below
• Higher heating value: butanol has around 50% higher volumetric energy density than that of
ethanol. In practice, it means that lower fuel consumption rate
and better mileage can be achieved.
• Lower volatility: the volatility of alcohols decreases with increasing carbon number. It means
that nbutanol is less likely to vaporize and its flash point is higher compared to ethanol. These
two characteristics

Liquefied petroleum gas(LPG)

As an alternative to gasoline, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is extracted from crude oil during
refining process
of petroleum and from natural gas alternatively. It is also obtained from oil/gas mining as a
byproduct. LPG
composition varies significantly globally, but it is primarily a mixture of four species: propane,
propylene, isobutane, and n-butane . LPG has a lower carbon
content, higher heat value, octane number, and flame propagation speed. These favorable
properties can reduce gaseous and PM emission levels compared to
gasoline fuel. Many studies reported that LPG was a clean-burning fuel and could be used in SI
engines without modification.
 Schematic of biobutanol production process

Hydrogen (H2)
H2 is widely used over a wide range of industries due to the following reasons:
• The high octane number of H2 provides the opportunity to increase the compression ratio and
the engine efficiency.
• Its high energy density in mass basis.
• Its wide flammability limits also enable unthrottled operation with lean combustion.
• H2 combustion does not produce carbon-related emissions, such as CO, CO2, and PM, due to
the absence of C atoms.The favorable properties of H2 attract many researchers’ attention
trying to commercialize H2 usage in ICEs. However, there are still some disadvantages and
technical barriers by now:
• The greater heat transfer losses through the cylinder wall with H2 fueled engines.
• Backfire and preignition, which are critical issues for H2-fueled engines.
• The immature technology of production, storage, and transportation of H2.

Coal-to-liquid (CtL)
CtL as an alternative fuel to diesel is considered to be one of the technology options to reduce
petroleum consumption in on-road transportation. The CtL technology includes coal pyrolysis
technology, direct coal liquefaction technology, and indirect coal liquefaction technology (F-T
synthesis). Compared to the first two technologies, indirect coal liquefaction technology
features high conversion ratio and high adaptability of coal. For indirect liquefaction, coal is
firstly gasified into the mixture of H2 and CO, which is then converted
to oil through F-T synthesis . The CtL pathway offers the benefit of complete compatibility
with existing infrastructure and vehicle fleet, which implies a near zero transition cost
However, from the fuel production perspective, CtL production technology
still faces the uncertainties of energy efficiency,environmental impacts, and economic
feasibility. Compared with the alcohols pathways, the water consumption
and CO2 emissions of CtL pathway are generally higher.
 Hydrocarbons

In organic chemistry, a hydrocarbon is an organic compound consisting

entirely of hydrogen and carbon. Hydrocarbons are examples of group 14
hydrides. Hydrocarbons from which one hydrogen atom has been
removed are functional groups called hydrocarbyls. Hydrocarbons are
generally colorless and hydrophobic with only weak odors. Because of
their diverse molecular structures, it is difficult to generalize further.

Ball-and-stick model of the methane molecule,

CH4. Methane is part of a homologous series known
as the alkanes, which contain single bonds only.

ORIGIN

The vast majority of hydrocarbons found on Earth occur in petroleum, coal, and
natural gas. Petroleum (literally "rock oil" – petrol for short) and coal are generally
thought to be products of decomposition of organic matter. In contrast to petroleum, is
coal, which is richer in carbon and poorer in hydrogen. Natural gas is the product
of methanogenesis.
A seemingly limitless variety of compounds comprise petroleum, hence the necessity
of refineries. These hydrocarbons consist of saturated hydrocarbons, aromatic
hydrocarbons, or combinations of the two. Missing in petroleum are alkenes and
alkynes. Their production requires refineries. Petroleum-derived hydrocarbons are
mainly consumed for fuel, but they are also the source of virtually all synthetic organic
compounds, including plastics and pharmaceuticals. Natural gas is consumed almost
exclusively as fuel. Coal is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in metallurgy.
TYPES OF HYDROCARBONS

As defined by IUPAC nomenclature of organic chemistry, the classifications for

hydrocarbons are:

1. Saturated hydrocarbons are the simplest of the hydrocarbon species. They are
composed entirely of single bonds and are saturated with hydrogen. The
formula for acyclic saturated hydrocarbons (i.e., alkanes) is CnH2n+2. The most
general form of saturated hydrocarbons is CnH2n+2(1-r), where r is the number of
rings. Those with exactly one ring are the cycloalkanes. Saturated hydrocarbons
are the basis of petroleum fuels and are found as either linear or branched
species. Substitution reaction is their characteristics property (like chlorination
reaction to form chloroform). Hydrocarbons with the same molecular formula but
different structural formulae are called structural isomers. As given in the
example of 3-methylhexane and its higher homologues, branched hydrocarbons
can be chiral. Chiral saturated hydrocarbons constitute the side chains
of biomolecules such as chlorophyll and tocopherol.

