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Length and Time

Here are some questions related to length and time measurements:

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1. Pendulum Experiment: A student measures the time for a pendulum to complete 20

oscillations and repeats the experiment four times. The times recorded are 17.6 s, 19.8 s,
17.6 s, and 18.6 s. To find the average period of the pendulum, calculate the average
time for 20 oscillations and then divide by 20.

The average time is calculated as:

Average = (17.6 + 19.8 + 17.6 + 18.6)/4 = 18.4

The period T, which is the time for one oscillation, is:

T = 18.4/20 = 0.92s

2. Mass Measurement: A digital balance is the most suitable apparatus for measuring the
mass of a pencil sharpener because it provides a direct and accurate reading of mass.

3. Length of a Rod: To measure the length of a plastic rod using a ruler, align the rod with
the ruler and note the start and end positions. Subtract the initial reading from the final
reading to find the length.

4. Volume of a Metal Sphere: To find the volume of a small metal sphere using only a
measuring cylinder containing water, submerge the sphere in the water and measure the
volume of water displaced. The balance alone cannot provide the volume.

5. Distance Around a Pen: A length of cotton is measured to be 15.6 cm between two

points. When wound around a pen, it goes around six times. To find the distance once
around the pen, divide the total length by the number of turns.

Distance = 15.6cm/6 = 2.6cm

6. Rate of Oil Flow: To determine the rate of flow of oil through a funnel, measure the
initial and final volumes of oil in a measuring cylinder over a specific time. The rate of
flow is the change in volume divided by the time elapsed.

Rate of F low = (F inal V olume − I nitial V olume)/T ime

7. Average Period of a Pendulum: Five students measure the time it takes for a pendulum
to complete ten complete swings. The times recorded are 17.2 s, 17.2 s, 17.2 s, 16.9 s,
and 17.0 s. To find the average period, calculate the average time for ten swings and
then divide by 10.

Average T ime = (17.2 + 17.2 + 17.2 + 16.9 + 17.0)/5 = 17.1s

P eriod = 17.1s/10 = 1.71s

8. Volume of Steel Balls:

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The image above contains two diagrams of measuring cylinders. The first diagram shows
a measuring cylinder containing water, with the water level at approximately 42 cm³. The
second diagram shows the same cylinder after five identical steel balls are lowered into
it, raising the water level to approximately 76 cm³.

To find the volume of each steel ball, subtract the initial volume of water from the final
volume and divide the result by the number of balls:

V olume of Balls = F inal V olume − I nitial V olume

3 3 3 3 3
V olume of Balls = 76cm − 42cm = 34cm V olume of Each Ball = 34cm /5 = 6.8cm

9. Length of a Nail: To measure the length of a nail using a ruler, align the nail with the
ruler and note the start and end positions. Subtract the initial reading from the final
reading to find the length.

10. Time for a Lap: To find the time a runner takes to finish a lap of a race, subtract the
stopwatch reading at the start of the lap from the reading at the end of the lap.

11. Accurate Volume Measurement: When measuring the volume of water using a
measuring cylinder, use the smaller cylinder for better accuracy. Read the water level at
the bottom of the meniscus to ensure an accurate result.

12. Area of a Metal Plate: To find the area of a rectangular metal plate, multiply its length
by its width:
2
Area = Length ∗ W idth Area = 4.2cm ∗ 3.5cm = 14.7cm

13. Average Time for One Circuit: A cyclist rides around a track three times. The stopwatch
readings at the start, after one circuit, and at the end of three circuits are 0.00 s, 600.00 s,
and 1800.00 s, respectively. To find the average time for one circuit, subtract the initial
time from the time after three circuits and divide by three:

Average T ime = (T ime at End − T ime at Start)/N umber of Circuits

Average T ime = (1800s − 0s)/3 = 600s Average T ime per Circuit = 600s

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14. Length Measurement Error: When measuring the length of a rod using a meter rule,
ensure the correct subtraction order. If end Y is at 94.8 cm and end X is near 98 cm, the
length should be calculated by subtracting the reading for end Y from the reading for end
X.

15. Additional Cubes in Cylinder: To determine how many more identical cubes can be
added to the cylinder without causing the water to overflow, find the volume of water
displaced by the first cube and compare it to the remaining volume in the cylinder.

16. Time for One Swing: To find the time for one complete swing of a pendulum, divide the
total time for 20 complete swings by 20.

