UNIT 3

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development (1954)

Key Concepts:

1. Schema:
o Mental frameworks that help individuals understand and interpret the world.
o Behavioral Schemas: In infants (e.g., sucking, grasping).
o Mental Schemas: In older children and adults for complex concepts (e.g.,
fairness).
2. Adaptation:
o The process of adjusting schemas through interaction with the environment.
o Involves two complementary processes:
 Assimilation: Integrating new information into existing schemas (e.g.,
calling all vehicles "car").
 Accommodation: Modifying existing schemas to fit new information
(e.g., distinguishing cars from trucks).
o Equilibrium: A balanced state where assimilation and accommodation work
together to make sense of the world.

Cognitive Development Stages:

1. Sensorimotor Stage (0–2 years):

o Infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions.
o Development of Object Permanence:
 Understanding that objects continue to exist even when not seen.
 Studied using the Hidden Object Test (emerges between 8–12 months).
o Recognition Memory: Differentiates familiar from new experiences.
o Recall Memory (Deferred Imitation):
 Ability to remember and reproduce actions after a delay.
 Initially believed to emerge at 16 months, but later studies suggest as early
as 9 months.
o Example: Piaget’s observation of his daughter imitating a tantrum after a delay.
Meltzoff (1995) - Imitation of Intentions

Goal:
To determine if infants understand others' intended actions, even if the action fails.

Method:

 An adult tried to pull apart a dumbbell-like toy but "accidentally" failed.

 The infant was then given the toy.

Findings:

 18-month-olds successfully pulled apart the toy, showing they understood the adult’s
intended goal rather than just copying the failed action.
 When a machine performed the failed action, infants did not imitate, indicating that they
distinguish between human intentions and mechanical movements.

Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development

Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years)

 Infants learn by coordinating sensory input with motor actions.

 Divided into six sub-stages:
1. Reflexive Stage (0–1 month): Innate reflexes (e.g., sucking, grasping).
2. Primary Circular Reactions (1–4 months): Repetitive actions involving the
infant's body.
3. Secondary Circular Reactions (4–8 months): Actions involving external
objects.
4. Coordination of Secondary Schemes (8–12 months): Intentional actions to
achieve goals.
5. Tertiary Circular Reactions (12–18 months): Experimentation and problem-
solving.
6. Mental Representation (18–24 months): Symbolic thought and object
permanence.
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years)

 Characterized by symbolic thought and make-believe play.

 Egocentrism: Inability to see from another's perspective (e.g., Three-Mountains Task).
 Centration: Focusing on one aspect of a situation (e.g., conservation tasks).
 Symbolic Representation: Using objects as symbols (e.g., pretending a banana is a
phone).

Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years)

 Ability to think logically about concrete objects.

 Conservation: Understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or
appearance.
 Decentration: Considering multiple aspects simultaneously.
 Reversibility: Understanding that some actions can be undone.

Formal Operational Stage (11+ years)

 Abstract and Logical Thinking: Ability to reason about hypothetical and abstract
concepts.
 Scientific Reasoning: Use of combinatorial logic and systematic experimentation.
 Metacognition: Reflecting on one's own thought processes.

Major Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory

1. Underestimation of Children's Abilities: Tasks were too complex or linguistically

demanding.
2. Rigid Stage Concept: Development is more gradual and continuous.
3. Lack of Social and Cultural Consideration: Did not account for environmental
influences.
4. Post-Adolescent Cognitive Development: Ignored advanced reasoning skills in
adulthood.
 5. Lack of Mechanistic Explanation: Failed to clearly explain how cognitive changes
occur.
6. Performance Factors Ignored: Mistook poor performance for lack of competence.
7. Overemphasis on Logic: Real-world reasoning is often more flexible and context-
driven.
8. Emotional and Motivational Factors Neglected: Did not account for how emotions
influence thinking.
9. Cultural Bias: Assumed universal cognitive development stages.
10. Stage Transitions Not Well-Explained: Lack of clarity about how transition between
stages occur.

Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

Introduction

Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development emphasizes that cognitive

growth is deeply influenced by social interaction, cultural context, and language. Unlike
Piaget, who focused on individual discovery and universal developmental stages, Vygotsky
believed that learning is a collaborative process facilitated by social and cultural
environments. His work, largely unknown during his lifetime, became highly influential after
being translated into English in the 1960s.

Core Principles of Vygotsky’s Theory

1. Social Constructivism

 Cognitive development is a social process that occurs through interactions with more
knowledgeable individuals (e.g., parents, teachers, and peers).
 Knowledge is not constructed in isolation but shaped by cultural values, tools, and
practices.

Example: A child learning math using an abacus is engaging with cultural tools that shape how
they conceptualize numbers.

2. Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

 Definition: The ZPD is the gap between what a learner can do independently and what
they can achieve with help from a more skilled person.
 Vygotsky argued that learning happens most effectively within this zone.
Key Aspects of ZPD:

 Lower Limit – Tasks a learner can perform without assistance.

 Upper Limit – Tasks a learner can perform with guidance and support.

"Buds of Development": Emerging abilities that need assistance.

"Fruits of Development": Fully mastered skills.

Example: A child who can solve basic math problems alone but needs help with multiplication
is within the ZPD for multiplication.

3. Scaffolding

 Definition: Temporary, structured support provided by a more knowledgeable person.

 Support is gradually withdrawn as the learner becomes more competent.

Characteristics of Effective Scaffolding:

 Contingency: Adjusting support based on the learner’s needs.

 Fading: Gradually reducing assistance.
 Transfer of Responsibility: Shifting the task to the learner.

Example: A teacher helps a child read by sounding out words until the child can do it
independently.

4. Language and Thought

 Language is a fundamental tool for cognitive development.

 Vygotsky believed that thought is internalized language and that social speech
transforms into inner speech over time.

Stages of Language Development:

1. Social Speech (0-3 years): External communication to express needs.

2. Private Speech (3-7 years): Self-directed speech used to guide thinking and actions.
3. Inner Speech (7+ years): Silent, internalized thought.

Example: A child muttering, “I need to move the block here,” while solving a puzzle is using
private speech to organize their actions.

5. Mediation and Cultural Tools

 Mediated Learning: Knowledge is passed through cultural artifacts (e.g., language,

symbols, technology).
 Cognitive Tools: Different cultures develop unique intellectual tools (e.g., oral traditions,
written language).
Example: In literate societies, reading and writing are cognitive tools that influence thought
processes.

Applications of Vygotsky’s Theory in Education

1. Assess the ZPD:

o Focus on what students can achieve with help, not just what they know
independently.
2. Use Scaffolding Techniques:
o Provide structured guidance and reduce support as learners become more
competent.
3. Promote Collaborative Learning:
o Encourage peer interaction and group work for knowledge sharing.
4. Incorporate Private Speech:
o Recognize private speech as a tool for self-regulation and problem-solving.
5. Contextualized Learning:
o Embed learning within real-world and cultural contexts.

Example: In a literacy program, children learn through group storytelling and peer-assisted
reading.

Strengths of Vygotsky’s Theory

1. Emphasis on Sociocultural Context

o Recognizes the role of social interaction and culture in shaping cognitive
development.
o Supports multicultural and inclusive teaching practices.

2. Practical Use of ZPD and Scaffolding

o Provides a flexible framework for individualized learning.
o Dynamic assessment identifies what learners can achieve with help.

3. Dynamic, Continuous Development

o Cognitive development is viewed as flexible and context-dependent.
o Allows for cultural variation in learning trajectories.

4. Influence on Modern Education

o Supports collaborative and differentiated instruction strategies.

Example: In Montessori classrooms, peer mentoring aligns with ZPD principles.

Limitations of Vygotsky’s Theory

1. Lack of Age-Specific Stages

o No clear milestones for developmental progress.
 2. Overemphasis on Social Interaction
o Underplays the importance of independent learning and biological maturation.

