Ch.

1 - INTRODUCTION accessories of vehicles, and define road

traffic rules and regulations.
Motor Vehicles are classified as follows:

1. Private Vehicles – owned by private Commonwealth Act 146 aka Public Service
individuals or companies not Act - rests on regulatory body (LTFRB) the
intended to be used for hire. power to compel any public service
2. For hire vehicles – refers to the provider to furnish safe, adequate and
motor vehicles authorized to be used proper service as regards the manner of
as public furnishing the same as well as the
3. Government Vehicles – owned by maintenance of necessary materials and
the Philippine government equipment.
4. Diplomatic Vehicles – owned by
foreign government Executive Order (EO) 125
- recognized the Ministry of
Transportation and
Insurance – motor vehicle owners are
Communications into a department
required to obtain insurance covering third - defined its power and functions,
party liabilities. including the establishment of LTO
1. Student Driver’s permit – at least 16 as the sectoral agency responsible
for implementing and carrying out
y/o
policies, rules and regulations
2. Nonprofessional driver’s license –
at least 17 y/o and must be a holder Executive Order 202 – created LTFRB with
of student permit for at least one main function of regulating the land
month transport industry
3. Professional driver’s license – at
least 18 y/o and is required to RA 6975 – established the DILG including
submit valid nonprofessional or the creation of PNP under which the TMG
student permit that is used for at has been recognized
least 5 mo.
Traffic Engineering - is a field or branch of
Traffic Enforcement civil engineering that deals with the
application of technology and scientific
TMG – Traffic management Group
principles to planning, functional design,
RTMO – Regional Traffic Management
operation, and management facilities for
Office
any mode of transportation in order to
MMDA – Metro Manila Development
Authority provide for the safe, rapid etc. movement of
*LTFRB – land Transportation Franchising people and goods.
and Regulatory Board Traffic Engineering and Management
*DILG – Department of Interior and Local
(TEAM) Project – first implemented an area
Government
traffic control system in Metro Manila
RA 4136 aka Land Transportation and
Traffic Code – provides for the system of
registration of motor vehicles, checks on

