Definition of Terms maintenance activities or obstructions in the

roadway.
• Traffic Signs - device mounted on a fixed
support (permanent signs) or portable support • Delineators - light retro-reflecting devices
(temporary signs) whereby a specific message is mounted at the side of the roadway, in series, to
conveyed by means of words or symbols placed indicate the roadway alignment.
or erected for the purpose of regulating, warning
• Traffic Cones - devices which may be conical in
or guiding traffic.
shape or tubular shaped capable of performing
• Regulatory Signs - signs that inform road users channelization of traffic which may be set on the
of traffic laws and regulations which, if surface of the roadway or rigidly attached for
disregarded, will constitute an offense. continued use

• Special Instruction Signs - signs that instruct • Temporary Curbing - roadwork devices
road users to meet certain traffic rule consisting of pre-cast concrete sections,
requirements or road condition. sandbag, and others which, may be used to guide
traffic at the construction site.
• Warning Signs-warn Road users of condition
on or adjacent to the road that may be • Flexible Post or Bollard - device used in place
unexpected or hazardous of rigid barrier posts or traffic cones with a
minimum of 450 mm by 50 mm wide with
• Guide Signs (Informative Signs) - inform and
alternate bands of contrasting color as seen by
advice road users of directions, distance, routes,
approaching traffic for delineation of traffic.
the location of services, and points of interests
The standard colors for signs are as follows:
• Roadwork Signs - warn or advise of temporary
hazardous conditions that could endanger road Red is used as a background for STOP signs, as
users or the men and equipment engaged on border color on GIVE WAY signs, warning signs
roadwork and prohibitive signs in the regulatory type.

• Overhead Signs - signs which provide means of Black is used as legend color for signs having
displaying essential traffic information on wide white, yellow, orange, fluorescent orange,
multi-lane roads, where some degree of lane use fluorescent yellow green background and as
control is required, or where side-of-road chevron for hazard makers.
clearance is insufficient to accommodate a road
Yellow is used as background color for road signs.
side sign
White is the background color for most signs and
• Barriers - highway appurtenances designed to
legends for some colored background.
prevent vehicular penetration from the travel
way to areas behind the barrier such as to Fluorescent Yellow Green is used as background
minimize damage to impacting vehicles and their color for signs related to pedestrian movement,
occupants, and to reduce the risk of injuries to school zones, and road work hazard markers to
pedestrians and workers give additional emphasis and guidance to vehicle
operators.
• Flashing Lamps - warning devices used to
supplement other controls and devices Fluorescent Orange is used as background color
necessary to alert motorists of construction and for roadwork signs whose legends relate to
personal working.
Green is used as background color for direction • Avoid large areas of blank panel, particularly
signs. blank areas not symmetrically disposed across
the panel;
Blue is used as background color for service
signs. • If there are two list of legends side by side (e.g.,
as on Reassurance Signs) it is necessary to left
Brown is reserved as background color for all
justify the left list and right justify the right list;
tourist facility directional and information signs.
and,
Classifications of signs
• Elements such as arrows and symbols may
Signs are classified in the following groups sometimes have to be larger than the principal
according to their use. legend would normally require. For example, an
arrow relates to several lines of legends on a
• Regulatory Signs direction sign
• Warning Signs Classification of Regulatory Signs
• Guide Signs or Informative Sign • Priority Signs
• Signs for Expressways • Direction Signs
• Signs for Special Purposes • Prohibitive or Restrictive Signs
• Hazard Markers • Speed Signs
Uniformity of application is as important as • Parking Signs
standardization with respect to design and
placement. Identical conditions should always be • Miscellaneous Signs
treated with the same type of signs so that road
Four Sizes for Regulatory Signs
users can readily anticipate the course of action
required. • Size A for urban low speed roads;

To be effective, the road sign should meet the five • Size B for rural roads with speed limits between
basic requirements: 60 and 70 kph;

