U nit 1: Rational N um bers

1. Natural Numbers
The natural numbers are the counting numbers from one to infinity. We use the letter N
to refer to the set of all natural numbers:

N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, . . . }

The factors of a natural number are all the natural numbers which divide exactly into it,
leaving no remainder.
For example, the factors of 10 are: 1, 2, 5 and 10.
5 is a factor of 20 because 5 divides exactly into 20; we can also say that 20 is divisible by 5.

The even numbers are the natural numbers which are divisible by 2. The sequence of even
numbers is: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 . . . and so on.
The odd numbers are the natural numbers which are not divisible by 2. The sequence of
odd numbers is: 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 . . . and so on.

A prime number is a natural number which has exactly two distinct factors, itself and 1.
For example, 17 is a prime number since it has only two factors, 1 and 17.
A composite number is a natural number which has more than two factors.
For example, 26 is a composite number since it has more than two factors: 1, 2, 13 and 26.
Notice that these definitions indicate that one (1) is neither prime nor composite.

Every composite number can be factorised as a product of prime factors in one and only
one way (apart from order).

For example, 72 = 2 · 2 · 2 · 3 · 3 or 72 = 23 · 32 (in exponent form).

A multiple of any natural number is obtained by multiplying it by another natural number.

For example, the multiples of 3 are: 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18,. . . and these are obtained by multi-
plying 3 by each of the natural numbers in turn:

3 · 1 = 3, 3 · 2 = 6, 3 · 3 = 9, 3 · 4 = 12 etc.

1
2 R ational N um bers - 3 o E SO

Example 1
a) Find the largest multiple of 9 less than 500.
b) Find the smallest multiple of 11 greater than 1000.

a) We begin dividing 500 by 9:

We have 5 remainder, so 9 · 55 is smaller than 500.

500 9
Hence, as 9 · 55 = 495, the largest multiple of 9 less
5 55
than 500 is 495.

b) We begin dividing 1000 by 11:

1000 11
We have 10 remainder, so 11 · 90 is smaller than
10 90 1000: 11 · 90 = 990. Hence, the smallest multiple of
11 greater than 1000 is 11 · 91 =1001.

The HCF (highest common factor) of two or more natural numbers is the largest factor
which is common to both of them. For example:
The factors of 24 are: 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24.
The factors of 40 are: 1, 2, 4, 5, 8, 10, 20, 40.
Hence, the HCF of 24 and 40 is 8.

In general, to find the HCF of two or more natural numbers, we write them as a product
of prime factors in exponent form, and we multiply the common factors raised to the
smallest power.

For example: 24 = 23 · 3 and 40 = 23 · 5, so HCF is 23 = 8.

The LCM (lowest common multiple) of two or more natural numbers is the smallest multiple
which is common to both of them. For example:
The multiples of 6 are: 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60, . . .
The multiples of 8 are: 8, 16, 24, 32, 40, 48, 56,. . .
Hence, the LCM of 6 and 8 is 24.

In general, to find the LCM of two or more natural numbers, write them as a product of
prime factors in exponent form, and multiply common and non common factors raised
to the highest power.

For example: 6 = 2 · 3 and 8 = 23 , so LCM is 23 · 3 = 24.

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Exercises - Set A
1. Find the largest multiple of 7 which is less than 1000.
2. Find the smallest multiple of 13 which is greater than 1000.
3. Find the largest multiple of 17 which is less than 2000.
4. Find the smallest multiple of 15 which is greater than 10 000.
5. Find the HCF of 24, 72, 120.
6. Find the LCM of 12, 18, 27.
7. Three bells chime at intervals of 4, 5 and 6 seconds respectively. If they all chime at
the same instant, how long before they all chime together again?

2. Integers and order of operations

The negative whole numbers, zero and the positive whole numbers (not fractions or decimals)
form the set of all integers . We use the letter Z to refer to the set of integers:

Z = {· · · − 5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 . . . }

We can show these numbers on a number line . Zero is neither positive nor negative.

b b b b b b b b b b b

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Remember the rules for handling addition and subtraction of integers:

+ (positive) = (positive)
− (positive) = (negative)
+ (negative) = (negative)
− (negative) = (positive)

The following rules apply to multiplication and division with integers:

(positive) · (positive) = (positive) (positive) : (positive) = (positive)

(positive) · (negative) = (negative) (positive) : (negative) = (negative)
(negative) · (positive) = (negative) (negative) : (positive) = (negative)
(negative) · (negative) = (positive) (negative) : (negative) = (positive)

Order of operations with integers:

• Perform the operations within brackets first.

