Dr.

Hameeda Panezai

Department of Chemistry
Colloid and Surface Chemistry

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 Semester Spring 2025
CHE 445, Credit Hours: 3(3+0)
Class #: ----
Semester: 8th

Date: 2025-03-24 & 25

www.buitms.edu.pk
Contents

 Colloids Preparation
 Purification of colloidal solutions
 Applications of colloids
 Catalysis
Catalytic Reactions
 Characteristics of Solid catalysts
 Types of Catalysis

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 Colloids Preparation
1. Preparation of Lyophilic Colloids:
• Simply mixing the dispersed phase and dispersion medium under ordinary
conditions readily forms these colloidal solutions. For example, the substance
like gelatin, gum, starch, egg, albumin etc. pass readily into water to give
colloidal solution.
• The lyophilic colloids have strong affinity between the particles of dispersed
phase and dispersion medium. The high affinity is due to a large number of
hydrogen bonds forming.
• They are stable and naturally reversible in nature. If two constituents of the sol
break up by any method, it can be reconstituted by correctly mixing the
dispersion medium with the dispersion phase
2. Preparation of Lyophobic Colloids:
• Lyophobic colloids are very difficult to prepare practically as they have no
affinity for the dispersion medium. Special methods are required for the
preparation of lyophobic colloids.
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There are number of special methods used for preparation of lyophobic colloids
which can broadly be divided into two categories.
1. Condensation Methods
2. Dispersion Methods
1. Condensation methods (mostly chemical methods)
In these method, smaller particles of dispersed phase are condensed suitably to
form large particles of colloidal dimensions by means of chemical reactions.
These methods are as follows.
(i) Oxidation: A colloidal solution of sulphur can be prepared by passing
hydrogen sulphide (H2S) through a solution of sulphur dioxide.
2H2S + SO2 → 2 H2O + 3S (sol)
H2S + Br2 → 2HBr + S
(ii) Reduction: A number of metals such as silver, gold and platinum, have been
obtained in colloidal state by treating the aqueous solution of their salts, with
a suitable reducing agent such as formaldehyde, phenyl hydrazine, hydrogen
peroxide, stannous chloride etc.
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For example: Gold sol can be obtained by reducing a dilute aqueous solution of
gold with stannous chloride.
2 AuCl3 + 3SnCl2 → 3SnCl4+ 2Au (gold sol)
2 AuCl3 + 3HCHO + 3H2O → 2Au + 3HCOOH + 6HCl
The gold sol, thus prepared, has a purple colour and is called purple of cassius.

(iii) Salt Hydrolysis: Solutions of hydroxides of Fe, Cr, Al, Sn are prepared by
hydrolysis of salts of respective metals.
FeCl3 + 3 H2O ↔ Fe(OH)3 (red sol) + 3 HCl

iv) Double Decomposition: The sols of inorganic insoluble salts such as

arsenous sulphide, silver halide etc may be prepared by using double
decomposition reaction. For example: Arsenous sulphide sol can be prepared by
passing H2S gas through a dilute aqueous solution of arsenous oxide.
As2O3 + 3H2S → As2S3(yellow sol) + 3H2O
2 AgNO3 + 3NaCl2 → 3NaNO3+2AgCl (sol)
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v) Exchange of Solvent: When a true solution is mixed with an excess of the
other solvent in which the solute (S) is insoluble but solvent is soluble, a
colloidal solution is obtained. Colloidal solution of certain substances such as
sulphur, phosphorus which are soluble in alcohol but insoluble in water can be
prepared by pouring their alcoholic solution in excess of water. For Example,
when a solution of sulphur in alcohol (ethanol) is added to an excess of water, a
milky colloidal solution of sulphur is obtained due to decrease in solubility in
water.

vi) Excessive Cooling: The colloidal solution of ice in an organic solvent such
as chloroform (CHCl3) or ether can be obtained by freezing a solution of water
in the solvent. The molecules of water which can no longer be held in solution
separately combines to form particles of colloidal size.

