Chapter 5 Quiz - Chemistry

Section 5.1
Physical and Chemical Properties
-​ Physical
●​ Colour, texture, odour, lustre, hardness, melting / boiling point, solubility,
viscosity
-​ Chemical
●​ Combustibility, reaction with acid / water, light sensitivity
Physical and Chemical Changes
-​ Physical
●​ Change in state, reversible, particles are the same , change in size
●​ Ex. ice melting
-​ Chemical
●​ Colour change, can’t reverse., formation of gas / precipitate, heat is produced

Section 5.4
Chemical periods and groups
●​ Column is a group
●​ Row is a period

Atomic Structure
●​ Protons & neutrons = in nucleus
●​ Electrons = orbit nucleus
●​ Atomic # = number of protons & electrons
●​ # of neutrons = atomic mass - atomic number

Bohr-Rutherford Diagrams for neutral atoms and ions

Electron Arrangement and Reactivity

●​ Metals
○​ Group 1 metals all have a +1 charge
○​ Group 2 metals all have a +2 charge
○​ Group 13 metals all have a +3 charge
●​ Nonmetals
○​ Group 16 nonmetals all have a -2 charge
○​ Group 17 nonmetals all gave a -1 charge
Section 5.5
The difference between atoms and ions\
Atom: electrically neutral particle with an equal number of protons & electron
Ion: has a positive or negative charge
-​ Lose electrons = positive (metals)
-​ Gain electrons = negative (nonmetals)

Anions, Cations and how they are named

●​ Cations: those that have a positive charge (metals lose electrons)
●​ Anions: those that have a negative charge (nonmetals gain electrons)

Section 5.6
Ionic Compounds: What they are made up of, how they are formed and the type of bond
involved
●​ An ionic compound is formed when positive and negative ions join together
●​ Each ion is linked by an ionic compound
-​ A strong attraction between a positive and negative ion in an ionic compound
●​ The overall charge is zero

Properties of Ionic Compounds

●​ An ionic bond is a strong bong
-​ As a result, ionic compounds are;
○​ Hard
○​ Brittle solids
○​ High melting points
○​ Most ionic compounds are crystal shaped
Section 5.7
Names and formulas of Ionic Compounds, including elements with multiple ionic charges
-​ Metal first, nonmetal second
-​ Nonmetal ending is changed to “ide”
1.​ NaCl - sodium chloride
2.​ CaF2 - calcium fluoride
●​ Ionic compounds
-​ Metal first, nonmetal second
-​ Use the criss cross rule ro balance the charges
1.​ Rubidium sulfide
= Rb +1 S -2
= Rb2S
2.​ Magnesium nitride
= Mg +2 N - 3
= Mg3N2
●​ Multivalent ionic compounds
1.​ Chromium (iii) nitride
= Cr +3 N - 3
= Cr3N3
= CrN
2.​ MnO2
= Manganese (iv) oxide
Section 5.9
Polyatomic Ions
-​ Some ionic compounds contains more than just two elements
-​ One of the ions is made up of a group of atoms with a shared charge

Naming Compounds containing Polyatomic Ions

●​ Name of the positive metal is first
●​ Name of the negative nonmetal
●​ the polyatomic ion does NOT have its ending changed
1. Binary Acids:
○​ Place the name HYDRO at the beginning
○​ The name if the halogen is in the middle
○​ The suffix “ic” is added to the end
2. Oxyacids:
○​ Name the polyatomic ion only and change its ending
○​ Polyatomic ions that end in ate are given the ending of ic
○​ Polyatomic ions that end in ite are given the ending of ous
Writing formulas containing Polyatomic Ions

Section 5.10
Molecular Compounds: What they are made up of and how they are formed and the type of bond
involved
●​ Two or more nonmetals bonded together
●​ When molecular compounds are dissolved in water, they do not conduct electricity as
well as an ionic compounds
●​ Molecular compounds DO NOT transfer electrons, but share them
-​ This e- sharing is known as a covalent bond

Diatomic Molecules
-​ H2 N2 O2 F2 Cl2 Br2 I2
-​ I Bring Cookies For Our New Home

Common names of molecular compounds

H20 = Water
NH3 = Ammonia
H2O2 = Hydrogen Peroxide
CH4 = Methane
C6H12O6 = Glucose

Naming Molecular Compounds

CO = carbon monoxide
CO2 = carbon dioxide
N20 = dinitrogen monoxide
N205 = dinitrogen pentaoxide

Writing Chemical Formulas of Molecular Compounds

Sulfur trioxide -> SO3
Lewis Dot Diagrams and Lewis Structure Diagrams
Ex. Hydrogen

Chlorine
Drawing Ionic Compounds using Lewis Dot
Ex, Magnesium Sulfide

+ =

Aluminium Oxide

+ =

Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds

Ex. H2O Polyatomic Ion : CO32-
H: 1e- x 2 = 2e- C: 4e-
O: 6 e- O: 6e- x 3 = 18e-
2 + 6 = 8e- 4+18+2 = 24e-
Chemistry Unit Test (5-7)
Chapter 5 - Chemicals and their Properties
Properties and Change
Physical and Chemical Properties
-​ Physical
●​ Colour, texture, odour, lustre, hardness, melting / boiling point, solubility,
viscosity
-​ Chemical
●​ Combustibility, reaction with acid / water, light sensitivity
Physical and Chemical Changes
-​ Physical
●​ Change in state, reversible, particles are the same , change in size
●​ Ex. ice melting
-​ Chemical
●​ Colour change, can’t reverse., formation of gas / precipitate, heat is produced

Patterns and the Periodic Table

●​ Column is a group
●​ Row is a period
Metals
○​ Group 1 metals all have a +1 charge
○​ Group 2 metals all have a +2 charge
○​ Group 13 metals all have a +3 charge
Nonmetals
○​ Group 16 nonmetals all have a -2 charge
○​ Group 17 nonmetals all gave a -1 charge