3. Language-Centric View
o Ignores non-verbal cognitive processes (e.g., visual-spatial reasoning).

4. Limited Focus on Emotional Development

o Overlooks the role of emotions in shaping learning outcomes.

Example: Children with anxiety may struggle to benefit from scaffolding, despite being in their
ZPD.

Comparison: Vygotsky vs. Piaget

Feature Vygotsky Piaget

Development Process Continuous and socially mediated Stage-based and biologically driven

Role of Language Central for cognitive growth Secondary, emerges after thought

Social Interaction Essential for learning Limited to peer disagreements

ZPD/Scaffolding Key mechanisms for learning Not emphasized

Cultural Influence Strongly emphasized Minimally considered

Private Speech Positive for self-regulation Immature and egocentric

Learning Assessment Focus on potential with help (ZPD) Focus on independent ability

Criticisms and Counterarguments

1. Criticism: Overemphasis on Social Context

o Counter: Social support accelerates learning but does not replace individual
effort.

2. Criticism: No Clear Stages

o Counter: Development is continuous and better reflects real-world learning.

3. Criticism: Limited View on Emotions

o Counter: Emotional factors can be integrated through socioemotional learning
programs.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

I. Introduction to Kohlberg’s Theory

 Developed by Lawrence Kohlberg (1969) to explain how moral reasoning develops

over time.
 Based on responses to moral dilemmas (e.g., the Heinz dilemma – stealing a drug to
save a wife’s life).
 Moral development occurs in three levels with six sequential stages.
 Each stage reflects a more advanced form of moral reasoning than the previous one.

II. The Three Levels and Six Stages of Moral Development

Level 1: Pre-conventional Reasoning (Typical in children under age 9)

 Focus: External control – right and wrong based on punishment or reward.

1. Stage 1: Punishment and Obedience Orientation

o Morality = Avoiding punishment.
o Authority figures determine what is "right."
o Example: "Stealing is wrong because you could go to jail."
2. Stage 2: Individualism, Instrumental Purpose, and Exchange
o Morality = Self-interest and fair exchange.
o "What’s right" benefits the individual or involves a fair trade.
o Example: "Heinz should steal the drug because he needs his wife alive."

Level 2: Conventional Reasoning (Appears during adolescence)

 Focus: Conformity to social expectations and laws.

3. Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations and Conformity

o Morality = Good interpersonal relationships (being a “good person”).
o Emphasis on trust, caring, and loyalty.
o Example: "Heinz should steal because a good husband would do that."
4. Stage 4: Social Systems Morality (Law-and-Order)
o Morality = Maintaining law, social order, and one’s duty.
o Laws are vital for society’s stability.
o Example: "Heinz should not steal because it’s against the law, and laws keep
society safe."

Level 3: Postconventional Reasoning (Rare – Seen in adulthood, if at all)

 Focus: Morality based on abstract principles and human rights.

5. Stage 5: Social Contract and Individual Rights

o Morality = Laws should be fair and protect individual rights.
o People recognize that laws can be changed if they don’t serve society’s best
interests.
 o Example: "Heinz should steal because life is more important than property
rights."
6. Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles
o Morality = Following one’s conscience based on universal justice and ethics.
o Laws are secondary to principles like equality, dignity, and justice.
o Example: "Heinz should steal because saving a life is more important than any
law."

Key Finding:

 Most adults never reach stages 5 or 6; reasoning usually stops at stage 4.

III. Research Support for Kohlberg’s Model

 Longitudinal study:
o Stage 1 & 2 decrease with age.
o Stage 4 peaks at age 36 (62% of adults).
o Stage 5 appears at 20-22 years, but less than 10% ever reach it.
o Stage 6 is rare and mostly theoretical.

IV. Criticisms of Kohlberg’s Theory

1. Moral Thought vs. Moral Behavior

 Knowing what is right doesn’t mean people will act morally.