• Calculate any part involving exponents (powers, roots).

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• Starting from the left, perform all divisions and multiplications as you come to
them.
• Finally, restart from the left and perform all additions and subtractions as you come
to them.
The word BEDMAS may help you remember this order:
Brackets
Exponents
Division
Multiplication
Addition
Subtraction
Rules for brackets:
• If an expression contains one set of grouping symbols, i.e., brackets, work that part
first.
• If an expression contains two or more sets of grouping symbols one inside the other,
work the innermost first.
• The division line of fractions also behaves as a grouping symbol. This means that the
numerator and the denominator must be found separately before doing the division.

Exercises - Set B
1. Simplify:
a) −5 + 4 · (−2 + 1)3 − (−9 + 6)2
b) 12 − 2 · [25 : (−4 − 1) + (−2) − (−6 − 10)]
c) −7 − (−3) + (−8) · (−1) − (−12) : (−4)
d) −5 − 4 · [−8 : 2 − 2 · (−3)]
e) 10 − 10 · [−6 + 5 · (−4 + 7 − 3)]
f) 6 − 5 · [−4 − 1 + (−2)2 − 32 ]

2. Simplify:
12 + (5 − 7) 57 3·8+6 (3 + 8) − 5
a) b) c) d)
18 : (6 + 3) 7 − (2 · 3) 6 3 + (8 − 5)
3. Insert grouping symbols if necessary, to make the following true:
a) 120 : 4 · 2 = 15 b) 120 : 4 · 2 = 60 c) 5 · 7 − 3 − 1 = 15
d) 5 · 7 − 3 − 1 = 19 e) 5 · 7 − 3 − 1 = 33 f) 3 + 2 · 8 − 4 = 36
g) 3 + 2 · 8 − 4 = 11 h) 3 + 2 · 8 − 4 = 15 i) 8 − 6 · 3 = 6

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Using the calculator:

Most modern calculators have the order of operations rules built into them. They also have
grouping symbols keys (left hand bracket and right hand bracket).
12
For example, if we consider and key in 12 : 4 + 2 = the calculator gives an
4+2
answer of 5, which is incorrect. However, if we type 12 : (4 + 2) = we obtain the answer
2, which is correct.
Remember to use the sign change key before a negative number.

Exercises - Set C
1. Evaluate each of the following using your calculator:
a) 17 + 23 · 15 b) (17 + 23) · 15 c) 128 : 8 + 8
89 + (−5) −15 − 5
d) 128 : (8 + 8) e) f)
−7 · 3 6−8 :4

3. Rational numbers (fractions)

a
A rational number is a number which can be written as a fraction, that is, in the form ,
b
where a and b are both integers, and b 6= 0.
4 −1 2 0 −2
Examples: , , , , ...
7 10 3 1 1
A fraction indicates a part of a unit or a part of a quantity; it consists of two whole numbers,
a numerator and a denominator , separated by a bar symbol:

• the denominator, b, shows how many equal parts the whole has been split into.

• the numerator, a, tells us how many of those equal parts are being described.

The set of rational numbers is represented by the letter Q:

na o
Q= , a, b ∈ Z, b 6= 0
b
−a a a −a a
Remember that in general: = =− However: =
b −b b −b b

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How to say a fraction:

Here are some examples:
1 1 1
a half or one half a third or one third a quarter
2 3 4
2 4
two fifths or two over five four sevenths or four over seven
5 7
8 54
eight over thirty-five fifty-four over seventy-two
35 72
Proper and improper fractions:
A fraction which has numerator less than its denominator is called a proper fraction .
3
For example, is a proper fraction.
4
A fraction which has numerator greater than or equal to its denominator is called an
improper fraction .
7
For example, is an improper fraction.
4
When an improper fraction is written as a whole number and a fraction, it is called a
mixed number .
7 3
For example, can be written as the mixed number 1 43 , as it is really 1 + .
4 4

Example 2
29
Write the improper fraction as a mixed number.
3

First, we divide 29 by 3:
29 3 29 2
2 9 Hence: = 9 + = 9 23
3 3

Simplifying fractions:
We can simplify a fraction by cancelling common factors in the numerator and denominator.