2. Unsaturated hydrocarbons have one or more double or triple bonds between

carbon atoms. Those with double bond are called alkenes. Those with
one double bond have the formula CnH2n (assuming non-cyclic
structures). Those containing triple bonds are called alkyne. Those with one
triple bond have the formula CnH2n−2.

3. Aromatic hydrocarbons, also known as arenes, are hydrocarbons that have at

least one aromatic ring.

Hydrocarbons can
be gases (e.g. methane and propane), liquids (e.g. hexane and benzene), waxes or
low melting solids (e.g. paraffin wax and naphthalene)
or polymers (e.g. polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene).
The term 'aliphatic' refers to non-aromatic hydrocarbons. Saturated aliphatic
hydrocarbons are sometimes referred to as 'paraffins'. Aliphatic hydrocarbons
containing a double bond between carbon atoms are sometimes referred to as
'olefins'.
Simple hydrocarbons and their variations

Variations on hydrocarbons based on the number of carbon atoms

Numb
er of
Alkane (sing Alkene (double
carbo Alkyne (triple bond) Cycloalkane Alkadiene
le bond) bond)
n
atoms

1 Methane — — — —

2 Ethane Ethene (ethylene) Ethyne (acetylene) — —

Propene (propyle Propyne (methylacetyl Cyclopropan

3 Propane Propadiene (allene)
ne) ene) e

4 Butane Butene (butylene) Butyne Cyclobutane Butadiene

Cyclopentan Pentadiene (piperyle

5 Pentane Pentene Pentyne
e ne)

6 Hexane Hexene Hexyne Cyclohexane Hexadiene

Cycloheptan
7 Heptane Heptene Heptyne Heptadiene
e

8 Octane Octene Octyne Cyclooctane Octadiene

9 Nonane Nonene Nonyne Cyclononane Nonadiene

10 Decane Decene Decyne Cyclodecane Decadiene

Cycloundeca
11 Undecane Undecballene Undecyne Undecadiene
ne

Cyclododeca
12 Dodecane Dodecene Dodecyne Dodecadiene
ne
 GASOLINE SPECIFICATIONS