Atoms and Ions

Atom: electrically neutral particle with an equal number of protons & electron
Ion: has a positive or negative charge
-​ Lose electrons = positive (metals)
-​ Gain electrons = negative (nonmetals)
Atomic Structure
●​ Protons & neutrons = in nucleus
●​ Electrons = orbit nucleus
●​ Atomic # = number of protons & electrons
●​ # of neutrons = atomic mass - atomic number
Ionic Compounds
Properties of Ionic Compounds
●​ An ionic bond is a strong bong
-​ As a result, ionic compounds are;
○​ Hard
○​ Brittle solids
○​ High melting points
○​ Most ionic compounds are crystal shaped
Names and formulas of Ionic Compounds, including elements with multiple ionic charges
-​ Metal first, nonmetal second
-​ Nonmetal ending is changed to “ide”
3.​ NaCl - sodium chloride
4.​ CaF2 - calcium fluoride
●​ Ionic compounds
-​ Metal first, nonmetal second
-​ Use the criss cross rule ro balance the charges
3.​ Rubidium sulfide
= Rb +1 S -2
= Rb2S
4.​ Magnesium nitride
= Mg +2 N - 3
= Mg3N2
●​ Multivalent ionic compounds
3.​ Chromium (iii) nitride
= Cr +3 N - 3
= Cr3N3
= CrN
4.​ MnO2
= Manganese (iv) oxide
Polyatomic Ions
●​ These are known as polyatomic ions
-​ Nitrite is an example of polyatomic ions
-​ Nitrite has one nitrogen and two oxygen atom: NO2-
Writing formulas containing Polyatomic Ions
Naming Polyatomic Compounds
●​ Uses the same steps as the other ionic compounds
●​ Name of the positive metal is first
●​ Name of the negative nonmetal or polyatomic ion is second
●​ The only difference is the polyatomic ion does NOT have its ending chan
1. Binary Acids:
○​ Place the name HYDRO at the beginning
○​ The name if the halogen is in the middle
○​ The suffix “ic” is added to the end
2. Oxyacids:
○​ Name the polyatomic ion only and change its ending
○​ Polyatomic ions that end in ate are given the ending of ic
○​ Polyatomic ions that end in ite are given the ending of ous

Molecules and Covalent Bonding

Diatomic Molecules
-​ H2 N2 O2 F2 Cl2 Br2 I2
-​ I Bring Cookies For Our New Home

Common names of molecular compounds

H20 = Water
NH3 = Ammonia
H2O2 = Hydrogen Peroxide
CH4 = Methane
C6H12O6 = Glucose

Naming Molecular Compounds

CO = carbon monoxide
CO2 = carbon dioxide
N20 = dinitrogen monoxide
N205 = dinitrogen pentaoxide
Writing Chemical Formulas of Molecular Compounds
Sulfur trioxide -> SO3
Lewis Dot / Lewis Structure
Ex. Hydrogen

Chlorine
Drawing Ionic Compounds using Lewis Dot
Ex, Magnesium Sulfide

+ =

Aluminium Oxide

+ =

Lewis Structures for Molecular Compounds

Ex. H2O Polyatomic Ion : CO32-
H: 1e- x 2 = 2e- C: 4e-
O: 6 e- O: 6e- x 3 = 18e-
2 + 6 = 8e- 4+18+2 = 24e-

Chapter 6 - Chemicals and their Reactions

Describing Chemical Reactions

Conserving Mass in Chemical Reactions

●​ The total mass of the reactants is always equal to the total mass of the products
Steps to Balance
1.​ Remember your diatomic molecules (HOFBrINCl)
2.​ Balance compounds first and elements last
3.​ Balance hydrogen / oxygen at the end
4.​ If a polyatomic ion appears on both sides of the reaction, treat is as one thing

Ex. 1
Fe +O2 -> Fe3O4
3Fe + O2 -> Fe3O4
3Fe + 2O2 -> Fe3O4

Ex. 2 magnesium reacts with nitric acid

Word: magnesium + nitric acid -> magnesium nitrate +hydrogen
Balanced chemical:
Mg + HNO3 -> Mg(NO3)2 + H2 (magnesium (Mg) replaces the metal (H))
Mg + 2 HNO3 -> Mg(NO3)2 + H2
Information in Chemical Equations

Types of Chemical Reactions

●​ Synthesis Reactions
○​ When two simple reactants combine to make larger or more complex products
○​ General pattern is : A + B -> AB
Ex.1 creation for zinc and sulfide​
Word: Zinc + Sulfur -> Zinc sulfide
Chemical: Zn + S -> ZnS

Ex. 2 sodium reacts with chlorine

Word: Sodium + Chlorine -> Sodium chloride
Chemical: 2Na + Cl2 -> 2NaCl

●​ Decomposition Reactions
○​ Another type of reaction which is the complete opposite of synthesis reactions
○​ Large compounds are broken down into smaller compounds or their elements
○​ General pattern : AB -> A + B
○​ A decomposition reaction will absorb energy (thermal/electrical) and use this
energy to convert the reactant into its products

Ex.1 decomposition reaction for water

Word: water -> Hydrogen + Oxygen
Chemical: 2H2O -> 2H2 + O2

●​ Single Displacement
○​ A reaction in which an element displaces another element in a compound,
producing a new compound and a new element
○​ Equation: A + BC -> AC + B
○​ Involves a reaction between an ionic compound and a metal

Ex. Zinc and hydrochloric acid

Word: zinc + hydrochloric acid -> zinc chloride + hydrogen
Chemical: Zn + 2HCl -> ZnCl + H2

●​ Double Displacement a2
○​ Reaction that occurs when elements in different compounds displace each other or
exchange places
○​ Two new compounds are formed
○​ Equation: AB + CD -> AD + CB
 ○​ Reaction occurs when there is two ionic compounds found in a solution
○​ Some result in the formation of a precipitate

Ex.1 silver nitrate and sodium chloride

Word: silver nitrate + sodium chloride -> silver chloride + sodium nitrate
Chemical: AgNO3 + NaCl -> AgCl + NaNO3

Ex. 2 lead (ii) nitrate and potassium iodide

Word: lead (ii) nitrate + potassium iodide -> lead (ii) iodide + potassium nitrate
Chemical: Pb (NO3)2 + 2KI -> PbI2 + 2KNO3

●​ Combustion

Chapter 7 - Acids and Bases

Properties, Names and Formulas
1.​ An acid is a compound that dissolves in water to produce hydrogen ions (H+) in the
solution
​ HCl -> H+ + Cl-
​
Hydrochloric acid -> hydrogen ions + chlorine ions
Properties of Acids:
-​ It is an aqueous solution, conducts electricity in a solution
-​ Hydrogen ions (H+) common to all acids
-​ Has a sour taste
-​ Red litmus paper stays red
-​ Blue litmus paper turns red
-​ Corrosive to metals, skin, clothing
-​ Reacts with magnesium to produce hydrogen
-​ Reacts with sodium hydrogen carbonate to produce carbon dioxide

This typical reaction, where acids will react with a metal to produce hydrogen gas
Ex. hydrochloric acid + magnesium -> hydrogen gas + magnesium chloride
2HCl(aq) + Mg(s) -> H2 (g) + MgCl2 (aq)

Acids react with carbonate compounds to produce CO2

Ex. hydrochloric acid + calcium carbonate -> carbon dioxide + water + calcium chloride
HCl(aq) + CaCO2 -> CO2 (g) + H2O(i) + CaCl2

When they collide with water molecules, acid molecules break apart to form cations (hydrogen
ions H+) and anions
Ex. HCl(aq) -> H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)

Common Acids:
●​ Vinegar - HC2H3O2 (aq) (salad dressing)
●​ Citric acid - HC6H7O7 (aq) (lemon)
●​ Lactic acid - HC3H5O3 (aq) (sour milk)