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 2. Dispersion Methods

In this method large particles of the substances are broken, into particles of
colloidal dimensions in presence of dispersion medium. Since the sols formed
are highly unstable. They are stabilized by adding some suitable stabilizer. E.g.,
paints varnishes, black ink etc. Some of the methods employed for carrying out
dispersion are as follows:

(i) Mechanical Dispersion

(ii) Bredig’s Arc Method/Electrical dispersion
(iii) Peptization

(i) Mechanical Dispersion: This include the following three process.

Ball mill:
Colloid mill:
Mortar and pestle
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 Ball mill: It is based on breaking. It contains a rotating vessel.
There are some metal balls within the vessel and arranged
systemically. The balls continuously move up and down and
thus strike the material taken in vessel. Ultimately the material
is crushed. The material finally dispersed in a suitable medium
to get the formulation.
 Colloid mill: In this method, the substance is first ground to
coarse particles.
It is then mixed with the liquid dispersion medium to get a suspension.
The suspension is then grinded in colloidal mill. It consists of two
metallic discs nearly touching each other and rotating in opposite
directions at a very high speed about 7000 revolution per minute.

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The space between the discs of the mill is so adjusted that coarse
suspension is subjected to great shearing force giving rise to
particles of colloidal size.
Colloidal solutions of black ink, paints, varnishes, dyes etc. are
obtained by this method.
 Mortar and pestle: A mortar and pestle is a set of two
simple tools used to prepare ingredients or substances
by crushing and grinding them into a fine paste or powder in
the laboratory. Mortar and pestle are used to prepare the colloidal
solution by first grinding the solid into a thin paste along with the
addition of distilled water.
(ii) Bredig’s Arc Method/Electrical dispersion: This
process involves dispersion as well as aggregation.
Colloidal solutions of metals such as gold, silver, platinum
etc. can be prepared by this method. In this method electric
arc is struck between electrodes of metal immersed in the
dispersion medium. 10
The intense heat produced vaporizes some of metal, which then condenses to
form particles of colloidal size.

(iii) Peptization: It is the conversion of freshly prepared precipitates into

colloidal form by the addition of a suitable electrolyte in small amounts. Some
freshly precipitated solids are dispersed into colloidal solution in water by the
addition of small quantities of electrolytes. During peptization, the precipitate
adsorbs one of the ion of the electrolyte on its surface. The adsorbed ion is
generally common with those of the precipitate.
For example: When freshly precipitated Fe(OH)3 is shaken with aqueous solution
of FeCl3 (Peptising agent) it adsorbs Fe3+ ions and thereby breaks up into small
sized particles of type Fe(OH)3 / Fe3+.
Fe3+ Fe3+

Fe(OH)3 + FeCl3 → Colloidal sol Fe3+ Fe3+

FeCl3 → Fe3+ + 3Cl- Fe3+

Fe(OH)3
Fe3+
Fe(OH)3 → Fe3+ + 3OH-
Fe3+ Fe3+
Fe3+
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 Purification of colloidal solutions
When a colloidal solution is prepared is often contains certain electrolytes which
tend to destabilize it. The following methods are used for purification.
1. Dialysis
(i) The process of separating the particles of colloid from those of crystalloid, by
means of diffusion through a suitable membrane is called dialysis.
(ii) It’s principle is based upon the fact that colloidal particles can not pass
through a parchment or cellophane membrane while the ions of the
electrolyte can pass through it.
(iii) The impurities slowly diffused out of the bag leaving behind
pure colloidal solution
(iv) The distilled water is changed frequently to avoid
accumulation of the crystalloids otherwise they may start
diffusing back into the bag.
(v) Dialysis can be used for removing HCl from the ferric
hydroxide sol. 12
2. Electrodialysis
(i) To increase the process of purification, the ordinary
dialysis is carried out by applying electric field. This
process is called electrodialysis.
(ii) The important application of electrodialysis process in
the artificial kidney machine used for the purification of
blood of the patients whose kidneys have failed to work.
3. Ultra – filtration
The pores of an ordinary filter paper are large enough to
allow the passage of both impurity particles as well as
colloidal particles.
Therefore an ordinary filter paper cannot be used for
removing the impurities of electrolytes from an impure
sol.