FUEL SPECIFICATION: Fuel specifications define requirements for physical properties and chemical
composition of the fuels, and are meant to ensure that commercial fuels are of sufficient quality and compatible
with engine and emission control technologies that will be required to meet BS VI emission standards.
From an emissions and air quality perspective, the most important parameter defined in the fuel quality
specifications is the maximum sulphur content of gasoline and diesel fuels. In both cases, sulphur content is
limited to a maximum of 10 ppm in the proposed BS VI regulation, which matches global best practices. Low
sulphur fuels enable the use of advanced aftertreatment control technologies, which greatly reduce emission
rates of pollutants that have a significant human health burden, such as particulate matter (PM) and nitrogen
oxides (NOX).
While proposed BS VI fuel specifications largely follow European regulations, proposed limits for several
commercial gasoline and diesel fuel parameters in India differ from EU values. These parameters include
octane number and olefin content for regular grade gasoline; and density, 95% distillation boiling point (T95),
and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) content for diesel. This working paper details these differences
in fuel specifications for commercial gasoline and diesel fuels in India and the EU, and assesses potential air
pollutant emission impacts of these differences.
The proposed BS VI regulation specifies requirements for two grades of commercial gasoline, regular and
premium. Table 1 compares proposed Indian gasoline specifications with those set in other countries and
regions with stringent motor vehicle emission control requirements. For the parameters discussed here, octane
number and olefin content, specifications for premium grade BS VI gasoline match Euro 6 values. For regular
grade BS VI gasoline, a lower octane number and higher olefin content is permitted.
OCTANE NUMBER: The octane number of gasoline provides a measure of the fuel’s ability to resist auto-
ignition, which can cause engine knock and engine damage. The octane number is determined from laboratory
testing and, depending on the test method used, expressed as a Research Octane Number (RON) or Motor
Octane Number (MON). In some regions, octane rating is expressed using an anti-knock index (AKI), which
is equal to the average of the RON and MON of the fuel.
OLEFIN CONTENT: Olefins are a class of hydrocarbon compounds characterized by the presence of at
least one carbon-carbon double bond. The presence of this double bond makes olefins more reactive than other
gasoline components such as paraffinic or aromatic compounds. This reactivity has several implications for
combustion dynamics and air pollutant emissions. Generally, increased olefin content improves combustion
efficiency, which may lower hydrocarbon (HC) emissions and increase NOX emissions. Increased olefin
content may also result in increased emissions of the air toxic 1,3-butadiene, which is a product of the
incomplete combustion of olefin precursors.4 Because of their reactivity, olefins also tend to have higher
ozone formation potentials than other hydrocarbon components in gasoline fuels.
TABLE 1
Comparison of fuel specifications for selected gasoline specifications
Comparison of Indian Gasoline Specification required meeting Bharat Stage II, III, & IV and VI
Emission Norms.
India’s current gasoline standards took effect on 1 Apr 2010. These standards required marked improvements
from pre-2010 levels. Benzene limits were reduced from 3% in previously BS III cities and 5% elsewhere to
1% nationwide. The aromatic content limit, which was unregulated under Bharat II, stands at 42% under
Bharat III norms and 35% under Bharat IV. Olefins, which were also unregulated under Bharat II, now stand
at 21% and 18% for regular unleaded and premium unleaded, respectively, under Bharat III and Bharat IV
regulations. Higher olefin content, along with higher Reid vapor pressure (RVP), tends to create more
evaporative emissions, which leads to the formation of ozone (O3) and other toxins in the atmosphere. Sulphur
content was lowered to 150 ppm nationwide and 50 ppm in Bharat IV compliant cities in 2010. Under BS II,
the octane number had been increased to 88 and 93 for regular and premium, respectively. It was further
increased to 91 and 95 for regular and premium, respectively, under BS III and beyond. With the exception of
reduced fuel sulphur content, the gasoline fuel quality mandated by BS VI is similar to that of BS IV fuel.
With respect to gasoline sulphur content, India presently lags behind international best practices. At the start
of 2013, 23 cities required no more than 50 ppm sulphur in gasoline, while in the rest of the country up to 150
ppm sulphur was allowed. As of 2016, nearly half of the country requires 50 ppm gasoline. India will meet
international best practices with the implementation of BS VI, which will require 10 ppm sulphur gasoline.

Characteris Bharat Bharat Bharat Bharat Stage

Unit
tics Stage II Stage III Stage IV VI

2001 2005 2010

(selected (selected (selected
cities), cities), cities),20 2020*(nation
Implementation date
2005 2010 17 wide)
(nationwi (nationwi (nationwi
de) de) de)

Density Kg/m
3 710-770 720-775 720-775 720-775
15°C

Research
Octane
min 88 91 91 91/95†
Number
(RON)

Anti-
Knock
Index
(AKI) or
min 84 81 81 81/85†
Motor
Octane
Number
(MON)

Sulphur,
ppm 500 150 50 10
max

Lead, max g/L 0.013 0.005 0.005 0.005

3
% (metro),
Benzene,
volu 5 1.0 1.0 1.0
max
me (nationwi
de)
 %
Aromatics,
volu – 42 35 35
max
me

%
Olefin,
volu – 21/18 21/18 21/18†
max
me

Oxygen
%
Content, – 2.7 2.7 2.7
mass
max
Internal Combustion Engine generally operates within a useful range of speed.
Some engines are made to run at fixed speed by means of a speed governor which
is its rated speed. At each speed within the useful range the power output varies
and it has a maximum usable value. The ratio of power developed to the
maximum usable power at the same speed is called the load. The specific fuel
consumption varies with load and speed. The performance of the engine depends
on inter-relationship between power developed, speed and the specific fuel
consumption at each operating condition within the useful range of speed and
load.

The following factors are to be considered in evaluating the performance

of an engine:

 Maximum power or torque available at each speed within the useful range
of speed.
 The range of power output at constant speed for stable operation of the
engine. The different speeds should be selected at equal intervals within
the useful speed range.
 Brake specific fuel consumption at each operating condition within the
useful range of operation.
 Reliability and durability of the engine for the given range of operation.

Engine performance is really a relative term. It is represented by typical

characteristic curves which are functions of engine operating parameters. The
term performance usually means how well an engine is doing its job in relation
to the input energy or how effectively it provides useful energy in relation to some
other comparable engines.

Some of the important parameters are speed, inlet pressure and temperature,
output, air-fuel ratio etc. The useful range of all these parameters is limited by
various factors, like mechanical stresses, knocking, over-heating etc. Due to this,
there is a practical limit of maximum power and efficiency obtainable from an
engine. The performance of an engine is judged from the point of view of the two
main factors, viz., engine power and engine efficiency.