2.​ A base is a compound that dissolves in water to produce hydroxide ions (OH) in the
solutions, also known as an antacid or alkali
Ex. NaOH -> Na+ + OH-
Sodium hydroxide -> sodium + hydroxide

How to prepare a base:

●​ React a metal oxide with water to form a base
●​ If it ends in OH, then it’s a base
Na2O + H2O -> NaOH
Metal oxide + water -> base

Properties of Bases:
●​ Conduct electricity
●​ Slippery
●​ Taste bitter
●​ Corrosive to metals, skin, clothing
●​ Blue litmus paper stays blue
●​ Red litmus paper turns blue
●​ No reaction with magnesium
●​ Hydroxide ion (OH-) common to all bases

Common Bases:
●​ Sodium hydroxide - NaOH(aq) (drain cleaner)
●​ Potassium hydroxide - KOH(aq) (soap)
●​ Aluminum hydroxide - Al(OH)3 (aq) (antacids)
The pH Scale
●​ This scale is used to measure the number of hydrogen ions (H+) in a solution
●​ pH = power of Hydrogen
●​ The number of hydrogen atoms in a solution or concentration is shown as (H+)

Acidic Solutions:
-​ Have pH values from 0 to less than 7
-​ The closer the number is to zero, the stronger the acid
-​ A strong acid has a low pH and therefore has a high concentration of hydrogen ions (H+)
in a solution

Basic Solutions:
-​ Have pH values greater than 7 to 14
-​ The closer the number is to 14, the stronger the base
-​ A stronger base has a very high pH and therefore has a low concentration of hydrogen
ions (H+)
-​ A strong base has a high concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-) in solution

●​ A pH of 7 is neutral

Neutralization Reactions
●​ Where are they observed:
1.​ Acid precipitation attacks a limestone statue
2.​ Stomach antacids
3.​ Vinegar and baking soda produce CO2
●​ All of these are acid-base reactions or neutralization reactions

What is a Neutralization Reaction?

●​ Special type of double displacement reaction
AB + CD -> AD + CB
●​ One of the products is a salt
●​ A salt is a combination of positive and negative ions formed by the reaction of an acid
and base
●​ The second product is water (H2O)

Equation - Predicting Products

The general chemical equation is:
Acid + Base -> Water + Ionic Compound (salt)
Optics Test
Terms:
●​ Refraction - bending or change in direction of light when it travels from one material
(medium) into another
●​ Angle of refraction - the angle between a refracted ray and the normal drawn at the point
of incidence to the interface at which refraction occurs.

​
●​ Index of refraction - The ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in
that medium
-​ n = c jjibibhebic = (n)(v) nbbknnjbv = c
n bh n
●​ Critical angle
-​ Is the angle of incidence that produces a refracted angle of 90॰
-​ The angle if incidence is greater than the critical angle
-​ The refracted ray will not exit the medium but will reflect back into the medium
-​ The refracted ray disappears, only a reflected ray is visible
●​ Total internal reflection
-​ Light is travelling more slowly in the first medium than in the second
-​ The angle of incidence is large enough that no refraction occurs in the second
medium. The ray is reflected back into the first medium

12.1 - What is refraction?

​ ​
Partial Reflection & Refraction
●​ Refraction is often accompanied by reflection
●​ Some of the light that strikes water is reflected off the water, but a great deal of the light
is also refracted as it enters the water and illuminates the water below the surface
Practical Applications that use partial reflection & refraction
-​ mirrors
-​ Lenses / eyeglasses
-​ cameras

12.4 - The Index of Refraction

●​ Relationship between the index of refraction (n), density and speed
-​ a denser medium has a higher refractive index, meaning light travels slower in
that medium
-​ The greater the index of refraction (n) is, the slower the speed of light is in that
medium
●​ n = c jjibibhebic = (n)(v) nbbknnjbv = c
n bh n
G - given
R - required (what needs to be solved)
A - analysis (the formula you will use)
S - solve
P - paraphrase (concluding sentence)

12.5 - Total Internal Reflection

●​ Light travels from one medium into another where some light is reflected and refracted
●​ Angle of refraction is always larger than the angle of incidence
●​ The angle of refraction continues to increase as the angle of incidence increases
●​ Ultimately the angle of refraction will become 90॰ (when angle of incidence is equal to
critical angle)
1.​ Light is travelling more slowly in the first medium than in the second
2.​ The angle of incidence is large enough that no refraction occurs in the second
medium. The ray is reflected back into the first medium
■​ Practical applications:
○​ Glass prisms can be shaped to produce total internal reflection and as such are
employed in binoculars, periscopes, telescopes, and other optical instruments.
12.7 - Phenomenon Related to Refraction
●​ Apparent depth
-​ The distance from the surface of the water to where the object appears to be (the
virtual image) is called the apparent depth
-​ Our brains only see light in straight lines
-​ Objects under water always appear to be nearer to the surface than they actually
are
●​ Mirage
-​ can appear when light is travelling from cool air into warmer air. The index of
refraction for air decreases as the air gets warmer
-​ Total internal reflection occurs when the lowest (hottest) air layer, the light ray
now travels up from the hottest to the cooler layer and is refracted towards the
normal as the air temperature decreases
-​ In reality, the pool of water is a virtual image of the sky on the ground
●​ Shimmering
-​ caused by light being refracted as it passes through air of different temperatures
-​ In the coldest layer, light travels slowly
-​ In the hottest layer, light travels faster
-​ Eventually total internal reflection occurs in the lowest warm air layer
-​ This results in multiple virtual images of the moon on the water's surface
●​ Rainbow
-​ an optical phenomenon that is produced by water droplets
-​ The first step is refraction as light enters the raindrop, resulting in dispersion
-​ The second step is partial internal reflection when the light hits the back of the
raindrop
-​ The third step is refraction as the light exits the raindrop
-​ You can only see a rainbow when the sun is behind you
●​ Dispersion
-​ The separation of white light into its spectrum is called dispersion
-​ Dispersion occurs because each colour of the visible light travels at a slightly
different speed
Optics Unit Test (Ch 11-13)
Chapter 11 - The Production & Reflection of Light
What is Light?
-​ Light is an electromagnetic wave, generated by electric and magnetic fields
-​ Light travels as a stream of particles (photons), does not require a medium to be
transported
-​ Light can travel in space (no oxygen)

How is Light Produced?

Light is produced by sources like the Sun, light bulbs, or lasers when energy is converted into
electromagnetic waves. These waves travel in straight lines and can be reflected, refracted, or
absorbed by materials.