When a fraction is written as a rational number with the smallest possible denominator,
we say it is in lowest terms .

We can simplify a fraction to its lowest terms dividing both numerator and denominator by
their HCF.

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Example 3
16
Simplify:
24

As HCF of 16 and 24 is 8, dividing both numerator and denominator by 8 we get:

16 2
= , which is the fraction in its lowest terms
24 3

Two fractions are equal or equivalent if they can be written in the same lowest terms.
We can convert a fraction to an equivalent fraction by multiplying or dividing both the
3 6 9 12
numerator and denominator by the same non-zero number: = = = = ...
4 8 12 16
We can also test if two fractions are equivalent by cross-multiplying their numerators and
12 24
denominators. For example, and are equivalent because 12 · 40 = 20 · 24 = 480.
20 40
Comparing fractions:
To compare two or more fractions:
• Find the common denominator , which is the LCM of the original denominators.
• Work out the equivalent fractions.
• Write the fractions in ascending or descending order. Remember that if two fractions
have the same denominator, the greater one is the fraction with the highest numerator.

Example 4
4 7
Which fraction is bigger, or ?
5 9

4 7
The common denominator of and is 45, the LCM of 5 and 9.
5 9
4 36
= (multiply numerator and denominator by 9).
5 45
7 35
= (multiply numerator and denominator by 5).
9 45
36 35 4 7
The order is > , so > .
45 45 5 9

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Exercises - Set D
1. Express with denominator 12:
2 3 5 6 15
a) b) c) d) e)
3 4 6 18 45

2. Express with numerator 12:

3 6 4 24 18
a) b) c) d) e)
7 5 9 28 42

3. Express in lowest terms:

6 6 25 14 33 48 78 125
a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h)
10 18 10 35 77 72 117 1000

4. Simplify:
8−2·5 −1 + 8 : 2 32 − 2 · 5 −5 · (−6)
a) b) c) d)
4·3 8−5 8 − 32 −11 − 4
6−3:3 12 + 8 : 2 6 + 22 11 − 3
e) f) g) h)
2 + 10 : 2 12 − 8 · 2 6 − 23 16 : 4

5. Place these fractions in ascending order:

2 3 3 17 4 7 5 3 6 1 2 3 1 3
a) , , , b) , , ,− ,− c) ,− , ,− ,−
5 8 4 40 3 5 7 4 11 8 3 11 6 4

6. Place these fractions in descending order:

5 11 7 5 2 3 4 5 6 5 1 4 7 6
a) , , , b) , , , , c) − , − , − , − , −
6 24 12 8 5 7 9 13 10 8 2 7 11 13

7. Write as a mixed number:

45 11 37
a) b) a)
4 2 5

4. Operations with fractions

Addition and subtraction:
To add or subtract fractions:

• If necessary, convert the fractions so they have the lowest common denominator.

• Add or subtract the new numerators. The denominator stays the same.

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3 2 1 9 8 6 9−8+6 7
For example: − + = − + = =
4 3 2 12 12 12 12 12
When adding or subtracting mixed numbers, you can first convert them to improper fractions
and then perform the operation. However you can also add the whole numbers and fractions
separately, then combine the result.

Example 5
Find: 2 13 − 3 21 + 1 14

First, we convert the mixed numbers into improper fractions:

1 6 1 7 1 6 1 7 1 4 1 5
2 13 = 2 + = + = ; 3 12 = 3 + = + = ; 1 41 = 1 + = + =
3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 4 4 4 4
7 7 5 28 42 15 1
Hence: 2 13 − 3 21 + 1 14 = − + = − + =
3 2 4 12 12 12 12

Multiplication:
To multiply two fractions, we multiply the two numerators to get the new numerator, and
multiply the two denominators to get the new denominator:
a c a·c
· =
b d b·d
To help make multiplication easier, se can cancel any common factors in the numerator and
denominator before we multiply.
4 3 4·3 4·1 4
For example: · = = =
9 5 9·5 3·5 15

Two numbers are reciprocals of each other if their product is one.