 Example: Corrupt politicians may justify their actions using moral reasoning.

2. Cultural Bias

 Stages 1-4 found worldwide, but Stages 5-6 are Western concepts.
 Some cultures prioritize community over individual rights (e.g., India, Israel).

3. Family Influence (Underestimated by Kohlberg)

 Kohlberg argued peers shape morality, not family.

 Research suggests parents influence children’s moral reasoning.

4. Moral vs. Social Conventional Reasoning

 Kohlberg fails to distinguish between:

o Moral reasoning – Based on ethical principles (e.g., stealing is wrong because it
harms others).
o Social conventions – Based on social rules (e.g., raising your hand to speak).

V. Gender and the Care Perspective – Carol Gilligan’s Critique

  Gilligan’s Argument:
o Kohlberg’s theory is male-centered, focusing on justice over care.
o Justice perspective – Focuses on individual rights (Kohlberg’s approach).
o Care perspective – Focuses on relationships, compassion, and responsibility.
 Evidence against Gilligan’s claim:
o Meta-analysis found small gender differences in moral reasoning.
o Both genders use care-based reasoning for personal dilemmas and justice-
based reasoning for societal issues.
o Conclusion: Kohlberg’s theory does not systematically disadvantage women.

VI. Key Takeaways for Exams

 Kohlberg’s theory explains moral development through three levels and six stages.
 Moral development is age-related and sequential, but most people do not reach the
highest stages.
 Major criticisms:
o Overemphasis on moral reasoning vs. moral behavior.
o Cultural bias – Not all societies value individual rights over community.
o Gender bias – Gilligan argues it overlooks the care perspective, though
evidence suggests minimal differences.
o Family influence is undervalued – Research shows parents shape moral
reasoning

Adolescent Decision Making and Risk Taking

1. Decision Making

 Definition: Choosing a course of action from several possibilities.

 Rational decision-making involves assessing risks and rewards, weighing the probability
of each.
 Adolescents often take more risks than adults because they weigh risks and rewards
differently.
 Decision-making in adolescence is influenced by the balance between risk-taking and
reward-seeking behaviors.

2. Brain Development and Reward Sensitivity

Key Brain Structures Involved:

1. Frontal Lobe:
 o Supports rational decision-making, planning, emotion regulation, and impulse
control.
o Matures slowly during adolescence, affecting decision-making abilities.
2. Limbic System:
o Includes structures like the hippocampus, amygdala, and nucleus accumbens.
o Supports memory formation, emotion processing, and sensory integration.
o The nucleus accumbens acts as the brain’s reward center.
3. Dopamine Activity:
o Increases during adolescence.
o Makes rewarding activities less satisfying, leading adolescents to seek novel and
high-risk experiences.

3. Social Influence on Risk-Taking

 Adolescents are highly sensitive to social cues due to hormonal changes (e.g., oxytocin
increase).
 Social approval and peer influence become as rewarding as material or non-social
rewards.
 Peer presence activates reward-seeking behaviors, increasing risk-taking.

4. The Dual-Process Model

 Proposes two competing cognitive systems:

1. Analytical System: Reflective, rational, and deliberate thinking.
2. Experiential System: Intuitive and automatic, driven by actual experiences.
 Adolescents often rely on the experiential system rather than the analytical one,
especially in high-risk situations.

5. Risk-Taking Behaviors

Definition:

 Behaviors that deviate from social norms or pose threats to well-being.

  Terms used: Reckless, problem, deviant, antisocial, and delinquent behaviors.
 Risk-taking peaks around age 17 and declines in early adulthood.

Types of Risk-Taking Behaviors:

1. Road Rage and Reckless Driving:

o Contributing factors: impulsivity, peer influence, and lack of parental monitoring.
o Examples: aggressive driving, texting while driving, driving under the influence.
2. Social Media Risks:
o Cyberbullying, harmful content exposure, and online challenges.
o Validation seeking through likes and comments reinforces risky behaviors.
3. Substance Use:
o Major public health concern, especially alcohol, marijuana, and tobacco use.
o Influenced by availability, peer influence, and parental relationship quality.