The Laser - A Special Type of Light

-​ Light Amplification by the Stimulated Emission of Radiation
-​ Produces a pure colour, an intense and concentrated light
-​ Waves are the same wavelength and energy level, and travel in the same direction

The Ray Model of Light

1.​ Light Travel
-​ Light travels in straight lines
-​ Geometric Optics;when we use light rays to determine how light behaves
2.​ Transmission of Light Through Matter
-​ Can be transparent, translucent, or opaque
○​ Transparent - allows all or most light to pass through (window)
○​ Translucent - allows some light to pass through (paper)
○​ Opaque - no light can pass through (door)
3.​ The Flat Mirror
By examining the interaction of light and a flat mirror we can observe how light behaves
●​ A mirror is any polished surface that produces a reflection
●​ A reflection is the bouncing back of light from any surface
●​ An image is the reproduction of an original object that is produced through the
use of light
➢​ Mirror Composition:
●​ 2 parts
○​ Front - sheet of clear glass
○​ Back - thin layer of very reflective silver or aluminum
The Laws of Reflection
1.​ The angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection
2.​ The incident ray, the reflected ray and the normal ray all lie in the same plane
3.​ The incident ray and reflected ray are on opposite sides of the normal

Reflecting Light off Surfaces

1.​ Specular Reflection - The reflection of light off a smooth surface
●​ The image will not be distorted
○​ Ex. reflection of calm lake water, a smooth piece of aluminum foil
2.​ Diffuse Reflection - The reflection of light off an irregular or dull surface
●​ The image created will be distorted
○​ Ex. reflection off a sheet of paper, wavy water surface, or crumpled aluminum foil

●​ Images in Plane Mirrors

○​ Images that are formed by the light are create by billions of light rays coming
from a course
○​ It would be near next impossible for us to keep track of every light ray that
formed an image
S - same
A - laterally inverted
L - behind mirror
T - virtual

Images in Curved Mirrors (concave / convex)

Concave mirrors
●​ Mirror that curve inwards are known as concave mirrors
●​ If you look into the front of a spoon, you are looking at a concave mirror
●​ Also called Converging Mirrors
○​ This is because all the reflected to converge on a inner surface is the reflective
area

​ ​
Convex Mirrors
●​ In a convex mirror, the mirror curves outwards
●​ This is what you would see is you looked into the back of a spoon or in the corner of a
convenience store
●​ Convex mirrors cause light rays to diverge or to spread out
○​ They are known as diverging mirrors
Images in a Diverging Mirror
●​ A diverging mirror has its focus behind the mirror
●​ A light ray parallel to the principal axis are reflected away from the virtual focus, which
is behind the mirror

Chapter 12 - The Refraction of Light

What is Refraction?
○​ In order for you to see an object, light must reflect from the object you are looking at and
reach your eyes
○​ Once and a while, after light has reached the object, the light will change its direction
before it has reached your eyes, causing you to be fooled
*Refraction : bending or change in direction of light when it travels from one material
(medium) into another
Why? Light travels at different speeds in different mediums

The Index of Refraction

●​ Relationship between the index of refraction (n), density and speed
-​ a denser medium has a higher refractive index, meaning light travels slower in
that medium
-​ The greater the index of refraction (n) is, the slower the speed of light is in that
medium
●​ n = c jjibibhebic = (n)(v) nbbknnjbv = c
n bh n
G - given
R - required (what needs to be solved)
A - analysis (the formula you will use)
S - solve
P - paraphrase (concluding sentence)
Total Internal Reflection
●​ Light travels from one medium into another where some light is reflected and refracted
●​ Angle of refraction is always larger than the angle of incidence
●​ The angle of refraction continues to increase as the angle of incidence increases
●​ Ultimately the angle of refraction will become 90॰ (when angle of incidence is equal to
critical angle)
3.​ Light is travelling more slowly in the first medium than in the second
4.​ The angle of incidence is large enough that no refraction occurs in the second
medium. The ray is reflected back into the first medium
■​ Practical applications:
○​ Glass prisms can be shaped to produce total internal reflection and as such are
employed in binoculars, periscopes, telescopes, and other optical instruments.

Phenomena Related to Refraction

●​ Apparent depth
-​ The distance from the surface of the water to where the object appears to be (the
virtual image) is called the apparent depth
-​ Our brains only see light in straight lines
-​ Objects under water always appear to be nearer to the surface than they actually
are
●​ Mirage
-​ can appear when light is travelling from cool air into warmer air. The index of
refraction for air decreases as the air gets warmer
-​ Total internal reflection occurs when the lowest (hottest) air layer, the light ray
now travels up from the hottest to the cooler layer and is refracted towards the
normal as the air temperature decreases
-​ In reality, the pool of water is a virtual image of the sky on the ground
●​ Shimmering
-​ caused by light being refracted as it passes through air of different temperatures
-​ In the coldest layer, light travels slowly
-​ In the hottest layer, light travels faster
-​ Eventually total internal reflection occurs in the lowest warm air layer
-​ This results in multiple virtual images of the moon on the water's surface
●​ Rainbow
-​ an optical phenomenon that is produced by water droplets
-​ The first step is refraction as light enters the raindrop, resulting in dispersion
-​ The second step is partial internal reflection when the light hits the back of the
raindrop
-​ The third step is refraction as the light exits the raindrop
-​ You can only see a rainbow when the sun is behind you
 ●​ Dispersion
-​ The separation of white light into its spectrum is called dispersion
-​ Dispersion occurs because each colour of the visible light travels at a slightly
different speed

Chapter 13 - Lenses & Optical Devices

Lenses and the Formation of Images
-​ A lens is an optical device that has almost all light pass through it (transparent)
-​ Allows light rays to pass through, also refracts light rays
-​ Two shapes ; converging and diverging
Converging Lens
●​ Make images larger
●​ Parallel light rays converge (or come together) through a single point after the light has
refracted through the lens. This point is referred to as the principal focus “F”
Diverging Lens
●​ Make images smaller
●​ Parallel light rays diverge after refraction from the lens
●​ The thickest portion of the lens is at the edges
●​ The thinnest portion of the lens is in the middle
The Path of Light Through a Lens
●​ In a lens, light is refracted at the first air to glass surface
●​ Light then travels through the glass of the lens and is refracted again at the glass to air
surface on the other side

​
○​ Therefore, there are always two refractions in a lens
●​ We are only concerned with the direction of the incident ray entering the lens and the
refracted ray leaving the lens
●​ This can be simplified by drawing a line at the centre of the lens, where refraction occurs

​ ​ ​
Converging Lens Terminology
●​ This pont right in the middle of the lens is called the optical centre (O)
○​ This is similar to the principal axis on curved mirrors
●​ The point a which refracted rays converge along the principal axis is known as the
principal focus (F)

​ ​
●​ Since this is a lens, a light source can be placed on either side of the lense and still create
the same refraction
●​ It is because of this that another focus point is located on the same side as the incident
rays. In order to be able to tell them apart, this is names the secondary principal focus
(F’) - is the same distance away from the lens as the principal focus
Ray Diagrams for Diverging Lenses
●​ The refracted rays move apart
●​ We draw dotted lines backwards from the refracted rays, to the focus
●​ There is a focus on each side of the lens