a a b a b
For any fraction , we notice that · = 1. So, the reciprocal of is .
b b a b a
Division:
To divide two fractions, multiply the first by the reciprocal of the second:

a c a d a·d
: = · =
b d b c b·c
4 7 4·2 8
For example: 1 31 : 3 12 = : = =
3 2 3·7 21

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Exercises - Set E
1. Find:
3
a) 1 23 − 2 b) 3 34 − 1 12 c) − 2 12 d) 1 23 + 3 14
4
e) 4 13 + 2 16 f) 2 32 − 5 56 g) −2 14 + 3 18 h) 4 15 − 2 61

2. Find:
   
2 1 3 3 4 2 2 3 2
a) · · b) · − · − c) + ·
3 4 5 8 3 5 3 4 3
3 5 4 3 1 2 1 4 1 1 2
d) − · e) · + · f) · − ·
5 2 3 5 3 3 4 3 2 6 3
 2
2 3 2
g) − · 1 32 h) 4 · 1 13 − 5 ·
3 4 7

3. Find:
 
2 1 5 1 3 1 4
a) : b) : c) : − d) :3
3 6 7 3 4 2 5
 
1 2 3
e) : 1 23 f) 2 43 : g) 1 21 : − h) 3 15 : 1 13
4 3 4

4. Find:
1 2 3 6
 
2 3 4 5 1 4 2 1 3 2
a) − : b) : + c) · − : d) : − + ·
3 2 5 3 2 3 2 5 4 5 5 2 4 5

5. Find and give your answers in their simplest form:

      
3 7 7 25 13 7 9 13
a) + − : b) − · + −
4 6 8 12 15 25 22 33
   
1 3 3 1
− −1 (−3) · −
2 4 5 3
c) d)
3
 
4 6
+1 (−2) · −
4 3 5
     
1 3 2 2 5 3 5
3− · − − · −
4 5 15 3 9 4 6
e)   f)  
4 1 3 7 5 4
6+ · − − · +1
25 2 4 12 6 3

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5. Problem solving
To find a fraction of a quantity we multiply the quantity by the numerator, and divide the
result by the denominator.
3 3 3 · 85
For example: of 85 e are: · 85 = = 51 e.
5 5 5

Example 6
1 3
Rob eats of a watermelon one day and of it the next day. What fraction of the
3 8
watermelon remains?

We let the whole watermelon be represented by 1. The fraction remaining will be:
1 3 24 8 9 7
1− − = − − =
3 8 24 24 24 24

Exercises - Set F
1
1. Millie calculated that her bicycle cost of the cost of her father’s car. If the car
83
cost 38 014 $, what did her bicycle cost?
1 1 1
2. Over three successive days Colin builds , and of the brickwork of his new
3 5 4
garage. What fraction must he complete on the fourth and final day?
2
3. 200 kg of sugar must be poured into packets so there is kg of sugar per packet.
5
How many packets will be filled?
3
4. 2400 kg of icecream is put into plastic containers which hold kg each. How many
4
plastic containers are needed?
5. John says that his income is now 3 21 times what it was 20 years ago. If his current
annual income is 63 000 e , what was his income 20 years ago?
1 1 1 1
6. A family spends of its weekly budget on rent, on food, on clothes, on
3 4 8 12
entertainment and the remainder is banked. How much is banked if the weekly income
is 864.72 e?
1 2
7. Renee used of a length of pipe and later used of what remained. What fraction
3 3
of the pipe is left?

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Example 7
3
If of a shipping container holds 2100 identical cartons, how many cartons will fit into:
8
5
a) of the container b) the whole container?
8

3 1
of the container holds 2100 cartons; hence of the container holds
8 8
2100 : 3 = 700 cartons.
5
a) So, holds 700 · 5 = 3500 cartons
8
8
b) The whole is which is 700 · 8 = 5600 cartons.
8

Exercises - Set G
2 1
1. of an amount of money is 519 $. Find: a) of the money b) the whole
3 3
amount.
2
2. of Jo’s weekly earnings are paid as income tax. She has 666 $ remaining after
11
tax. What is her total weekly pay?
3
3. of a field was searched for truffles and 39 were found. How many truffles would
13
we expect to find in the remainder of the field?
2 2
4. Alfredo sent of his potato crop to market last week. This week he sent of the
5 3
remainder.
a) What fraction of his crop has now gone to market?
b) If he has 860 kg remaining, what was the original weight of the crop?
9
5. of the weight of a loaf of bread comes from the flour used in making the bread.
10
2
If of the weight of the flour is protein, what fraction of the weight of a loaf of bread
9
is protein?
6. A tree is losing its leaves. Two thirds fall off in the first week, two thirds of those
remaining fall off in the second week and two thirds of those remaining fall off in the
third week. Now there are 37 leaves. How many leaves did the tree have originally?