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However, if the pore size of ordinary filter paper is reduced, it can
be used for separating the impurities from impure sols.
This can be achieved by soaking an ordinary filter paper in a
solution of gelatin and subsequently hardened by soaking in
formaldehyde solution.
This treatment reduces the pore size and enables it to check the
passage of colloidal particles through it. Such filter paper is
known as ultra - filter and the process of separating colloids by
using ultra filters is known as ultra filtration.
In ultrafiltration, the ultrafilter is supported over a wire mesh and
the impure sol is poured over it.
The impurity particles (electrolytes) pass through the ultrafilter
while the larger colloidal particles are retained.
The process is very slow. However, it can be expedited by
applying pressure on sol side or by using a suction pump on the
filtrate side.
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By using a series of graded ultrafilters, impurities of different size can easily be
removed and it is even possible to separate colloidal particles of different size
from one another
4. Ultra – centrifugation
Ultracentrifugation involves the separation of colloidal particles from the impurities
by centrifugal force.
The impure sol is taken in a tube and the tube is placed in an ultra-centrifuge.
The tube is rotated at high speeds having 15,000 or more revolutions per minute.
Such machines are known as ultra–centrifuges.
On account of this, the colloidal particles settle down at the bottom of the tube
and the impurities remain in the solution.
This solution is termed as centrifugate. The settled colloidal particles are removed
from the tube and are mixed with an appropriate dispersing medium. Thus, the
pure sol is obtained.

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 Assignment

Precipitation of sols and emulsion

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 Applications of colloids

1. Rubber industry
Latex is a colloidal solution of negatively charged rubber particles. From latex,
rubber can be obtained by coagulation. Rubber plated articles are prepared by
depositing negatively charged rubber particles over the article to be rubber plated
by making that article an anode in a rubber plating bath.
2. Sewage disposal
Sewage water contains particles of dirt, mud etc. which are colloidal in nature and
carry some electrical charge. These particles may be removed by using the
phenomenon of electrophoresis.
3. Purification of water
The precipitation of colloidal impurities present in water can be done by adding
certain electrolytes like alum etc. the negatively charged colloidal particles of
impurities get
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neutralized by the Al3+ ions and settle down and pure water can be decanted off.
4. Cleaning action of soap
Soap solution is colloidal in nature. It removes the dirt particles either by
adsorption or by emulsifying the greasy matter sticking to the cloth.
5. In medicine
Medicines in colloidal form are easily adsorbed by the body tissues and hence are
more effective. Pharmaceutical industry makes use of colloidal solution
preparation in many medicines. A wide variety of medicines are emulsions. An
example is Cod Liver Oil.
6. Formation of delta
River water contains charged colloidal particles of clay, sand and many other
materials. Sea water is very big store house of a variety of electrolytes dissolved
in it. As soon as river water comes in contact with sea water coagulate the
suspended colloidal particles which ultimately settle down at the point of contact.
Thus the level of the river bed rises. As a result, water adopts a different course
and delta is formed in due course of time.
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7. Photography
A colloidal solution of silver bromide in gelatin is applied on glass plates or
celluloid films or paper to form sensitive plates in photography.
8. Artificial rain
Artificial rain can be caused by spraying oppositely charged colloidal dust or
sand particles over a cloud. The colloidal water particles present in the cloud
will be neutralized and coagulate to form bigger water drops causing artificial
rain.
9. Therapy
Some colloidal dispersion show better therapeutic action and are used in
treatment.
Silver colloid – germicidal, Copper colloid – anticancer
10. Stability: Dispersion of surface active agent (associated colloids) are used
to improve the stability of drugs in liquid dosage forms.