Besides the overall efficiency, various other efficiencies are encountered when
dealing with the theory, design and operation of engines.
Engine Performance Characteristics

Engine performance characteristics are a convenient graphical presentation of an

engine performance. They are constructed from the data obtained during actual
test runs of the engine and are particularly useful in comparing the performance
of one engine with that of another. In this section some of the important
performance characteristics of the SI engines are discussed. It is to be noted that
there is a certain speed, within the speed range of a particular engine, at which
the charge inducted per cylinder per cycle will be the maximum. At this point,
the maximum force can therefore be exerted on the piston. For all practical
purposes, the torque, or engine capacity to do work will also be maximum at this
point. Thus, there is a particular engine speed at which the charge per cylinder
per cycle is a maximum, and at approximately this same speed, the torque of the
engine will be a maximum.

As the speed of the engine is increased above this speed the quantity of the
indicated charge will decrease. However, the power output of the engine increases
with speed due to more number of cycles are executed per unit time. It should be
noted that the air consumption will continue to increase with increased engine
speed until some point is reached where the charge per cylinder per stroke
decreases very rapidly than the number of strokes per unit time is increasing.
Engines are so designed that the maximum air consumption point is not reached
within the operating speed of the engine. Increase in air consumption means that
increased quantities of fuel can be added per unit time increasing the power
output. In fact, the ip produced in the cylinder is almost directly proportional to
the engine air consumption. The relationship between air charge per cylinder per
cycle and torque, as well as air consumption and ip is illustrated in Fig. Note that
the maximum torque occurs at a lower speed than the maximum ip.
Figure shows some of the other important performance characteristics for a
typical SI engine. In this figure, torque, ip, bp and fp are plotted against engine
speed throughout the operating range of the engine, at full throttle and variable
load. The difference between the ip produced in the cylinder, and the bp realized
at the drive-shaft, is the fp. At low engine speeds, the fp is relatively low, and bp
is close to ip. As engine speed increases, the fp increases at a greater rate. At
engine speeds above the usual operating range, fp increases very rapidly. Also, at
these higher speeds, ip will reach a maximum and then fall off. At some point, ip
and f p will be equal, and bp will then drop to zero. Note that the torque reaches
a maximum at approximately 60% of the rated rpm of the engine, while the ip has
not reached maximum even at the rated speed.

Typical SI Engine Performance Curves

Figure shows fuel consumption and bsfc plotted against the engine speed, for the
same engine operating under the same conditions. The quantity of fuel consumed
increases with engine speed. The bsfc, on the other hand, drops as the speed is
increased in the low speed range, nearly levels off at medium speeds, and
increases in the high speed range, At low speeds, the heat loss to the combustion
chamber walls is proportionately greater and combustion efficiency is poorer,
resulting in higher fuel consumption for the power produced. At the high speeds,
the f p is increasing at a rapid rate, resulting in a slower increase in bp than in fuel
consumption, with a consequent increase in bsfc.
 Typical Fuel Consumption Curves for an SI Engine
The bsfc curve of Fig. is for full throttle, variable speed operation. At any one
speed, it represents the bsfc which will result when the engine is carrying its
maximum load at that speed. By reducing throttle opening and load, that same
speed may be obtained, but at loads less than the maximum. A family of curves
for various speeds can be obtained, each showing the effect on bsfc of varying
the load at constant speed. Under these conditions of constant speed and variable
load, and at a constant air-fuel ratio, the bsfc will rise consistently and rapidly as
the load (and throttle opening) is decreased. Figure illustrates the general shape
of the curve for any given rpm. The reason for the rapid increase in bsfc with the
reduction in throttle opening is that the fp remains essentially constant, while the
ip is being reduced. The bp drops more rapidly than fuel consumption, and
thereby the bsfc rises.

Bsfc Curve at Constant Speed and Variable Load

Fuel Injection system for SI engines

1. Carburetion
Spark-ignition engines normally use volatile liquid fuels. Preparation of fuel-air
mixture is done outside the engine cylinder and formation of a homogeneous
mixture is normally not completed in the inlet manifold. Fuel droplets, which
remain in suspension, continue to evaporate and mix with air even during suction
and compression processes. The process of mixture preparation is extremely
important for spark-ignition engines. The purpose of carburetion is to provide a
combustible mixture of fuel and air in the required quantity and quality for
efficient operation of the engine under all conditions.

Definition of Carburetion
The process of formation of a combustible fuel-air mixture by mixing the proper
amount of fuel with air before admission to engine cylinder is called carburetion
and the device which does this job is called a carburetor.