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Exercises - Set H
1. Out of a group of 40 people in a shop, 32 were aged thirty or over. What fraction of
the people were under thirty?
2. This list gives the numbers of trees in a small wood:

beech: 32, oak: 74, elm: 2, ash: 15, chestnut: 15, yew: 1.

List each type as a fraction of the number of trees in the wood.

4 1
3. of the cars on the road are saloons. Of these saloons are red. What fraction of
5 8
the cars on the road are red saloons?
13
4. Sadie has already driven of the distance between college and home. She wants
28
to split the remaining distance into 5 equal parts. What fraction of the whole journey
is each part?
1
5. Marc spends a third of the day asleep. He spends of his time when awake playing
8
on his computer. What fraction of his day does marc spend playing on the computer?
3
6. A 9 tonne load of top soil is divided into tonne plant containers. How many
25
containers can be filled?
2 4
7. John eats of a bar of chocolate. Linda eats of what remains. What fraction of
5 9
the bar of chocolate have they eaten between them?
8. In his will a man leaves half his estate to his wife and the rest is shared equally among
his five sons. What fraction of his estate does each son inherit?
9. The seven tenths of a quantity are 210. What is the quantity?
10. Out of a deposit of oil you empty one half. Out of what remains, you empty one
11
half again, and then you empty of what remains. Finally, there are 36 litres left. How
15
many litres were there at the beginning?

6. Decimal numbers
6 3
The number 4.63 is a quick way of writing 4 + + , which can also be written as an
10 100
463 63
improper fraction or as a mixed number 4 100 .
100
Numbers such as 4.63 are commonly called decimal numbers . 4 is the whole part and 63
is the decimal part .

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14 R ational N um bers - 3 o E SO

You say: four point six three, or four units six tenths and three hundredths, or four units and
sixty-three hundredths.
6 2
Likewise, 14.062 is the quick way of writing 14 + + (expanded fractional form).
100 1000
You say: fourteen point oh six two, or fourteen units six hundredths two thousandths, or
fourteen units sixty-two thousandths.

Exercises - Set I
1. Write the following in expanded fractional form:
a) 2.5 b) 2.05 c) 2.0501 d) 4.0052 e) 0.0106

2. Write the following in decimal form:

2 7 8 6 3
a) 3 + b) + c) +
10 10 100 10 1000
7 9 1 3 2
d) + e) 4 + f) 5 + +
100 1000 10 000 100 10 000

Types of decimal numbers:

There are three different types of decimal numbers: terminating, recurring and irrational
numbers.

A terminating or exact decimal is one which does not go on forever, so you can write down
all its digits. For example: 0.125.

A recurring decimal is a decimal number which does go on forever, but where some of
the digits are repeated over and over again. For example: 0.12525252525 . . . is a recurring
decimal, where 25 is repeated forever.
Sometimes recurring decimals are written with a bar over the digits which are repeated, or
with dots over the first and last digits that are repeated.
For example: 3.2014014014 · · · = 3.2014 = 3.20̇14̇

Irrational√numbers are those which go on forever and don’t have digits which repeat. For
example: 2 = 1.4142135 . . . , π = 3.14159265 . . .

All rational numbers (fractions) can be expressed as either terminating decimals or

recurring decimals, dividing the numerator by the denominator.

7 8 5
For example: = 0, 175; = 0.72727272 . . . ; = 0.4166666 . . .
40 11 12

Conversely, all terminating and recurring decimals can be expressed as fractions.

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However, irrational numbers cannot be expressed as fractions, they are not rational. All
rational and irrational numbers form the set of real numbers , which is represented by the
letter R.

How to convert a terminating decimal into a fraction:

• Write the decimal as a fraction with denominator 10, 100, 1000,. . . , according to the
number of decimal places.
45
For example: 0.45 =
100
45 9
• Simplify the fraction to its lowest terms: 0.45 = =
100 20
How to convert a recurring decimal into a fraction:
Look at these examples:
5.454545. . .