• Fulfill a need • Size C for high-speed rural highways’ multi-lane

urban roads
• Command attention
• Size D for Expressways
• Convey a clear, simple message
Classification of Warning Signs
• Command respect; and
• Horizontal Alignment Signs
• Give adequate time for proper response
• Intersection and Junction Signs
It should be noted that when all sign rules have
been followed, some visual judgment must be • Advance Warning of Traffic Control Device Signs
exercised in adjusting sign elements. The
• Road Width Signs
following general rules are to be applied when
designing the sign face. • Road Obstacle Signs
• Cramping of legend is to be avoided; • Pedestrian and School Signs
• Railway Level Crossing • To delineate the curve approach just prior to
entering an
• Supplementary Signs
intersection.
• Other Warning Signs
Pavement markings have definite limitations:
Signs in Directional Signing series are usually
classified into four categories: • They are subject to traffic wear and require
proper maintenance;
• Those installed in advance of the intersection.
• They may not be clearly visible if the road is wet
• Those installed at the intersection.
or dusty;
• Those on departure from the intersection.
• They may be obscured by traffic;
• Those installed on expressways.
• Their effect on skid resistance requires careful
Classification of Guide Signs choice of materials; and

• Advance Direction Sign • They cannot be applied on unsealed roads.

• Intersection Direction Sign The elements to consider when planning

Expressways are:
• Reassurance Direction Sign
• No frontage access;
• Finger Board Direction Sign
• Development set well back from the highway;
• Street Name Signs
• Grade separated intersections for extremely
• Town Name and Geographical Feature Signs high flows and other intersecting expressways;
• Service Signs • Number of intersections to be minimized and
• Tourist Information and Tourist Destination • Where necessary or for emergency purposes,
Signs parking/stopping to be provided clear of the
• Route Markers main carriageway.

One-Way hazard markers indicate to the The elements to consider when planning
approaching driver the direction to be followed National Roads are:
if the marker appears in the driving path. • Limited frontage access
They may point to the left or right as • Development set well back from the highway
appropriate and are used as follows:
• All access to premises provided via provincial
• To delineate an abrupt narrowing of pavement, roads
for example, at a lane drop;
• Number of intersections to be minimized
• At exposed ends of raised median islands
where traffic is required to pass to • Suitable at-grade channelized intersections for
minor flows and other elements
one side;
• No roadside vendors
• On central island of a roundabout facing
entering traffic; and
Color of Pavement Markings Barrier lines may consist of either:

The color of pavement markings shall be white • Two unbroken yellow lines;
except for the alternative uses of yellow as
• Single unbroken yellow line; or,
specified below:
• Single yellow line with a broken white line.
• Double yellow no-passing lines;
The following are the cases where barrier lines
• Unbroken portion of no-passing lines;
should be used:
• Curb markings for prohibition of parking;
• As center lines on approaches to signalized
• On islands in line of traffic; intersections;

• Bus and PUJ lanes; and, • As center lines of multi-lane roads where
overtaking must be prohibited, because of sign
• Keep Intersection Open markings
restrictions;
Red shall be used in:
• ‘No-Passing’ zones where there is a restricted
• No Loading/Unloading Zone; and sight distance due to horizontal or vertical
curves, or both; and
• Fire lane zone
• As center lines on approaches to railway
Design Speed crossings
The choice of an appropriate design speed for a Warrants for Use
road project is important to ensure a safe design.
Because of the high cost of installation and
When choosing a design speed, the following maintenance, use of raised pavement markers
factors need to be considered: may be considered only in the following
• Function of the road condition:

• Anticipated operating speed • In hilly areas where fog and rain are frequently
the causes of traffic accidents; and
• Anticipated speed limit
• In winding roads and accident-prone areas.
Warrants for Marking Center Lines
The provision of safety sight distance depends
A center line may be marked on an urban or rural on the characteristics of the driver such as:
road if one or more of the following conditions
are met: • Alertness of driver