Definition of Carburetor
The carburetor is a device used for atomizing and vaporizing the fuel and mixing
it with the air in varying proportions to suit the changing operating conditions of
vehicle engines.

Factors Affecting Carburetion

Of the various factors, the process of carburetion is influenced by
i. The engine speed
ii. The vaporization characteristics of the fuel
iii. The temperature of the incoming air and
iv. The design of the carburetor
Principle of Carburetion
Both air and gasoline are drawn through the carburetor and into the engine
cylinders by the suction created by the downward movement of the piston. This
suction is due to an increase in the volume of the cylinder and a consequent
decrease in the gas pressure in this chamber.

It is the difference in pressure between the atmosphere and cylinder that causes
the air to flow into the chamber. In the carburetor, air passing into the combustion
chamber picks up discharged from a tube. This tube has a fine orifice called
carburetor jet that is exposed to the air path.

The rate at which fuel is discharged into the air depends on the pressure difference
or pressure head between the float chamber and the throat of the venturi and on
the area of the outlet of the tube. In order that the fuel drawn from the nozzle may
be thoroughly atomized, the suction effect must be strong and the nozzle outlet
comparatively small. In order to produce a strong suction, the pipe in the
carburetor carrying air to the engine is made to have a restriction. At this
restriction called throat due to increase in velocity of flow, a suction effect is
created. The restriction is made in the form of a venturi to minimize throttling
losses.

The end of the fuel jet is located at the venturi or throat of the carburetor. The
geometry of venturi tube. It has a narrower path at the center so that the flow area
through which the air must pass is considerably reduced. As the same amount of
air must pass through every point in the tube, its velocity will be greatest at the
narrowest point. The smaller the area, the greater will be the velocity of the air,
and thereby the suction is proportionately increased

As mentioned earlier, the opening of the fuel discharge jet is usually loped where
the suction is maximum. Normally, this is just below the narrowest section of the
venturi tube. The spray of gasoline from the nozzle and the air entering through
the venturi tube are mixed together in this region and a combustible mixture is
formed which passes through the intake manifold into the cylinders. Most of the
fuel gets atomized and simultaneously a small part will be vaporized. Increased
air velocity at the throat of the venturi helps he rate of evaporation of fuel. The
difficulty of obtaining a mixture of sufficiently high fuel vapour-air ratio for
efficient starting of the engine and for uniform fuel-air ratio indifferent cylinders
(in case of multi cylinder engine) cannot be fully met by the increased air velocity
alone at the venturi throat.

2. The Simple Carburetor

Carburetors are highly complex. Let us first understand the working principle bf
a simple or elementary carburetor that provides an air fuel mixture for cruising or
normal range at a single speed. Later, other mechanisms to provide for the various
special requirements like starting, idling, variable load and speed operation and
acceleration will be included.

The simple carburetor mainly consists of a float chamber, fuel discharge nozzle
and a metering orifice, a venturi, a throttle valve and a choke. The float and a
needle valve system maintain a constant level of gasoline in the float chamber. If
the amount of fuel in the float chamber falls below the designed level, the float
goes down, thereby opening the fuel supply valve and admitting fuel. When the
designed level has been reached, the float closes the fuel supply valve thus

stopping additional fuel flow from the supply system. Float chamber is vented
either to the atmosphere or to the” upstream side of the venturi.During suction
stroke air is drawn through the
venturi.

As already described, venturi is a tube of decreasing cross-section with a

minimum area at the throat, Venturi tube is also known as the choke tube and is
so shaped that it offers minimum resistance to the air flow. As the air passes
through the venturi the velocity increases reaching a maximum at the venturi
throat. Correspondingly, the pressure decreases reaching a minimum. From the
float chamber, the fuel is fed to a discharge jet, the tip of which is located in the
throat of the venturi. Because of the differential pressure between the float
chamber and the throat of the venturi, known as carburetor depression, fuel is
discharged into the air stream.

The fuel discharge is affected by the size of the discharge jet and it is
chosen to give the required air-fuel ratio. The pressure at the throat at the fully
open throttle condition lies between 4 to 5 cm of Hg, below atmospheric and
seldom exceeds8 cm Hg below atmospheric. To avoid overflow of fuel through
the jet, the level of the liquid in the float chamber is maintained at a level slightly
below the tip of the discharge jet. This is called the tip of the nozzle. The
difference in the height between the top of the nozzle and the float chamber level.

The gasoline engine is quantity governed, which means that when power output
is to be varied at a particular speed, the amount of charge delivered to the cylinder
is varied. This is achieved by means of a throttle valve usually of the butterfly
type that is situated after the venturi tube.