6. Factors Influencing Risky Behaviors

a) Sensation Seeking:

 A desire for varied, novel, and complex sensations, often linked to physical and social
risks.

b) Triarchic Model by Ernst:

 Combines reward seeking, emotional dysregulation, and reduced executive function.

 Involves:
1. Reward System (Striatum): Motivates seeking novel experiences.
2. Threat Detection (Amygdala): Heightened stress sensitivity.
3. Cognitive Control (PFC): Underdeveloped, leading to impulsive behavior.

7. Perception of Risk

 Adolescents may see risky behavior as exciting rather than dangerous.

 Cognitive bias toward short-term rewards rather than long-term consequences.
  Even when aware of risks, they may choose to act based on immediate gratification.

8. Peer Influence

 Peers serve as role models and reinforce risk-taking.

 Presence of peers amplifies reward-seeking behavior due to overlapping brain regions.
 Increased connectivity in self-control areas is linked to resistance to peer influence.

9. Social and Cultural Influences

 Adolescence is marked by a desire for individuation and autonomy.

 Risk-taking can be seen as adaptive behavior in gaining social acceptance and
independence.
 Social deviance may reflect adaptive responses to environmental challenges (e.g., urban
life stress).

10. Economic and Neighborhood Influences

 Economic deprivation increases the likelihood of antisocial behavior.

 Weak neighborhood social organization correlates with higher delinquency.
 Collective Efficacy: Social cohesion and supervision reduce antisocial tendencies.

11. Role of Parental and Societal Support

 Authoritative Parenting: Balances warmth and discipline, reducing delinquency risks.

 Parental Monitoring: Knowing adolescents' whereabouts and activities decreases risk
behaviors.
 Community Support Programs: Help maintain family connections and reduce
antisocial outcomes.

12. Delinquency and Its Prevention

a) Genetic and Neurological Factors:

 Genetic predisposition influences antisocial behavior (40-50% variation).

  Neurobiological deficits in stress regulation increase antisocial tendencies.

b) Early-Onset vs. Late-Onset Antisocial Behavior:

1. Early-Onset: Chronic and severe, beginning before age 11.

2. Late-Onset: Temporary and linked to adolescence; influenced by social factors.

c) Preventing and Treating Delinquency:

1. Early Childhood Interventions:

o Target high-risk children with comprehensive programs (e.g., Chicago Child-
Parent Centers).
o Involves parental support, high-quality education, and community connections.
2. Adolescent Interventions:
o Focus on skill development, parenting support, and community engagement.
o Avoid grouping deviant youth together to prevent reinforcement of negative
behaviors.

Theories of Self-Development
Separation-Individuation Theory (Mahler)

 Psychological Birth: Occurs within the first three years; the child becomes an individual,
separate from the caregiver, forming a sense of identity.

Stages:

1. Normal Autism:
o Infant’s needs are automatically fulfilled.
o Sense of omnipotence and absence of awareness of others.
o Stage of primary narcissism and objectlessness.
2. Normal Symbiosis:
o Infant recognizes others (especially the mother).
o Forms a symbiotic relationship where needs are met through the caregiver.
o Exchanges cues like hunger, pain, and pleasure.
o Mother perceived as a "pre-object", not fully separate.
3. Separation-Individuation (divided into 4 substages):
o Differentiation (5-10 months):
 Infant physically breaks away from mother-infant unity.
  Shows specific bonding (e.g., smiling at the mother) and curiosity towards
strangers.
o Practicing (10-16 months):
 Increased locomotion (crawling, walking).
 Physical exploration while maintaining emotional contact with the mother.
o Rapprochement (16-25 months):
 Desire for closeness with the mother resurfaces.
 Struggles between independence and dependence.
 Rapprochement crisis: Emotional conflict with the mother.
o Libidinal Object Constancy (around 3 years):
 Internal image of the mother developed.
 Ability to function independently while maintaining emotional security.