• Two lane road (greater than 6 m in width) • Recognition of the hazard

carrying an Annual Average Daily Traffic (ADT) in • Actions available to the driver – to stop or to
excess of 1000 vehicles; change direction
• Two lane road (less than 6 m but more than 5 The provision of safety sight distance depends
m in width) carrying an ADT in excess of 300 on the characteristics of the vehicle such as:
vehicles; and
• Type of vehicle – car or truck
• Winding roads with widths of 5 m or more.
• Friction between the tire and the road
• Eye height of the driver For instance: (Port Cebu)

• Speed of vehicles According to the tide table (1991) of NAMRIA,

the frequency of tide below MLLW is 213
The provision of safety sight distance depends
times/year and the maximum amount of the
on the characteristics of the road environment
value is -0.51 m. Under this condition it is
such as:
dangerous for ships to utilize the port.
• Road geometry – grade and curvature sight
Shoulder paving is a valuable method of
limitations
providing:
• Road surface – sealed or unsealed, smooth or
• Integrity of the pavement
rough
• Width to place edge line pavement markings
• Road illumination at night
• Additional safety to prevent vehicles skidding
Each type of sight distance consists of three
or drivers losing control in gravel.
elements:
• Low maintenance costs compared with
• Driver Eye Height
unpaved shoulders
• Object Height
Element of Berthing Facility:
• Sight Distance
• Planned Water Depth
There are two components in stopping sight
• Design Water Depth
distance:
• Coping/Crown Elevation
• Reaction distance – the distance traveled while
the driver perceives a hazard, decides to take • Length - Standard Part, Approach Part
action, then acts by starting to apply the brakes
• Width of Apron
to start slowing down; and
• Slope of Apron
• Braking distance – the distance required for the
vehicle to slow down and stop There are four types of escape ramps:
Four different criteria used for the • Sand Pile
establishment of sag vertical curves:
• Descending Grade
• Headlight sight distance
• Horizontal Grade
• Passenger comfort
• Ascending Grade
• Drainage control
Types of intersections that generally exist on the
• General appearance road network are:
PPA has used MLLW as the datum line for design • Unflared and unchannelized intersections
of port facilities in accordance with charts. But (without widening or traffic islands)
there are many ports of which low tide go down
very often below MLLW. • Flared and unchannelized intersections (with
widening but without traffic islands) and
• Channelized intersections (traffic islands to b. Inland waterway ports: ports located on
guide traffic)
navigable rivers, channels and lakes.
Principles of good design to reduce the
• Fairway - a navigable channel in a harbor,
likelihood of traffic accidents include:
offshore etc.; the usual course taken by vessels in
• Minimize the speed of vehicles at potential such places.
collision points
• Berth - A place where the ship can moor. In the
•Separate movements and points of conflict by case of a quay or jetty structure, it will include
channelization, or the section of the structure where labor,
equipment and cargo move to and from the ship.
in some situations, prohibit certain movements
(and provide for them at other intersections • Berth structure - An artificial landing place for
along the route) the loading and unloading of ships. Berth
structures can be subdivided into:
• Control movements to reduce the possibility of
conflict and a. Wharf - A continuous structure built parallel to
along the margin of the sea or alongside
• Clearly define vehicle paths by use of pavement
riverbanks, canals, or waterways where vessels
markings
may lie alongside to receive or discharge cargo,
PORTS AND HARBORS embark or disembark passengers or lie at rest.

• Harbor - A protected water area to provide safe Quay – this term can be substituted to wharf
and suitable accommodation for ships for the when applied to great solid structures in large
transfer of cargo, refueling, repairs, etc. Harbors ports.
may be subdivided into:
In stability calculation of gravity type quaywall,
a. Natural harbors: harbors protected from the following matters should be examined:
storms and waves by the natural configuration of
(a) Sliding of the wall
the land.
(b) Bearing capacity of foundation
b. Semi-natural harbors: harbors with both
natural and artificial protection. (c) Overturning of the wall

c. Artificial harbors: harbors protected from the (d) Circular slip and settlement