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Ch. 2 - TRAFFIC MANAGEMENT c. Guiding Devices – employed
simply to inform the road user of
- Term used to embody the activities
route, destination, and other
undertaken by a highway
pertinent info.
transportation agency to improve
roadway system safety, efficiency, Four Elementary Requirements
and effectiveness for both providers
a. It should compel attention
and consumers of transportation
b. It should convey simple clear
services.
meaning at a glance
Traffic regulation c. It should allow adequate time for
easy response
- Must cover all aspects of the control
d. It should command the respect of the
of both vehicle and driver
road users for whom it is intended
- Must be reasonable and effective
- Dependent upon the laws of states Traffic Signs and Markings
and local governments
Traffic signs – employed more frequently
Effective Traffic Regulation than any other devices to regulate, warn,
etc. or guide road users.
a. Regulations should be rational
b. Regulations should be developed Traffic Markings – normally consist of
progressively lines, patterns, words and symbols,
c. Regulations alone often are not reflectors
enough
a. Informative: the signs are intended
Elements of Road System to guide users while they are
traveling
- Road
b. Regulatory: the signs are intended
- Vehicle
to inform users of special
- Driver
obligations, restrictions, or
Traffic Control Devices – are means by prohibitions with which they must
which the road user is advised as to detailed comply
requirements or conditions affecting rod use c. Warning: these signs are intended to
at specific places and times. warn users of a danger on the road
and to inform them of its nature.
3 functional groups
Elements of Design
a. Regulatory devices – have authority
of law and impose precise SHAPE - Shapes of signs are standardized
requirements upon the actions of as follows:
road user
1. Equilateral triangular shape
b. Warning Devices – used to inform
with one side horizontal shall
road users of potentially hazardous
be used for danger warning
roadway conditions that are not
signs.
readily apparent to passing traffic
2. Round shape shall be used
for regulating traffic
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 3. Rectangular shape shall be SIZE Dimension (mm)
used for informative signs
A 600 x 600
4. Octagonal shape shall be
used for STOP signs only B 750 x 750
5. Inverted equilateral triangle
C 900 x 900
shall be used for YIELD signs
only Illumination & Reflectorization
6. Pentagon used for pedestrian
and school crossing sign - Signs are intended to convey messages
during both daytime and nighttime. During
COLOR hours of darkness, this can be achieved
through illumination or by using reflective
1. Danger warning signs shall have a
materials for signs
yellow or white background with
black symbols and red border Placement and Height of Signs
2. Prohibitory signs and restrictive
signs shall have a white background - Signs shall be mounted
with black symbols and red border approximately at right angles to the
3. Mandatory signs with the exception direction, and facing the traffic they
of STOP and YIELD signs shall have intend to serve.
a blue background and white Lateral Placement
symbols
4. STOP signs shall have a red - Sign should at least 60 cm clear of
background and white symbols the outer edge of road shoulder
5. YIELD signs shall have a yellow - Clearance should not be less than
background and red border 2m nor more than 5m from edge
6. Informative signs shall have a white - Minimum clearance should be 50cm
or light-colored symbol on a dark- Height
colored (blue or black) background
or a blue or dark-colored symbol on - In rural areas, height should be
a white or light-colored background between 1m – 1.5m above nearest
7. Tourist facility and directional and edge
info signs shall have brown - For intersection direction signs,
background height should be increased
- On curbed roads , signs should be
Regulatory signs are of four sizes based on mounted at a minimum of 2m above
the speed of the facility as follows: the top of the curb
 A for urban low-speed roads Location of advance warnings sign
 B for rural roads with speed limits
between 60 and 70 kph - Warning signs should be placed
 C for high-speed rural highways 30m-100m in hazardous area
 D for expressways - In rural areas, they should be placed
75-225m ahead of the hazardous
In the case of a STOP or YIELD sign, the area
table below should be followed:
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International Standard Traffic Signs include Center Line, Lane Line,
Double Yellow Line, “No Passing”
1. Warning signs can indicate any
Zone markings, Pavement Edge
potential hazard, obstacle or
Line, Continuity Lines, and
condition requiring special attention
Transition Line
2. Priority Signs have various forms.
b. Transverse lines are those laid
The most commonly used priority
across the direction of travel. These
signs are the STOP and YIELD signs.
include Stop Line, Yield Lines, and
3. Prohibition signs are round with a
Pedestrian Crossing Markings
red border and either a white or a
c. Other lines, which include Turn
yellow background
Lines, Parking Bays, Painted
4. Obligatory Signs are round and in
Median islands, and Bus and PUJ
blue color
Lane lines
5. Prescription Signs – rectangular
with either a blue base w/ white Object Markings
foreground, or white light base with
a. Object within the roadway
a dark foreground
b. Object adjacent to the roadway
6. Information Signs – rectangular
with white or yellow plate w/ Reflector Markings
symbol that stands for the service
a. Retro-reflector raised pavement
involved
markers
7. Direction Signs- profusion of colors
b. Hazard markers
and forms is available
c. Delineators
8. Additional information – small and
rectangular Materials
PAVEMENT MARKINGS Road Markings
Pavement markings have some definite - Should be of nonskid materials and
limitations: should not protrude more than
6mm above the level of the
a. They are subject to traffic wear and
carriageway.
require proper maintenance
- Raised pavement markings should
b. They may not be clearly visible if the
not protrude more than 15mm
road is wet or dusty
above the level of the carriageway
c. They may be obscured by traffic
d. Their effect on skid resistance The following are the commonly used materials
requires careful choice of materials for road markings.
e. They cannot be applied on unsealed
A. Paint
roads.
- Paint with or without glass beads
Types of Markings
embedded or premixed can be
Pavement and curb markings applied either by hand or with line
marking machines.
a. Longitudinal lines are those laid in
the direction of travel. These