​ ​

●​ In diverging lenses, there is no converging point that the refracted rays meet
●​ BUT if you were to project the diverging refracted rays backwards - you will notice they
do have a convergence point
●​ This point is the diverging lens principal focus and it is on the same side as the incident
light rays (therefore it is a virtual focus point)
●​ The secondary principal focus is on the side of the lens where the rays diverge
Images in Lenses
Two things that can affect the characteristics of images with lenses:
1.​ The kind of lens being used
2.​ The location of the object in reference to the lens
●​ Only two rays need to be drawn
●​ The major difference ; mirrors are considered reflected rays, in lenses they are considered
refracted rays (or emergent rays)
Emergent Rays: rays that leave the lens, being refracted as it gets from the lens back into air

Converging Lens:

●​ Five possible locations (SALT)

​
Diverging Lens:
●​ The light rays do not actually come from the principal focus(they only seem like they are)

●​ ALWAYS
-​ S - smaller
-​ A - upright
-​ L - b/w F and optical centre
-​ T - virtual
The Lens Equation
Thin Lens Equation:

do = distance to the object from the optical centre

○​ Always positive
di = distance to the image from the optical centre
○​ Real images - positive
○​ Virtual images - negative
f = focus length
○​ Converging - positive
○​ Divergiving - negative
Magnification Equation:

m = magnification of the lens (no units)

○​ Upright - positive
○​ Inverted - negative
hi = height of the image
○​ Upwards - positive
○​ Downwards - negative
ho = height of object
○​ Upwards - positive
○​ Downwards - negative
do = distance to the object from the optical centre
○​ Always positive
di = distance to the image from the optical centre
○​ Converging - positive
○​ Diverging - negative
Lens Applications
1. Camera - how does a camera compensate for a fixed position film?
○​ The camera will compensate by moving the lens in and out (focusing)
2. Film in a movie projector - where to place the film source on a movie projector?
○​ The film source must be located between 2F’ and F’, because the image is larger than the
object. The film must also be loaded upside down to produce an upright image
3. Describe how the human brain interprets the image?
○​ The brain extends the rays backwards to produce an enlarged, virtual images located on
the same side of the lens as the object
4. Microscope - describe how a light microscope produces an image?
○​ Uses 2 converging lenses. It produces 2 enlarged, inverted images ; 1 real and 1 virtual.
Real image is formed by the objective lens - do not see this image because it is in the
body tube of the microscope. The virtual image is formed by the eyepiece image, this is
the image we see
5. Telescope - describe how the type of images are formed by the refracting telescope?
○​ Produces 2 enlarged, inverted images ; 1 real (do not see) and 1 virtual (do see). The
image in a refracting telescope is inverted

The Human Eye

1.​ Iris: controls the amount of light entering the eye by changing the size of the pupil
2.​ Pupil: allows light to enter the eye
3.​ Cornea / Lens: bends light, helping it to focus onto the retina
4.​ Retina: converts light into electrical signals
5.​ Optic nerve: nerve fibers that transmit electrical signals from the retina to the brain

●​ We see with our brains ; the cornea-lens combination acts like a converging lens and
produces a smaller, real, inverted image on the retina. Electrical impulses from the retina
travel through the optic nerve to the brain. The brain sees this the image and flips it,
making it upright
●​ Accommodation: eyes muscles called ciliary muscles help the eye focus on distant and
nearby objects by slightly changing the shape of the eye lens. This changes the focal
length of the lens to allow focusing of the image on the retina
Hyperopia: far-sighted
-​ Can see far objects
-​ Can’t see near objects
●​ Happens because the eye cannot refract light well enough to form an image on the
retina
●​ Occurs because the distance between the lens and retina is too small or because
the cornea-lens combination is too weak
●​ Instead light from all nearby objects focus behind the retina
-​ A positive meniscus can fix this problem (thick converging lens)

■​ Presbyopia: a form of far-sightedness caused by the loss of accommodation as a

person ages

Myopia: near-sighted
-​ Can see near
-​ Can’t see far
●​ The inability of the eye to focus light from distant objects
-​ A negative meniscus can fix this problem (diverging lens)
Biology Quiz - Chapter 2
Plant & Animal Cells
Cell Theory
1.​ All living things are made up of one or more cells and their products
2.​ The cell is the simplest unit that can carry out all life processes
3.​ All cells come from other cells ; they do not come from nonliving matter

Prokaryotes & Eukaryotes

1.​ Prokaryotes - the simplest of cell forms
●​ These cells do not have a nucleus or membrane bound organelles
○​ Ex. Bacteria
2.​ Eukaryotes - more complex single cell or multicellular organisms
●​ Contain a nucleus and other organelles
●​ Surrounded by a membrane
Ex. Fungi, animals, and plants

Organelles for plants and animals

-​ Cells of a eukaryotic cells have specialized parts known as organelles
*Organelles: a cell structure that performs a specific function
-​ All cells perform the same basic activities to stay alive ;
●​ Use energy
●​ Store materials
●​ Take materials from surroundings
●​ Remove waste
●​ Move substances to other parts of the cell and reproduce

Organelles in PLANT cells

-​ Cell wall
-​ Chloroplast
Organelles in ANIMAL cells
-​ Lysosomes
Labelling plant & animal cells

Animal Cell

pla
The Microscope (magnification & labelling)

Magnification Equations

The Importance of Cell Division

Reasons for cell division
1.​ Reproduction
●​ Each time a cell divides it creates 2 daughter cells
●​ Each new cell has a complete copy of genetic info
●​ Asexual reproduction / Sexual reproduction
2.​ Growth
●​ As we grow the number of cells increase
Why does the number of cells increase instead of simply increasing the size of cells?
●​ Has to do with the chemicals used by cells
●​ Chemicals travel across the cell membrane
●​ Occurs by diffusion - substances travel from high concentration to low
concentration
●​ Water enters and leave the cell by osmosis - water moves to where there is more
solute
●​ Therefore, when a cell becomes to large chemicals and water cannot move
through the cell fast enough
3.​ Repair
●​ Everyday millions of skin cells dow
●​ These need to be replaced
●​ Red blood cells need to be replaced every 120 days
●​ Broken bones, cuts and blisters
●​ We need to repair ourselves to stay alive
Reproduction (asexual, sexual)
-​ Asexual reproduction involves one parent, producing offspring identical to the parent
-​ Sexual reproduction involves two parents, resulting in genetically unique offspring

Diffusion : Diffusion is the movement of molecules / substances from high concentration to low
concentration
Osmosis : water moves to where there is more solute