1. Let x = 5.454545 . . . (A)

2. Multiply by 100 (because there are two recurring figures; if there were three recurring
figures, you would multiply by 1000):
100x = 545.454545 . . . (B)

3. Subtract B−A:

100x = 545.454545 . . .
x = 5.454545 . . .
99x = 540

540 60
4. Divide by 99 and simplify: x = =
99 11

2.5636363. . .

1. Let x = 2.5636363 . . .

2. Multiply by 10 (because there is one figure between the whole part and the recurring
figures; if there were two figures between the whole part and the recurring figures, you
would multiply by 100):
10x = 25.636363 . . . (A)

3. Multiply (A) by 100 (because there are two recurring figures):

1000x = 2563.636363 . . . (B)

4. Subtract B−A:

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1000x = 2563.636363 . . .
10x = 25.636363 . . .
990x = 2538

2538 141
5. Divide by 990 and simplify: x = =
990 55

Exercises - Set J
1. Write as decimals, and state in each case whether they are terminating or recurring
decimals:
7 2 5 4 44
a) b) c) d) e)
50 125 9 11 7
87 11 33 3 3
f) g) h) i) j)
60 3 22 20 5

2. Write as a fraction in its lowest terms:

a) 0.15 b) 0.046 c) 0.7̇ d) 0.5̇4̇ e) 0.12̇

f) 3.407̇ g) 0.3̇05̇ h) 0.4̇8̇ i) 4.2̇ j) 1.2̇7̇

3. Calculate. Firstly you must express decimals as fractions:

 
2 1 3 3
a) 0.4̇6̇ − + 3.6 b) · 2.4̇ − c) 5 − 2 · − 0.1̇4̇
5 3 5 5
1
4. Shula says, “I used my calculator to change to a decimal, and I got the answer
13
0.07692308. There is no repeating pattern, so the decimal does not recur.” Explain why
Shula is wrong.

7. Approximation and rounding

Rounding a number is a way of writing it approximately. Sometimes we don’t need to write
all the figures in a number, as an approximate one will do.
For example: for a population of 27 653 the number is large and will change daily. It is better
to round up and say 28 000.

When rounding numbers to a given degree of accuracy, look at the next digit:
• If it is 5 or more then we have to round up , that is, increase the previous digit by one.

• Otherwise we round down , that is, leave the previous digit unchanged.

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R ational N um bers - 3 o E SO 17

For example, to round 7.365 to 2 decimal places, look at the thousandths digit: 7.365.
The thousandths digit is 5, so we round up to 7.37: 7.365≈7.37 (to 2 decimal places).

Numbers can be rounded:

• to decimal places (d.p.) : 4.16 = 4.2 to 1 decimal place

• to the nearest unit, ten, hundred, thousand,. . .

32 559 = 33 000 to the nearest thousand

• to significant figures (s.f.) : the first non-zero digit in a number is the 1st significant
figure; it has the highest value in the number. When rounding to significant figures,
count from the first non-zero digit.
For example:
54.76 ≈ 55 (to 2 s.f.)
0.00405 ≈ 0.0041 (to 2 s.f.)
6.339 ≈ 6.34 (to 3 s.f.)

Exercises - Set K
1. Round these decimal numbers to the nearest whole number:
a) 5.8 b) 21.67 c) 39.175

2. Round these numbers to the nearest thousand:

a) 2239 b) 12 563 c) 155 669

3. Round these numbers to two decimal places:

a) 0.317 b) 15.304 c) 16.445

4. Use a calculator to work these out. Write your answers correct to 3 s.f. where
necessary:
16.84
a) (16.8 + 12.4) · 17.1 b) 37.4 − 16.1 : (4.2 − 2.7) c)
7.9 + 11.2
27.4 18.6 27.9 − 17.3 0.0768 + 7.1
d) − e) + 4.7 f)
3.2 16.1 8.6 18.69 − 3.824

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8. Percentage
Percentages are comparisons with the whole amount (which we call 100 %).