As the throttle is closed less air flows through the venturi tube and less is the
quantity of air-fuel mixture delivered to the cylinder and hence power output is
reduced. As the” throttle is opened,

more air flows through the choke tube resulting in increased quantity of mixture
being delivered to the engine. This increases the engine power output. A simple
carburetor of the type described above suffers from a fundamental drawback in
that it provides the required A/F ratio only at one throttle position.

At the other throttle positions the mixture is either leaner or richer

depending on whether the throttle is opened less or more. As the throttle opening
is varied, the air flow varies and creates a certain pressure differential between
the float chamber and the venturi throat. The same pressure differential regulates
the flow of fuel through the nozzle. Therefore, the velocity of flow of air II and
fuel vary in a similar manner.
Engine performance is often characterized by the engine operating behavior in the speed–load domain, for
example, the behavior of emissions, fuel consumption, noise, mechanical and thermal loading. Engine
performance maps refer to the constant value contour plots of a given performance parameter in the speed–
torque domain.
Vehicle performance represented by maximum speed, gradeability, and acceleration is completely determined
by the vehicle tractive effort developed by the engine or electric motor and the resistance in the vehicle motion
direction. Figure illustrates the forces acting on a vehicle, which is running uphill.

FIGURE(1)
The forces acting on the vehicle in the vehicle moving direction are tractive effort, Ft, and resistances including
rolling resistance, aerodynamic drag, grading resistance, and inertial force induced by acceleration.
All these forces are always in a balanced state, which can be described by
Ft = Fr + Fw + Fi + Fa -(1)

or more detail

- (2)

Equation (1) can further be written as

- (3)
Equation (2) or (3) interprets the general operation behavior of a vehicle and is used to analyze vehicle
performance. Depicting (3) using a tractive effort versus rolling resistance and aerodynamic drag on grade road
is very helpful for vehicle performance analysis as shown in Figures below
 FIGURE(2) FIGURE(3)

1. Maximum vehicle speed

The maximum speed of a vehicle is defined as the speed that can be reached when the power plant operates with
its maximum capability (full open throttle for an IC engine and maximum current for an electric motor) on a flat
road. Running on its maximum speed, no grading resistance and inertia force exists. Thus, (3) becomes

-(4)
On the diagrams of Figs. 2 and 3, maximum speed of vehicle can be obtained as the intersection of the tractive
effort curve and the resistance curve at zero grade road.

2. Gradeability
Gradeability of a vehicle is defined as the road grade or grade angle that the vehicle can overcome at a specified
speed, for example, 100 km/h, or the maximum grade at low speed. While running on an uphill grade with
constant speed, 2 and 3 become

(5)
AND

(6)
The gradeability can be directly obtained by reading Figs. 2 and 3. For instance, for the gasoline engine–
powered vehicle, running at 100 km/h, gradeabilities of 5.5 (9.6%) for fourth gear, 7.5 (13%) for third gear, and
32.5 (63.7%) at speed of about 20 km/h are obtained. Similarly, for the
electric motor–powered vehicle, around 8 (14%) at the speed of 100 km/h and 24 (44.5%) at speeds lower than
50 km/h are obtained.

3. Acceleration performance
Acceleration performance of a vehicle is interpreted by the time used for accelerating the
vehicle from a low speed (general zero speed) to a specified high speed (e.g., 100 km/h) on a level road. The
acceleration time can be calculated by

(7)
where Vf is the specified final speed and a is the acceleration rate in m/s2, which can be obtained
from (2) as

(8)

The distance covered during acceleration canbe calculated by

(9)

A digital integration method may be used to solve (7)–(8). Figures 4 and 5 show the acceleration
time and distance for a gasoline engine–powered and electric motor–powered vehicle.
OVERVIEW

This assignment presents an overview of the efforts to figure out Road

performance and fuel economy. This assignment reviews the principles
involved in determining the external loads on vehicles from longitudinal
and lateral accelerations, aerodynamic drag, rolling resistance, and
various grades. Examples of loads measured in the field and related
dynamometer tests for selected vehicles for fuel consumption and air
contaminant emissions are provided.

HIGHWAY FACTORS AFFECTING FUEL ECONOMY

The elements influencing vehicle efficiency that fall inside the territory of
the expressway creator incorporate essentially (an) interstate math and
structure and (b) vehicle activity (speed versus separation) as impacted
by expressway math, traffic signals, and interstate environmental factors.
For a given vehicle, increasing speeds (i.e., speeds up) can force the
biggest requests in fuel stream rate; the second-biggest effect on the
prompt fuel rate is street level (longitudinal slant). Significant optional
contemplations material to every one of these operational factors regularly
are neglected: for increasing speeds, the level of complete working time
that is spent quickening and the overall greatness of increasing speed
rates, and for grades, both the level of slant and (generally significant)
regardless of whether a similar change in height is to be cultivated on
every one of at least two distinct evaluations.