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 - For proper reflectorization at night, Types of Lines
the amount of glass beads should be
a. Broken Line - Shall consist of line
no less than 0.45kg and no more
segments of equal lengths separated
than 0.5kg per liter of mixed paint
by uniform gaps.
B. Thermoplastic Materials b. Solid Unbroken Line - used where
crossing of the line is either
- Use of thermoplastic materials with
discouraged or prohibited.
or without reflective properties is
recommended at locations subject to Note: Solid lines may be either yellow or white,
extreme traffic wear. depending whether crossing the line is legally
- The average service life of prohibited or not
thermoplastic materials has been
MESSAGES
experienced to be equivalent to eight
times that of beaded traffic paints - Messages when used should be
limited to as few words as possible,
C. Precut sheeting
never more than three. They shall
- It is usually adhesive tape form, only be used to supplement other
with aggregate, pigment, and plastic traffic control devices.
rubber combined on one side and - Messages generally in use are STOP,
adhesive on the other KEEP CLEAR, SCHOOL, PED
XING, RAILROAD XING, SIGNAL
D. Raised Pavement Markers
AHEAD, NO RIGHT (LEFT) TURN,
- These are studs of plastic, ceramic, BUS LANE and PUJ LANE
aluminum, cast iron, etc. that are
Symbols
embedded into the carriageway or
attached to the road surface with a. Give Way (yield) symbol – consists
adhesive. of an isosceles triangle having two
- They may be reflective or equal sides of 3.1m and a base of 1m
nonreflective
b. Pavement Arrows
COLOR: the color of pavement markings - Used for lane use control.
shall be white, except for the alternative - For half turn movements
uses of yellow in the following cases:
Raised Pavement Markers
a. Double yellow “no passing” lines
b. Unbroken portion of “no parking” - Small rectangular or dome-shaped
lines devices that are fixed to the
c. Curb markings for prohibition of pavement surface to simulate or
parking supplement painted pavement
d. On islands in line of traffic markings.
e. Bus and PUJ lanes - Can be reflective or non-reflective

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Hazard Makers

- Rectangular and generally consist of

a series of alternating black and
white bands

Delineators

- Small reflective panels or buttons

mounted on guide posts or guard b. Space mean speed (harmonic mean
fences as an effective aid for night speed) – used to describe the rate of
driving. movement of a traffic stream within
a given section of road.
Ch. 3 TRAFFIC FLOW FUNDAMENTALS

TYPES OF FLOW

Traffic flow - study of interactions

between travelers and infrastructure, with
the aim of understanding and developing Density – defined as the number of vehicles
an optimal transport network with efficient in a given length of road at an instant point
movement of traffic and minimal traffic in time.
congest

Major Traffic Variables

a. Flow rate or volume

b. Speed Time Headway – defined as the time
c. Density or concentration interval between passage of consecutive
vehicles at a specified point on the road
Flow rate or volume
with a unit of time per vehicle
𝑵 (𝒗𝒆𝒉𝒊𝒄𝒍𝒆𝒔)
Flow rate, 𝒒 = 𝑻 (𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆)

- Defined as the number of vehicles

passing a point during a specified
Spacing – distance between two vehicles
period of time.
measured from the front bumper of a
- Referred to as volume when
vehicle to that of another
measured over an hour

Speed – defined as a rate motion in distance

per unit time.

a. Time mean speed (spot speed)

- Simply the arithmetic mean
of the speeds of vehicles Time Occupancy – can only be measured if
passing a point within a a detector is installed at a specific point on
given interval time. the carriageway

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 Level B – zone of stable flow with operating
speeds beginning to be restricted somewhat
by traffic conditions