% reads percent which is short for per centum, which loosely translated from Latin, means
out of every hundred.
10 1 25 1
Thus 10 % means 10 out of every 100 or = . Likewise, 25 % means = .
100 10 100 4
x
In general, x % = (we can simplify the fraction).
100
We often need to calculate a percentage of a quantity. To do this, we multiply the quantity
by the percentage expressed either as a fraction or as its decimal equivalent. For example:
9 9 · 24 216
9 % of 24 = · 24 = = = 2.16
100 100 100
37 % of 58 = 0.37 · 58 = 21.46 (0.37 is the decimal equivalent of 37 %).
To convert any fraction to a percentage, we write it as a decimal and multiply by 100. For
example:
3
= 0.75 ; 0.75 · 100 % = 75 %
4
2
= 0.4 ; 0.4 · 100 % = 40 %
5

Exercises - Set L
1. Copy and complete these tables (simplify any fractions).

Percentage Fraction Decimal Percentage Fraction Decimal

12 % 75 %
0.36 0.8
3/10 4/25
25 % 85 %
0.4 0.15
1 3/5

2. In a football squad of 24 players, 5 of the players are goalkeepers. What percentage

of the football squad are not goalkeepers?
37
3. Leon scores 68 % in his French exam and gets in his German exam. In which
54
subject did he do the best?
4. A train journey is 395 km long. Lola is traveling on a train that has completed 23 %
of the journey. How many kilometres has Lola’s train traveled?

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R ational N um bers - 3 o E SO 19

9. Ratio
A ratio is an ordered comparison of quantities of the same kind.

For example: the ratio of cordial to water in a bottle is 1 : 5. This means that we have 1
part of cordial and 5 parts of water (6 parts in total).

Example 8
Write as a ratio, without simplifying your answer:
a) Jack has 5 e and Jill has 50 cents.
b) Mix 200 ml of cordial with 1 l of water.

a) Jack : Jill = 5 e : 50 cents = 500 cents : 50 cents = 500 : 50

b) cordial : water = 200 ml : 1 l = 200 ml : 1000 ml = 200 : 1000

If we have a ratio and multiply or divide both parts by the same non-zero number, we
obtain an equal ratio .

For example:
45 : 15 = 3 : 1 (dividing both parts by 15)
0.4 : 1.4 = 4 : 14 = 2 : 7 (multiplying both parts by 10 and dividing by 2 later).

Ratios are equal if they can be expressed in the same simplest form.

For example: 3 : 5 = 6 : 10 15 : 20 = 3 : 4 = 12 : 16

Example 9
The ratio of walkers to guides on a demanding bushwalk is to be 9 : 2. How many guides
are required for 27 walkers?

walkers : guides = 9 : 2 = 27 : ?
If 9 parts is 27, then 1 part is 27 : 9 = 3, so 2 parts is 3 · 2 = 6.
Hence, 9 : 2 = 27 : 6, and 6 guides are needed.

Quantities can be divided in a particular ratio by considering the number of parts the
whole is to be divided into.

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20 R ational N um bers - 3 o E SO

Example 10
An inheritance of 60 000 $ is to be divided between Donny and Marie in the ratio 2 : 3.
How much does each receive?

There are 2 + 3 = 5 parts.

2 2
Donny gets of 60 000 $ = · 60 000 = 24 000 $
5 5
3 3
Marie gets of 60 000 $ = · 60 000 = 36 000 $
5 5

Exercises - Set M
1. Write as a ratio, simplifying your answer if possible:
a) 10 $ is to 7 $ b) 2 l is to 5 l c) 80 kg is to 50 kg
d) 2 $ is to 50 cents e) 500 ml is to 2 l f) 800 m is to 1.5 km

2. Express the following ratios in simplest form:

3 1
a) : b) 0.5 : 0.2 c) 18 : 24 d) 2 12 : 1 12 e) 1.5 : 0.3
4 4
3. A hospital employs nurses and doctors in the ratio 7 : 2. If 84 nurses are employed,
how many doctors are employed?
4. A farmer has pigs and chickens in the ratio 3 : 8. If she has 360 pigs, how many
chickens does she have?
5. The price of a TV is reduced from 500 e to 400 e. A DVD player costing 1250 e
is reduced in the same ratio as the TV. What does the DVD player sell for?
6. Divide: a) 50 $ in the ratio 1 : 4 b) 35 $ in the ratio 3 : 4
7. A fortune of 400 000 $ is to be divided in the ratio 5 : 3. What is the larger share?
8. The ratio of girls to boys in a school is 5 : 4. If there are 918 students at the school,
how many are girls?
9. A glass contains alcohol and water in the ratio 1 : 4. A second glass has the same
quantity of liquid but this time the ratio of alcohol to water is 2 : 3. each glass is emptied
into a third glass. What is the ratio of alcohol to water for the final mixture?
10. One full glass contains vinegar and water in the ratio of 1 : 3. Another glass of
twice the capacity of the first has vinegar and water in the ratio 1 : 4. If the contents
of both glasses were mixed together what is the ratio of vinegar to water?