The Cell Cycle

Interphase
●​ The phase of the cell cycle in which the cell performs its normal functions and its genetic
material is copied
●​ Growth and cellular respiration
●​ Longest cycle
○​ Cell grows
○​ DNA duplicates
○​ Cell prepares to divide
●​ Chromosomes are made up of DNA
●​ DNA duplication occurs so that the two new cells (daughter cells) each have a complete
set of chromosomes - the instructions for life

Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase (PMAT)

1.​ Prophase
●​ The first stage
●​ The chromosomes become visible
●​ Chromosomes are DNA packed tightly together
●​ The nuclear membrane dissolves
●​ The centrioles move to opposite poles
●​ Spindle fibres begin to form and attach to the double stranded chromosomes at the
centromere
●​ The nuclear membrane and nucleolus dissolve
●​ Note: Plant cells do not have centrioles
2.​ Metaphase
●​ Chromosomes have moved to the equatorial plate (in the centre)
●​ Starlike structures form from each centriole (double stranded chromosomes)
●​ Spindle fibres branch out from the centrioles
 3.​ Anaphase
●​ The centromere splits and the sister chromatids separate
●​ The 8 chromosomes are now separated into 2 groups
●​ The sister chromatids separate into daughter chromosomes. They are single
stranded
●​ The spindle fibres are pulling the chromosomes to each centriole at each pole of
the dividing cell
4.​ Telophase
●​ The two groups of chromosomes are completely separated
●​ The daughter chromosomes stretch out and become thinner and invisible
●​ A new nuclear membrane forms around each group of daughter chromosomes

​ Major processes of each step, how to draw and recognize each stage

Cell Division Gone Wrong

Tumour, Benign Tumour, Malignant Tumour
●​ Cancer cell continues to divide despite messages from the nucleus, the uncontrolled
growth and division may create a mass of cells that form a lump or tumor

1.​ Benign Tumors: cells stay together and have no serious effects on surrounding
tissue
○​ Non cancerous, however can grow large and crowd nearby cells and tissue

2.​ Malignant Tumors: mass of cells, interferes with the function of nearby cells and
tissues
○​ Are cancerous, can destroy surrounding tissue

3.​ Metastasis: when cancer cells break away from the original (primary) tumor and
move to a different part of the body and continue to grow, they can start other
(secondary) tumors

Mutations & Carcinogens

Mutations: random changes in DNA, either result in the death of continued growing of a cell
●​ If DNA starts behaving abnormally, the cells may become cancerous
●​ Mutations are caused by carcinogens : environmental factors that cause cancer
○​ Include tobacco smoke, radiation, UV, HPV, hepatitis B, chemicals in plastic, etc
●​ Cancer can be genetic, passed down through generations, such as breast and colon cancer
●​ Lung cancer is the most common type caused by smoking
Cancer Screening
-​ Detects cancer early, even without symptoms
-​ Can be done at home, during check ups or by specialist referrals
-​ Who should screen : family history of cancer, those exposed to carcinogens
-​ Benefits: increases chances of early detection and treatment, reduces risk of canocer

Methods
●​ Papa Test - checks cervical cells for cancer
●​ PSA Test - blood test for prostate cancer
●​ Skin Check - look for moles or skin changes using ABCD rules
○​ Asymmetry, Border, Colour, Diameter

Reducing the risk of Cancer

■​ Lifestyle Choices
●​ Eat lots of fruits and vegetables and less fatty meat
●​ “Super foods” like tomatoes, avocados, carrots, garlic, nuts, etc help reduce the
risk of cancer
●​ Eat actual food, don’t rely on supplement
●​ Maintaining a healthy weight can lower risks of cancer

Diagnostic Technologies, Imaging Technologies

Diagnosing Cancer
●​ Tumours may cause swelling, pain or weight loss
●​ Early diagnosis = better chances of treatment success
●​ Doctors use blood test and medical scans to check

■​ Imaging Technologies
●​ Endoscope: a tube with a camera used to look inside the body
●​ X-ray: shows images of bones and organs
●​ CT, Ultrasound, MRI: scans to see the inside the body
●​ Mammogram: special x-ray to check breast tissue

Treatments (Surgery, Chemotherapy, Radiation)

1.​ Surgery
○​ remove the tumour is it’s easy to reach ​
2.​ Chemotherapy
○​ Uses drugs to kill or stop cancer cells from growing
○​ Drugs can be injections or pills
○​ Good at reaching tiny cancer cells throughout the body
○​ Side effects: nausea, hair loss, tiredness
 3.​ Radiation
○​ Uses high energy rays to destroy cancer cells
○​ Aimed directly at the tumour to reduce harm to healthy cells
Biophotonics
●​ Uses beams of light to detect and treat cancer
●​ Allows for early detection, fewer side effects

Specialized Cells
What are specialized cells?
●​ Every cell comes from another cell
●​ Cells in complex organisms are not identical
●​ Every cell cannot do everything (digest food, fight diseases, carry nutrients)

*Specialized Cells : have physical and chemical differences that allow them to perform one job
very well

-​ Animals have a wide variety of specialized cells, they differ internally and externally
-​ Plants also have specialized cells
-​ The structure and function of cells in a leaf vs. a trunk of a tree is different
What are the types of specialized cells and their functions?

●​ Red blood (erythrocytes) - Transport oxygen to the body's tissues and carbon dioxide
back to the lungs
●​ White blood (leukocytes) - Part of the immune system, protecting the body from
infection and foreign invaders
●​ Muscle cells - Responsible for movement, both voluntary (skeletal muscle) and
involuntary (smooth muscle)
●​ Nerve cell (neurons) - Transmit electrical signals throughout the body, allowing for
communication and coordination
●​ Sperm cells - Specialized for fertilization, with a long tail for motility and a head
containing the male genetic materia
●​ Egg cells - Contain the female genetic material and are designed for fertilization and
development of a new organism
Structures Common to Plants & Animals
1.​ Cytoplasm:
●​ A watery substance that fills the interior of cells and suspends the organelles
●​ Is not found within the nucleus
●​ Holds nutrients and waste

​
2.​ Cell Membrane:
●​ A semi-permeable barrier made of two layers of phospholipids (a lipid bilayer)
●​ A boundary around the cell that selects what is allowed in and out
●​ The membrane is always moving
●​ Also called the plasma membrane

​ ​
3.​ Nucleus:
●​ Control center of the cell
●​ Contains nucleolus and DNA (genetic material)
●​ This genetic info is stored in the chromosomes
○​ Made up of DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid
○​ DNA carries all the genes that make your traits
​

​ ​ ​
 4.​ Chromatin:
●​ Uncontrolled DNA
●​ Coils into chromosomes during cell division

5.​ Nucleolus:
●​ Location where ribosomes are formed from synthesizing proteins
●​ Found in the nucleus

6.​ Cilia & Flagella:

●​ Locomotive structures
●​ Made up of microtubules

​ ​ ​ Cilia ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ Flagella
 7.​ Mitochondria:
●​ (power plant) creates the energy used by the cells
●​ Produces ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
●​ Muscle cells have more mitochondria than less active cells (fat cells)
●​ Cells store energy as glucose. The mitochondria has enzymes to breakdown
glucose and use its energy
○​ Cellular Respiration:
Glucose + Oxygen -> CO2 + H2O + Energy (ATP)

8.​ Endoplasmic Reticulum:

●​ A network of branching tubes. Found in the cytoplasm and transports materials,
such as proteins through the cell
○​ RER (Rough ER)
-​ Is covered with ribosomes ; found in cells that make lots of protein
○​ SER (Smooth ER)
-​ Does not have ribosomes on it ; found in cells that make lots of fat

​ ​ ​ ​
9.​ Ribosomes:
●​ Make proteins for our cells or body to use
●​ Found in the cytoplasm and on the Rough ER
10.​Golgi Body:
●​ Processes, packages, and stores the fats and proteins produced by the ER
●​ Make and secrete mucus
●​ The Golgi Membrane pinches off to form vesicles which transport large
molecules into and out of the cell

11.​Vacuoles:
●​ A storage sac
●​ Formed by a piece of membrane breaking loose from the cell membrane
●​ Their function varies according to the type of cell
○​ Functions Include;
-​ Containing substances
-​ Removing waste from the cell
-​ Maintaining pressure (turgor) within the cell
●​ Animal cells have many small vacuoles
●​ Plant cells have one central vacuole, visible under a microscope

​ ​
Organelles in Plant Cells Only
1.​ Cell Wall:
●​ Found outside the cell membrane of a plant cell
●​ Gives plant cell shape
●​ Mostly made of cellulose
●​ Provides support and protection for the cell

​ ​ ​ ​

2.​ Chloroplasts:
●​ Contain chlorophyll
●​ Gives leaves their green colour
●​ Chloroplasts absorb light energy used in photosynthesis (process of converting
carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen)

Organelles only in Animal Cells

1.​ Lysosomes:
●​ Formed by Golgi body
●​ Found only in animal cells
●​ Bags of enzymes used to digest particles and bacteria
●​ Known as the “garbage men” of a cell
●​ Also called “suicide sacs” because cells use them to destroy themselves when
they are old - called apoptosis

2.​ Centrioles:
●​ Only found in animal cells
●​ Forms spindle fibers during cell division
Blood/Circulatory System & the Heart Quiz - Biology
Function of the circulatory system:
1.​ Moves oxygen from the lungs to all over the body
2.​ Moves carbon dioxide from the body to the lungs
3.​ Moves nutrients from the small intestine to all over the body
4.​ Moves waste from the body to the kidneys and skin
5.​ Regulate body temp and transports white blood cells to areas with bacteria
6.​ Delivers substances from cell to cell (hormones) \

Parts of the system

Heart - the pump
Blood - fluid that material are transported in
Blood vessels - tubes that carry blood (arteries, veins, capillaries)

Components of blood
Red blood cells - contain protein called hemoglobin, transports oxygen throughout the body.
Makes up 45% of blood volume

White blood cells - fights diseases, recognizes and destroys pathogens. Make up less than 1% of
blood volume. Only blood cell that has a nucleus

Platelets - help in blood clotting. Make up less than 1% of blood volume

Plasma - liquid that carries blood cells along. Make up 55% of blood volume

The Heart
Made up of
-​ Cardiac muscle tissue
-​ Nerve tissue
-​ Connective tissue
Average heart rate ; 70 - 80 beats per minute
-​ Changes due to physical activity, stress, temp, blood volume, time of day, if youve eaten
recently, and general health

Parts of the heart

The atria - receiving chambers
The ventricles - pumping chambers
The valves - prevent backflow
The septum - divides the heart
Blood vessels
3 types
1.​ Arteries : carry oxygenated blood away from the heart. Pulmonary artery is the only
exception.
-​ Arteries have high presser, and thick walls
2.​ Veins : carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart. Pulmonary veins are the only
exception
-​ Veins have low pressure, and thin walls
3.​ Capillaries : connect arteries and veins
-​ Tiny blood vessels, thin walls
-​ Gas exchange between blood and cells

Path of blood through the heart

1.​ Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from the superior and inferior vena cava
2.​ Blood from the right atrium is pumped through the AV valve to the right ventricle
3.​ The right ventricle pumps blood through the SV valve to the lungs through the
pulmonary artery
4.​ Oxygenated blood returns to the heart from the pulmonary veins and enters the left
ventricle
5.​ Blood from the left atrium is pumped through the AV valve to the left ventricle
6.​ The left ventricle pumps blood through the SV valve to the aorta then it travels
throughout the body

Diseases and disorders of the system

Coronary artery disease - when coronary arteries struggle to supply the heart with enough
blood, oxygen and nutrients
Coronary arteries : blood vessels that give blood to the heart muscle
-​ These arteries can be blocked with plaque
Plaque : a deposit, made of fat, cholesterol, calcium and other substances
-​ Plaque buildup can be caused by lifestyle choices such as high fat diet, lack of exercise
and smoking
​ ​ Symptoms:
-​ Tiredness
-​ Dizziness
-​ Pain or burning in the chest or arm

-​ Can be detected with an angiogram

Angiogram : fluorescent dye is injected into the artery and x-rays are taken
Blood flow
1.​ Superior and inferior vena cava
2.​ Right atrium
3.​ right ventricle
4.​ Pulmonary artery
5.​ Lungs
6.​ Pulmonary veins
7.​ Left atrium
8.​ Left ventricle
9.​ Aorta
10.​Whole body
Biology Unit Test
Chapter 2:
Cell theory (3 things it states)
1.​ All living things are made up of one or more cells and their products
2.​ The cell is the simplest unit that can carry out all life processes
3.​ All cells come from other cells ; they do not come from nonliving matter

3 organelles only found in plants

-​ Cell wall : provinces support and protection, gives plant their shape
-​ Chloroplast : absorb light energy used in photosynthesis
-​ Chlorophyll : gives leaves their green colour

​ All organelles and their functions

Photosynthesis / cellular respiration word equations and where it occurs
1.​ Photosynthesis: 6CO2+6H2O→C6H12O6+6O2 - Chloroplasts (only in plants)
2.​ cellular respiration: Glucose + Oxygen -> CO2 + H2O + Energy (ATP) - in the
mitochondria
3 main reasons for cell division
1.​ Reproduction
-​ Cell divides and creates 2 daughter cells
-​ New ce;;s have a complete copy of genetic info
-​ Asexual / Sexual reproduction
2.​ Growth
-​ Number of cells increase as we grow
3.​ Repair
-​ We need to repair ourselves to stay alive
-​ Cuts, burns, broken bones