Level C – Still in zone of stable flow, but

Where 𝑡𝑖 is the detection time of the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ speed and maneuverability are most closely
vehicle. controlled by higher volumes.
Relationship of Flow, Speed and Density Level D - Approaches unstable flow
𝒒 = 𝒌 × 𝒖𝒔 Level E – Flow is stable, and there may be
𝑞 – Flow rate (veh/hr) stoppages of momentary condition
𝑘 – Density (veh/km) Level F – Forced or breakdown flow
𝑢𝑠 – Space mean speed (km/hr)
Speed - Density Relation Level – Capacity ratio and LOS
Level of Service Volume – capacity ratio
A Less than 0.2
B 0.21 – 0.50
Jam Density, 𝒌𝒋 – zero speed C 0.51 – 0.70
D 0.71 – 0.85
Free Flow speed, 𝑢𝑓 – zero density
E 0.86 – 1.00
Volume – Density Relation F Greater than 1.0

Measure of effectiveness for different

For max flow, 𝑘𝑚 =
𝑘𝑗 highway types
2

Volume – Speed Relation

Capacity and Level of Service

Capacity – maximum hourly rate at which

persons or vehicles can reasonably be
expected to traverse a point or uniform
section of a lane during a given time period
under control conditions

Level of Service (LOS) – qualitative

description of how certain facility is
performing.

Level A – Free flow, with low volumes and

high speeds

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 Hydrodynamic and Kinematic Models of 𝜇 – Departure rate
Traffic
Note: If 𝜌<1 then 𝜆 < 𝜇, system is stable.

a. Average length of queue

2𝜌− 𝜌2
𝑚
̅ = 2(1−𝜌)
b. Average waiting time
𝜌
𝑤
̅=
2𝜇(1 − 𝜌)
c. Average time spent in the system
2−𝜌
𝑡̅ =
2𝜇(1 − 𝜌)

M/M/1 Queueing – assumes negative

exponential for both arrival and departure
distributions

Queuing Theory a. Average length of queue

Kendall’s Notation is popularly used to 𝜆2

𝑚
̅ = 𝜆(𝜇−𝜆)
describe a queuing system.
b. Average waiting time
(𝐴 /𝐵 / 𝐶 ) (𝑛) 𝜆
𝑤
̅=
𝜇(𝜇 − 𝜆)
Where: c. Average time spent in the system
A – represents the input or arrival pattern 1
B – represents the service mechanism’ 𝑡̅ =
𝜇−𝜆
C – Represents the number of servers
n – Represents the limit of the queue or M/M/N Queuing – when there is more than
users one server
𝜌
Utilization factor, 𝑁
M/M/1 (∞) – random arrival and departure
(service rate); one or single server; no limit Note: For stable condition, ρ may be greater than
𝜌
1 but 𝑁 must be less than 1
M/M/N (∞) – random arrival and departure;
N or multiple servers; infinite queue a. Average length of queue
D/D/1 (100) – regular arrival; regular service
rate or departure; single server, limit of
queue is 100

M/D/1 Queuing - assumes that the arrivals

of vehicles follow a negative exponential
distribution, characterized by randomness.
𝜆
𝜌= 𝜇
; Traffic density or utilization factor

𝜆 – Arrival rate
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 b. Average waiting time for capacity analysis, signal timing,
justifying traffic control, etc.
c. Turning movement or Intersection
counts – used for signal timing,
designing, or improving geometry of
c. Average time spent in the system intersections, planning turning
prohibition, analyzing high accident
intersections
Shock Wave – a phenomenon brought d. Classifying counts – used for
about by the motion or propagation of a determining modal split, estimating
change in density and flow effects of heavy vehicles on capacity,
determining correction factors for
𝑞2 − 𝑞1
𝑢𝑤 = automatic counts
𝑘2 − 𝑘1
e. Cordon counts – used to determine
Traffic Volume – most basic data needed the number of vehicles and/or
for any traffic study persons entering and leaving the an
enclosed area
Types of Volume
f. Screen line counts – classified
1. Annual Traffic – used for counts taken at some points along a
determining annual travel, line that bisects a given area
estimating expected highway user
Time of Study
revenue, computing accident rates
2. Annual Average Daily Traffic a. 24 hour counts from midnight to
(AADT) – used for measuring the midnight
annual demand for service by the b. 16 hour counts from 6am to 10 PM to
road, programming capital represent most of daily flow,
improvements including evening traffic
3. Hourly Traffic – used for evaluating c. 12 hour counts from 6 AM to 6 PM
capacity deficiencies, geometric to cover most of daytime traffic
design or improvement of streets d. Peak period counts from 7 AM to
and intersections 9AM, 5PM to 7PM, or other intervals
4. Short Term Count – used to corresponding to very high level of
estimate maximum flow rate and traffic volume
determine the characteristics of peak e. Short counts of about 1 hour or less
hour volumes with intervals of 5-15 mins to
analyze characteristics of peak hours
Types of Data Collected
Methods
a. Mid-block counts – used for
preparing traffic flow maps and  By tallying
determining trends  Using manual counters
b. Directional counts – used for  Using automatic counters
determining directional distribution  Using video cameras