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R ational N um bers - 3 o E SO 21

10. Errors and accuracy of measurement

The measurement of length, area, volume and capacity is of great importance. Builders,
architects, engineers and manufacturers need to measure the sizes of objects to considerably
accuracy.
The most common system of measurement is the Systeme International (SI) .
Important units that you should be familiar with include:

Measurement of Standard unit What it means

Length metre How long or how far
Mass gram How heavy an object is
Capacity litre How much liquid or gas is contained
Time hours, minutes, seconds How long it takes
Temperature degrees Celsius How hot or cold
Speed metres per second (ms−1 ) How fast it is travelling

The SI uses prefixes to indicate an increase or decrease in the size of a unit:

Prefix Symbol Meaning Prefix Symbol Meaning

tera T 1 000 000 000 000 centi c 0.01
giga G 1 000 000 000 milli m 0.001
mega M 1 000 000 micro µ 0.000 001
kilo k 1 000 nano n 0.000 000 001
hecto h 100 pico p 0.000 000 000 001

Errors:
Whenever we take a measurement, there is always the possibility of error. Errors are caused
by inaccuracies in the measuring device we use, and in rounding off the measurement we
take. They can also be caused by human error, so we need to be careful when we take
measurements.

There are two types of error:

• The absolute error due to rounding or approximation is the difference between

the actual or true value and the measured value, regardless the sign:

εa = |true value − rounded value|

• The percentage or relative error is the absolute error compared with the true
value, expressed as a percentage:
εa
εr = · 100
true value

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22 R ational N um bers - 3 o E SO

Example 11
The crowd at a tennis tournament was 14 869, but in the newspaper it was reported as
15 000. Find the absolute and percentage errors in this approximation.

131
εa = |15 000 − 14 869| = 131 εr = · 100 ≈ 0.881 %
14 869

Accuracy:
When a measurement is written, it is always written to a given degree of accuracy. The real
measurement can be anywhere within ± half a unit.
For example: A man walks 23 km (to the nearest km). Because the real measurement has
been rounded, it can lie anywhere between 22.5 km (minimum) and 23.5 (maximum).

When we take measurements, we are usually reading from some sort of scale. The scale of a
ruler may have millimetres marked on it, but when we measure an object’s length it is likely
to lie between two marks.
So, when we round or estimate to the nearest millimetre, our answer may be inaccurate by up
to half a millimetre. We say the ruler is accurate to the nearest half a millimetre. In general:

1
A measurement is accurate to ± of the smallest division on the scale.
2

Example 12
Rod’s height was measured using a tape measure with centimetre graduations. It was
recorded as 188 cm. For this measurement state the absolute and the percentage error.

1
The tape measure is accurate to ± cm.
2
The absolute error is 0.5 cm.
0.5
The percentage error is: · 100 ≈ 0.266 %.
188

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R ational N um bers - 3 o E SO 23

Exercises - Set N
1. Find the absolute error and percentage error in saying that:
a) there were 300 people at the conference when there were actually 291.
b) 2.95 can be approximated by 3.
c) 31 823 $ can be rounded to 32 000 $.

2. State the accuracy possible when using:

a) a ruler marked in mm.
b) a set of scales marked in kg.
c) a tape measure marked in cm.
d) a jug marked with 100 ml increments.

3. Su-Lin’s height was measured using a tape measure with centimetre markings. Her
height was recorded as 154 cm.
a) State the range of possible heights in which her true height lies.
b) Find the absolute error in the measurement.
c) Find the percentage error.

11. Interval notation

(See textbook Haese & Harris, pages 32-33).

✐✎✐✎✐✎✐✎✐✎✐✎

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