After levels, the second mathematical component of roadways that most

influence efficiency and air contamination emanations is even
arrangement or ebb and flow. On the off chance that the street must alter
course, the main controls left to the architect are the span of bend,
superelevation (cross over "banking"), and configuration speed. By and
large, it is attractive to evade or limit speed changes in light of the fact that
these will in general decline mileage and can mess wellbeing up. Besides
keeping the bend span sufficiently long to give safe driving, what amount
does bend sweep impact mileage and air contamination discharges, are
the connections unsurprising, and would they be able to be summed up
over a scope of vehicles? This undertaking showed that the impacts of
bend span and speed can be estimated, are numerically nonstop over a
wide scope of the two boundaries, and can be summed up for a scope of
vehicle types.

Street surface harshness is another thruway "include" that can influence

efficiency and air contamination emanations. The data assembled
regarding this matter during this venture demonstrated that most streets
conveying any critical volume of traffic presumably would be reemerged
for reasons of security and client comfort before the unpleasantness effect
on steady speed efficiency drew nearer around 4 to 5 percent on the
particular patches of harshness. Note that, if an unpleasant spot makes
drivers delayed down (particularly by slowing down) and afterward to
quicken, this speed change can build fuel utilization.

Past these elements over which the roadway architect has some control,
varieties in the conduct of various drivers expand the scope of mileage
esteems that can be normal from a given vehicle. This was illustrated, at
a steady speed on open parkways, by a restricted test exertion under this
venture. Consequently, it was inferred that the reasons for this venture
didn't request the furthest extent of loyalty in repeating the fuel utilization
qualities of a specific vehicle that had been tried; those test boundaries
would be impacted by different sums in the possession of various drivers.
Or maybe, the roadway execution estimations should reflect with sensible
precision the general impacts of various interstate plan highlights on the
presentation of the vehicles examined.

Road Performance Curves: Acceleration, Gradability and

Drawbar Pull

Traveller car performance depends on increasing speed, capacity to go

up a slant, maximum velocity, efficiency, clamor level, and sturdiness.
Transmission outfitting is intended to give the greatest quickening at low
speed by holding the driving wheel force yield at the purpose of
approaching wheel turn. As wheel turn happens, the quickening
diminishes from the greatest. Likewise, the apparatus is intended for most
extreme mileage when the motor is creating 80% of its greatest force as
the car is moving at a steady speed. This gives 20% extra force for
increasing speed. The force needed to drive car increments as the 3D
square of the speed for example it takes multiple times the ability to
twofold the speed. At the point when the force accessible matches the
force needed to push the vehicle, the speed gets steady. Overabundance
power is required for quickening and slope climbing. Greatest speed is
arrived at when there is no abundance of power remaining. The figure
beneath delineates the variety of max speed power accessible at the
wheels for four rigging proportions with street speed. A bend,
demonstrating the force required by a vehicle at different street speeds is
additionally introduced.

At any speed, the distinction of ordinates of intensity accessible and power

required by vehicle gives the overflow power, which can be used either for
increasing speed or for drawbar pull or for slope climbing. Or, in all
likelihood the excess force might be shared by all the three things as and
when required.

Figure 1

By utilizing the recipe given in segment 31.3, the force is accessible as

demonstrated in Fig. 31.3 can be changed over into the tractive exertion.
Henceforth tractive exertion execution bends for four rigging proportions
can be plotted against street speed as in Fig. 31.4. In this figure, a street
obstruction bend is additionally introduced. The distinction between the
ordinates of tractive exertion and street obstruction at any street speed
gives the excess tractive exertion, which is used for increasing speed,
drawbar pull, and slope climbing.

Acceleration
When the vehicle is accelerated, its rotating parts are also accelerated
depending upon their moments of inertia and the gear ratio in the drive
line. Due to this, the weight of the vehicle is increased from W to We. This
increased weight, We, is called the ‘effective weight’ of the vehicle. When
surplus power, i.e. surplus tractive effort is fully utilized to acceleration,
then
 Gradability
The maximum percentage grade, which a vehicle can negotiate with full
rated condition, is known as ‘gradability’. Hence,

Drawbar Pull
When the excess power is fully utilized for pulling extra load attached to
vehicle then,

Maximum drawbar pull = Tractive effort—Road resistance = (F— R).