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AADT and ADT -often used by police
authorities for apprehending
AADT – the total volume counted over one
over speeding drivers
year divided by the number of days in the
- difficult to use when volume
year
of traffic is high
AADT= 2. Manual method
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑣𝑒ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑦𝑒𝑎𝑟 - A very useful and less
365
expensive way of conducting
ADT – obtained by conducting traffic spot speed studies is called
volume counts over a number of days at the “trap length”
least 2 days and less than 365 days - A stopwatch is then used to
measure the travel time of
Spot Speed Studies
the vehicle within the trap
Objectives of conducting spot speed studies are - Length of trap is divided by
to: the travel time to estimate
speed.
a. Determine the range and magnitude
of speeds as a basis for formulating Analysis and Presentation of Spot Speeds
design standards
Spot speed – arithmetic mean of the speeds
b. Establish maximum and minimum
of vehicles passing a point within a given
speed limits
interval of time.
c. Determine the need for posting
advisory speed signs 𝒌 = 𝟏 + 𝟑. 𝟑𝟐𝟐𝒍𝒐𝒈𝟏𝟎 𝒏
d. Determine the need for school zone
Where: k – number of class intervals
protection, and
n – total number of observations
e. Evaluate the performance of a
geometric improvement or traffic
control device through a “before-
and-after” study.

Size of samples – the speed of at least 50

vehicles – preferably 100 – should be
measured. Possible bias that may be
attributed to the following may be avoided:

a. Selecting mostly leaders of the

platoon Travel Time and Delay Studies
b. Selecting mostly one particular type Methods
of vehicle 1. Test Car technique
c. Selecting faster vehicles - Use of a test vehicle that is
driven over the road section
Methods for conducting spot speed studies under study.
1. Radar speed Method - The driver is instructed to
travel at a speed that in his
opinion is representative of

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 the speed of the traffic
stream Density (k) may be computed as derived
2. License Plate Method quantity:
- When details on delay is not 𝑞
𝑘=
important 𝑢
- Consists of observing and
recording license plates of
vehicles and time of arrivals
at two points or more on the
road where the vehicles are
expected to pass
3. Moving Observer Method Source: Fundamentals of Traffic Engineering by
- One of most common survey Sigua
Note: Wala pa dito ang sa DPWH manual
methods for obtaining
Hindi pa lahat ito! 
information on traffic
volume, speed, and density
of a given section.
- One observer counts the
number of vehicles moving
in the opposite direction;
another observer counts the
number of vehicles that pass
them as well; the timer notes
down the time it takes to
traverse section.
𝒏 𝒎−𝒑+𝒐
𝒒= =
𝒕 𝒕𝒘 + 𝒕𝒂

Where:
𝒕𝒘 - travel time of test car traveling with the
stream
𝒕𝒂 – travel time of test car when traveling
against the strem
𝒕 – Total travel time = 𝑡𝑤 + 𝑡𝑎
𝒎 – No. of vehicles met by the test car when
traveling against the stream
𝒐 – No. of vehicles overtaking the test car
when traveling with the stream
𝒑 – No. of vehicles passed by the test car
when traveling with the stream

Average Speed of the traffic stream over

section L:
𝐿
𝑢=
𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑒
𝑝−𝑜
Where: 𝑡𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 𝑡𝑤 +
𝑞

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