effect of waves by means of breakwaters, or b. Pier – Any structure built into the sea but not
harbors created by dredging.
parallel to the coastline and includes any stage,
• Port – A sheltered place where the ship may
stair landing place, landing stage jetty, floating
receive or discharge cargo. It includes the harbor
with its approach channels and anchorage barge, and pontoon, any bridge or other works
places. Ports may be subdivided into:
connected there with.
a. Ocean ports: ports located on coasts, tidal
Jetty – a landing stage or small pier at which
estuaries or river mouths where the port can be
boats can dock or be moored.
reached directly by ocean-going ships.
c. Dolphin: a berth structure for mooring the ship corrected for the effects of planar topographic
changes such as refraction and diffraction; it is
on the open sea; An isolated piled or gravity
expressed with the significant wave height.
structure used either to maneuver a ship or to
Wave Refraction occurs in intermediate depth to
facilitate holding it in position at its berth. shallow waters. The change in wave height and
wave direction due to the change in local wave
• Dry Dock – a type of dock consisting of a velocity caused in water depth.
rectangular basin dug into the shore of a body of
water and provided with a removable enclosure Wave Diffraction is a phenomenon whereby
wall or gate on the side toward the water, used waves wheel into region that is screened by
for major repairs and overhaul of vessels. something like a breakwater.

• Waves Wave Reflection the waves reflected from port

and harbor facilities can exercise a large
Significant Wave (significant wave height H1/3 influence on the navigation of vessels and cargo
and significant wave period T1/3) The waves in a handling. For example, waves reflected from
wave group are rearranged in the order of their vertical breakwaters can cause disturbances in
heights and the highest onethird are selected; navigation channels, and multiple reflected
the significant wave is then the hypothetical waves from quaywalls can cause agitations
wave whose height and period are the mean within harbors.
height and period of the selected waves.
Wave Shoaling- shoaling is one of the important
Highest Wave (highest wave height Hmax and factors that lead to changing of the wave height
highest period Tmax) is the highest wave in a in coastal waters. It exemplifies the fact that the
wave group. wave height in shallow waters is also governed by
Highest One-Tenth Wave (H1/10, T1/10) is the the water depth and wave period.
wave whose height and period are equal to the Wave Breaking At places where the water depth
mean height and period of the highest one-tenth is no more than about three times the equivalent
of the waves in a wave group. deepwater wave height decreases rapidly of the
Mean wave (mean wave height H , mean period wave height due to wave breaking shall be
T ) is the wave whose height and period are equal considered.
to the mean height and period of all of the waves • Tides and Abnormal Water Level
in a wave group.
Astronomical tide is the periodic rise and fall of
Deepwater Waves (deepwater wave height H0 sea level in response to the gravitational
and deepwater wave period T0) is the wave at a attraction of the sun and moon as modified by
place where the water depth is at least onehalf the earth’s rotation. The essential parameters to
of the wavelength; the wave parameters are characterize the tide are:
expressed with those of the significant wave at
this place. a. Mean Sea Level (MSL) – is the average of the
sea water surface for all stages of the tide over a
Equivalent Deepwater Wave Height (H0’) is a 19- year period.
hypothetical wave height that has been b. Mean Low Water (MWL) – is the height of the

low water over a 19-year period.

c. Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW) – is the

average height of the lower low waters over a

19-year period.

d. Mean High Water (MHW) – is the average

height of the high waters over a 19-year period.

e. Mean Higher High Water (MHHW) – is the

average height of the higher high water over a

19-year period.

Storm Surge is abnormal rise of the sea level that

occurs when a typhoon passes by. This rise above
normal level on this open coast is due to
atmosphere pressure reduction as well as that
due to wind stress.

Tsunamis are wave with an extremely long

period that mainly occur when there is a sudden
largescale sea floor movement usually
associated severe, shallow focus earthquake.

Seiche is a phenomenon involving abnormal

oscillations of the water level with a period of
approximately a few minutes to a few tens of
minutes. It occurs when small fluctuations of the
water level are generated by micro-scale
variations of the atmospheric pressure by an air
front or a low pressure in the outer sea, and the
components of those oscillations whose period is
the same as a natural period of the harbor are
amplified through resonance.