Criticisms:

 Overemphasis on the mother-child dyad.

 Cultural limitations.
 Lack of empirical support for initial stages.
 Modern research shows infants are socially attuned from birth.

Four Levels of Representational Self

(1) Susan Harter’s Model

Stages:

1. Categorical Self:
o Self-description based on observable traits (e.g., “I am tall”).
2. Comparative Self:
o Self-evaluation by comparing to others (e.g., “I’m better at soccer”).
3. Interpersonal Self:
o Self-definition based on social roles and relationships (e.g., “I am a good friend”).
4. Abstract or Global Self:
o A cohesive self-concept incorporating traits, emotions, and roles.

Criticisms:

 Over-simplification of self-development.
 Cultural bias towards individualistic societies.
 Ignores emotions, motivation, and social influences.
 Limited application to adulthood.
 Underestimates individual differences.

 Underplays emotion, motivation, and broader social influences.

 Focuses heavily on cognitive representation.
Six Senses of Self (Daniel Stern)

Stages:

1. Emergent Self (0–2 months):

o Sensory and motor experiences create primitive self-awareness.
2. Core Self (2–6 months):
o Infants recognize their agency and bodily unity.
3. Subjective Self (7–15 months):
o Awareness that others have separate minds and emotions.
4. Verbal Self (15 months onward):
o Language structures and stabilizes self-concept.
5. Private Self (around 3 years onward):
o Recognition of private thoughts and feelings.
6. Narrative Self (beyond early childhood):
o Creation of personal life stories linking past, present, and future.

Strengths:

 Highlights ongoing, layered self-development.

 Emphasizes social interaction and communication.

Criticisms:

 Difficult to empirically measure.

 Blurred age boundaries.
 Limited acknowledgment of cultural differences.

Importance of Theories in Child and Adolescent Development

1. Piaget’s Cognitive Development Theory

🔹 Key Contributions:

 Emphasizes stages of thinking from infancy to adolescence.

 Children are active learners—they construct knowledge through experience.

🔹 Educational Importance:

 Stage-wise teaching: concepts like object permanence, egocentrism, conservation.

 Encourages hands-on activities and problem-solving.
 Helps identify appropriate content and expectations for each age group.
2. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory

🔹 Key Contributions:

 Cognitive development is shaped by social interaction, culture, and language.

 Introduces Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and Scaffolding.

🔹 Educational Importance:

 Focus on collaborative learning and peer support.

 Teaching should aim within the ZPD for optimal learning.
 Private speech seen as a tool for self-guidance and regulation.

3. Kohlberg’s Moral Development Theory

🔹 Key Contributions:

 Moral reasoning progresses through 3 levels and 6 stages.

 Moves from obedience and self-interest to ethical principles.

🔹 Importance for Development:

 Helps understand moral behavior in children and teens.

 Supports moral education, values clarification, and ethical decision-making.
 Shows the role of social and cognitive maturity in moral reasoning.

4. Theories of Self-Development

a) Mahler’s Separation-Individuation Theory

 Describes how infants become separate, independent beings.

 Important for understanding attachment, autonomy, and identity formation.

b) Susan Harter’s Self-Concept Theory

 Tracks self-development from observable traits to abstract self-concepts.

 Highlights the role of comparison, relationships, and self-evaluation.

c) Daniel Stern’s Six Senses of Self

 Emphasizes early emotional and social interaction in forming the self.

 Useful for understanding emotional development and narrative identity.

🔹 Importance:
  Crucial for mental health, self-esteem, and identity development.
 Helps address emotional issues and build resilience and self-regulation.

✅ Overall Importance of These Theories:

 Provide a comprehensive framework across cognitive, moral, and personal growth.

 Influence education, parenting, counseling, and policy-making.
 Help identify and support developmental milestones and challenges.
 Guide age-appropriate strategies for learning, behavior, and social development.