Differences between asexual and sexual

●​ Asexual : 1 parent, identical offspring
●​ Sexual : 2 parents, genetically unique offspring

3 stages of the cell cycle

-​ Interphase
-​ Mitosis
-​ Cytokenisis

What happens in interphase

●​ A cell grows, duplicates its DNA, and prepares for cell division
Differences between mitosis and cytokinesis
1.​ Mitosis: division of the nucleus
2.​ Cytokinesis: division of the entire cell

4 stages of mitosis, what happens and how to draw them

1.​ Prophase
●​ The first stage
●​ The chromosomes become visible
●​ Chromosomes are DNA packed tightly together
●​ The nuclear membrane dissolves
●​ The centrioles move to opposite poles
●​ Spindle fibres begin to form and attach to the double stranded
chromosomes at the centromere
●​ The nuclear membrane and nucleolus dissolve
●​ Note: Plant cells do not have centrioles
2.​ Metaphase
●​ Chromosomes have moved to the equatorial plate (in the centre)
●​ Starlike structures form from each centriole (double stranded
chromosomes)
●​ Spindle fibres branch out from the centrioles
3.​ Anaphase
●​ The centromere splits and the sister chromatids separate
●​ The 8 chromosomes are now separated into 2 groups
●​ The sister chromatids separate into daughter chromosomes. They are
single stranded
●​ The spindle fibres are pulling the chromosomes to each centriole at each
pole of the dividing cell
4.​ Telophase
●​ The two groups of chromosomes are completely separated
●​ The daughter chromosomes stretch out and become thinner and invisible
●​ A new nuclear membrane forms around each group of daughter
chromosomes
Difference in cytokinesis between a plant and an animal cell (draw picture)
-​ In animals the pinching in of the cell membrane is called a cleavage furrow
-​ In plants the development of a new cell wall is called the cell plate

Differences between benign and malignant tumors

1.​ Benign tumour - cells stay together and have no serious effect on surrounding tissue
2.​ Malignant - mass of cells, interferes with the function of nearby cells and tissue

​ Microscope calculations

Chapter 3:
4 types of tissue (describe them, their function and example)
1.​ Epithelial Tissue : packed cells, covering the body’s surface and lining internal cavities
●​ Function: protect, filtration, absorption
●​ Example: skin surface, lining of stomach

2.​ Connective Tissue : binds the parts of the body together

●​ Function: support, connect, bind, protect tissues and organs
●​ Example: blood, bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments

3.​ Muscle Tissue : special cell that can contract, enabling movement
●​ Function: movement, heat generation
●​ Example: skeletal muscle(bones), smooth muscle(organs), cardiac muscle(heart)

4.​ Nervous Tissue : conducts impulses to control and coordinate body activities
●​ Function: communication and control of body activities through electrical signals
●​ Example: brain, spinal cord, nerves

Tissues found in the heart

-​ Cardiac muscle tissue
-​ Nerve tissue
-​ Connective tissue
For each organ system - describe the major organs/ parts involved, it’s main function, and
how they depend on each other to help an organism survive
●​ Digestive system - break down food into nutrients that the body can absorb for
energy, growth and repair
1.​ Mouth - mechanical and chemical digestion
2.​ Esophagus - transport food to stomach
3.​ Stomach - break down food with acid and enzymes
4.​ Small intestine - absorb nutrients
5.​ Large intestine - absorb water and form waste
6.​ Liver - produce bile to digest fat
7.​ Pancreas - produces digestive enzymes
8.​ Gallbladder - store bile
9.​ Anus - release waster

●​ Circulatory system - transport oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste products

to and from cells
1.​ Heart - pumps blood through the body
2.​ Blood vessels - carry blood
3.​ Blood - carries oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and waste

●​ Respiratory system - brings in oxygen fro cells and removes carbon dioxide
from the body
1.​ Nose - filters air
2.​ Trachea - windpipe that carries air to lungs
3.​ Bronchi - air passage to lungs
4.​ Lungs - main organs of gas exchange
5.​ Alveoli - air sacs where oxygen enters blood and carbon dioxide leaves
6.​ Diaphragm - muscle that helps with breathing

How they connect: digestive provides nutrients, respiration provides oxygen, circulatory
delivers nutrients and oxygen to cells. Together they ensure all cells in the body get energy and
materials they need to function and survive.

Where does most digestion occur

●​ the duodenum in small intestine
●​ Where most chemical digestion happens
●​ Enzymes from the pancreas and bile from the liver are released to break down fats,
proteins, and carbohydrates
3 accessory organs of the digestive system and their functions
1.​ Liver - produces bile and breaks down fats
2.​ Pancreas - produces enzymes to break down carbohydrates, fats and proteins. Releases
bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid
3.​ Gallbladder - stores and releases bile. Send bile into the duodenum, which helps with fat
digestion

4 components of blood (describe them)

●​ Red blood cells - contain protein called hemoglobin, transports oxygen throughout the
body. They make up 45% of blood
●​ White blood cells - infection fighting cells, destroy bacteria. Make up less than 1% of
blood. Only cell with a nucleus
●​ Platelets - help in blood clotting. Make up less than 1% of blood
●​ Plasma - liquid that carries blood cells. Make up 55% of blood

3 types of blood vessels (describe them)

1.​ Arteries : carry oxygenated blood away from the heart. Have high pressure and thick
walls
2.​ Veins : carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart. Have low pressure and thin walls
3.​ Capillaries : connect arteries and veins. Tiny vessels with thin walls, where gas
exchange occurs between blood and cells

Where does gas exchange occur

-​ In the capillaries, between blood and cells

2 diseases/ disorders of the circulatory system (describe them)

Coronary Artery Disease - when coronary arteries struggle to supply the heart with enough
blood, oxygen and nutrients, caused by a buildup of plaque (blocks the arteries)
-​ Plaque : a deposit, made of far, cholesterol, calcium and other substances. Caused by
poor lifestyle

What happens during inhalation and exhalation

1.​ Inhalation: the diaphragm contracts, lowering it and expanding the chest cavity. Creates
a lower pressure inside the lungs, causing air to rush in from the environment
2.​ Exhalation: the diaphragm relaxes, raising it and reducing the chest cavity. This decrease
in volume increases the pressure inside the lungs, forcing air out.
Describe the flow of blood in the body, starting at the right ventricle of the heart - when is
blood oxygenated and when is it deoxygenated
1.​ Deoxygenated blood enters the right atrium from the superior and inferior vena cava
2.​ Blood from the right atrium is pumped through the AV valve to the right ventricle
3.​ The right ventricle pumps blood through the SV valve to the lungs through the
pulmonary artery
4.​ Oxygenated blood returns to the heart from the pulmonary veins and enters the left
ventricle
5.​ Blood from the left atrium is pumped through the AV valve to the left ventricle
6.​ The left ventricle pumps blood through the SV valve to the aorta then it travels
throughout the body