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 Catalysis
Need to make chemical reactions faster
Most Reactions are too slow to be useful...
The term catalysis was first employed by the great
Swedish chemist Jöns Jacob Berzelius in 1835.
Catalyst or catalytic agent is a chemical substance which can change the rate of
reaction without itself being changed or consumed during the reaction and this
process is known as catalysis.
 A catalyst may be positive (i.e., increases rate of reaction) or negative (i.e.,
decreases rate of reaction).
 It lowers the activation energy for both forward and reverse reactions.
 It affects only the rate of the reaction, i.e. Kinetics and consequently the catalyst
increases the rate of reaction.
 It changes neither the thermodynamics of the reaction nor the equilibrium
composition.
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 Catalytic Reactions
• For a chemical reaction to take place, it requires a certain minimum amount of
energy, called its activation energy (Ea).
• The catalyst reduces the activation energy by providing an alternative pathway
for the reaction to occur, which is obviously more complex, but energetically much
more favorable.
• Activation Energy: The energy required to overcome the reaction barrier.
• Activation energy of the catalytic reaction is < uncatalyzed reaction; hence, the
rate of the catalytic reaction is much larger.

• Catalysts work by providing

alternative mechanism involving a
different transition state of lower
energy.
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Let us consider the catalytic reaction between two molecules A and B to give a
product P Fig. 1.The cycle starts with the bonding of molecules A and B to
the catalyst. Taking part in the reaction, catalyst will change itself during the
process by interacting with the reactant/product molecules. A and B then react
within this complex to give a product P. In the final step, P separates from the
catalyst, thus leaving the reaction cycle in its original state. Returning to its
original form after reaction cycles a catalyst with exactly the same nature is
reborn.
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In practice a catalyst has its lifespan - it deactivates gradually during use. 23
 Mechanism involves 7 steps of surface catalysis

1. Diffusion of the of reactants/ substrate(s) towards

the surface of the catalyst.
2. Physisorption - i.e. physical adsorption via weak
interactions, e.g. van der Waals, adhering the substrate(s) to the surface
of the catalyst.
3. Chemisorption - formation of chemical bonds between the surface and the
substrate(s).
4. Migration of the bound substrate(s) to the active catalytic site - also known
as surface diffusion.
5. Reaction -on the catalyst’s surface through formation of an intermediate.
6. Desorption of product (s) from the surface.
7. Diffusion of the product away from the surface.

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 Characteristics of Good catalysts
(a) Catalytic Activity
Activity of a catalyst is its ability to increase the rate of a particular reaction.
Chemisorption is the main factor in deciding the activity of a catalyst. Reactants
must get adsorbed reasonably strongly on to the catalyst to become active.
However, they must not get adsorbed so strongly that they are immobilized. In
hydrogenation reaction, the catalytic activity increases from Group 5 to Group 11
metals with maximum activity being shown by groups 7-9 elements of the periodic
table.
2H2(g) + O2 (g) 2H2O
(b) Catalytic Selectivity
Selectivity of a catalyst is its ability to direct a reaction to yield a particular product
selectively. Selectivity of different catalysts for same reactants is different. For
example, starting with H2 and CO,

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and using different catalysts, we get different products: e.g., methanal, methanol,
zeolites

A catalyst is highly selective in nature. As a result a substance which acts

as a catalyst in one reaction may fail to catalyze another reaction.

(c) Catalytic Stability: A good catalyst should resist to deactivation, caused by

the presence of impurities in feed e.g,.
• Thermal deterioration, volatility and hydrolysis of active components
• Attrition due to mechanical movement or pressure shock.
A solid catalyst should have reasonably large surface area needed for reaction
(active sites). This is usually achieved by making the solid into a porous
structure.

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 Types of Catalysis

1. Classification based on the its physical state

A catalyst can be
• Gas
• Liquid
• Solid

2. Classification based on the substances from which a catalyst is made

• Inorganic (gases, metals, metal oxides, inorganic acids, bases etc.)
• Organic (organic acids, enzymes etc.)

3. Classification based on the ways catalysts work

• Homogeneous - both catalyst and all reactants/products are in the same
phase (gas or liq)
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• Heterogeneous - reaction system involves multi-phase (catalysts +
reactants/products).

4. Classification based on the catalyst’s action

• Positive Catalysis
• Negative Catalysis
• Acid-base Catalysis
• Enzymatic Catalysis
• Photocatalysis
• Electrocatalysis
• Biocatalysis:
• Autocatalysis

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