Road resistance in this section is made up of rolling resistance and air

resistance.

Figures 31.3 and 31.4 show that maximum surplus power and hence
maximum surplus tractive effort are provided at very low speeds of the
vehicle. Therefore, for acceleration from start, for climbing steeper
gradient and for large drawbar pull, first gear is best suited.

Maximum road speed is achieved in the gear when power available

equals to power required and tractive effort becomes equal to level road
resistance.

If the vehicle is desired to run at a lower speed, the throttle is adjusted

accordingly so that the part throttle power available curve intersects the
power required curve at the desired road speed.
2.0 Fuel Economy in Automobiles

The fuel economy of a car relates separation went by a vehicle and the
measure of fuel expended. Utilization can be communicated as far as
volume of fuel to travel a separation, or the separation voyaged per unit
volume of fuel devoured. Since fuel utilization of vehicles is a huge factor
in air contamination, and since importation of engine fuel can be a huge
aspect of a country's unfamiliar exchange, numerous nations force
prerequisites for mileage. Various techniques are utilized to inexact the
genuine presentation of the vehicle. The vitality in fuel is needed to defeat
different misfortunes (wind obstruction, tire drag, and others) experienced
while pushing the vehicle, and in giving influence to vehicle frameworks,
for example, start or cooling. Different methodologies can be utilized to
decrease misfortunes at every one of the changes between the compound
vitality in the fuel and the dynamic vitality of the vehicle. Driver conduct
can influence mileage; moves, for example, unexpected speeding up and
hefty slowing down waste vitality.

Electric vehicles don't straightforwardly consume fuel, thus don't have

efficiency fundamentally, yet comparability measures, for example, miles
per gallon gas identical have been made to endeavor to think about them.

Speed and fuel economy studies

Fuel economy at consistent paces with chosen vehicles was concentrated

in 2010. The latest study shows more noteworthy eco-friendliness at
higher paces than prior investigations; for instance, a few vehicles
accomplish better efficiency at 100 km/h (62 mph) as opposed to at 70
km/h (43 mph), in spite of the fact that not their best economy, for
example, the 1994 Oldsmobile Cutlass Ciera with the LN2 2.2L motor,
which has its best economy at 90 km/h (56 mph) (8.1 L/100 km (29
mpg‑US)), and improves economy at 105 km/h (65 mph) than at 72 km/h
(45 mph) (9.4 L/100 km (25 mpg‑US) versus 22 mpg‑US (11 L/100 km)).
The extent of driving on fast streets changes from 4% in Ireland to 41% in
the Netherlands.
At the point when the US National Maximum Speed Law's 55 mph (89
km/h) speed limit was ordered from 1974 to 1995, there were grumblings
that efficiency could diminish rather than increment. The 1997 Toyota
Celica showed signs of improvement eco-friendliness at 105 km/h (65
mph) than it did at 65 km/h (40 mph) (5.41 L/100 km (43.5 mpg‑US) versus
5.53 L/100 km (42.5 mpg‑US)), albeit far superior at 60 mph (97 km/h)
than at 65 mph (105 km/h) (48.4 mpg‑US (4.86 L/100 km) versus 43.5
mpg‑US (5.41 L/100 km)), and its best economy (52.6 mpg‑US (4.47
L/100 km)) at just 25 mph (40 km/h). Different vehicles tried had from 1.4
to 20.2% better eco-friendliness at 90 km/h (56 mph) versus 105 km/h (65
mph). Their best economy was reached at velocities of 40 to 90 km/h (25
to 56 mph) (see diagram).

Authorities trusted that the 55 mph (89 km/h) limit, joined with a restriction
on fancy lighting, no fuel deals on Sunday, and a 15% cut in gas creation,
would decrease absolute gas utilization by 200,000 barrels per day,
speaking to a 2.2% drop from annualized 1973 gas utilization levels.[14][b]
This was incompletely founded on a conviction that vehicles accomplish
greatest proficiency somewhere in the range of 65 and 80 km/h (40 and
50 mph) and that trucks and transports were generally productive at 55
mph (89 km/h).

In 1998, the U.S. Transportation Research Board footnoted a gauge that

the 1974 National Maximum Speed Limit (NMSL) diminished fuel
utilization by 0.2 to 1.0 percent.[17] Rural interstates, the streets most
obviously influenced by the NMSL, represented 9.5% of the U.S' vehicle-
miles-went in 1973,[18] however such free-streaming streets ordinarily
give more eco-friendly travel than ordinary streets.