T ime f or One Swing = T otal T ime/N umber of Swings

T ime f or One Swing = 30s/20 = 1.5s

17. Drops of Water Collected: If 120 drops of water collect to read 4 cm³ in a measuring
cylinder, calculate how many drops are needed for 10 cm³.
3 3 3
Drops per cm = 120 drops/4 cm = 30 drops/cm
3 3 3
T otal Drops f or 10 cm = 30 drops/cm ∗ 10 cm = 300 drops

18. Circumference of a Can: A cylindrical can is rolled along a ruler, covering a distance of
28 cm in two rolls. To find the circumference of the can, divide the total distance by the
number of rolls.

Circumf erence = T otal Distance/N umber of Rolls Circumf erence = 28cm/2 = 14cm

19. Fastest Lap Time: Four athletes run twice around a track. To find which athlete runs the
second lap the fastest, subtract the time at the end of the first lap from the time at the
end of the second lap for each athlete, and compare the differences. The smallest
difference indicates the fastest second lap.

20. Time for the Second Lap: To find the time taken for the runner to run the second lap,
subtract the reading at the end of the first lap from the reading at the end of the second
lap.

21. Time for Second Athlete: The timekeeper forgets to reset the stopwatch. To find how
long the second athlete takes to run 100 m, subtract the initial reading of the stopwatch
from the final reading.

22. Metre Rule Measurement: When using a metre rule to measure a length to the nearest
millimetre, the reading should be recorded to three decimal places in meters.

Scalars and Vectors

Here are some questions related to scalars and vectors:

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1. Resultant Force: Forces of 3 N and 4 N act at right angles. To find the resultant force, use
the Pythagorean theorem:

Resultant F orce = √ (3N )2 + (4N )2 = √ 9 + 16 = √ 25 = 5N

The resultant force is 5 N along XZ.

2. Distance Traveled: To find the distance the car has moved between 0 and 5 s, calculate
the area under the speed-time graph during that interval.

3. Aircraft Velocity: An aircraft is moving at 60 m/s north when a cross-wind from the east
starts to blow at 13 m/s. To find the magnitude of the aircraft's velocity, use the
Pythagorean theorem:

2 2
Resultant V elocity = √ (60 m/s) + (13 m/s) = √ 3600 + 169 = √ 3769 ≈ 61 m/s

4. Motion of a Car: The speed-time graph for a car indicates its motion. At point X, the car
is moving with changing speed, and at point Y, it is moving with constant speed.

5. Resultant Force Diagram: Identify the vector diagram that correctly shows the force Z as
the resultant of forces X and Y.

6. Resultant of Two Forces: Two forces act at right angles to each other. To find the
resultant force, use the Pythagorean theorem.

7. Magnitude of Resultant Force: Find the magnitude of the resultant force of the two
vectors using the scale provided.

8. Vector Quantity:

A vector quantity has both magnitude and direction.

Velocity is a vector quantity, while mass, density, and temperature are scalar quantities.

9. Resultant Velocity: The boat starts moving across a river at velocity V perpendicular to
the river bank and encounters a current along the river of velocity u. Identify the vector
diagram that shows the resultant velocity r of the boat.

10. Vector Quantities: Both acceleration and force are vector quantities.

11. Vector Quantity in Orbit: An astronaut orbits the Earth in a space station. The weight of
the astronaut is a vector quantity.

12. Resultant Force on a Ball: A ball of weight 1.2 N drops through the air at terminal
velocity. A sudden gust of wind exerts a horizontal force of 0.5 N on the ball from the
left. Identify the diagram that shows the resultant force on the ball.

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13. List of Vector Quantities: The list that contains only vector quantities is acceleration,
force, momentum, and velocity.

14. Resultant Force Diagram:

The image above presents four diagrams with different configurations of forces. Each
diagram shows two forces, 3 N and 4 N, and a resultant force labeled as "X". To identify
the correct diagram, recognize that the resultant force is the vector sum of the two forces,
and its magnitude and direction must align with the vector addition of the individual
forces.

15. Value of a Vector Quantity: The value of a vector quantity includes both magnitude and
direction, such as 20 m/s, east.

Motion
Here are some questions related to motion:

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1. Mass vs. Weight: The incorrect statement is that mass is a force. Weight is a force, while
mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object.

2. Steel Spheres on Earth and Mars: Since the gravitational field strength on Earth is
greater than on Mars, a 10 N steel sphere on Earth would have the same weight as a 10
N steel sphere on Mars. Therefore, the mass of sphere P is greater than the mass of
sphere Q.

3. Terminal Velocity:

Terminal velocity is the constant speed that a freely falling object eventually
reaches when the resistance of the medium through which it is falling
prevents further acceleration.

When an object falls at its terminal velocity, there is air resistance, and the acceleration
of the object is zero.

4. Distance Traveled: To find the distance traveled by the vehicle in 400 s, calculate the
area under the speed-time graph during that time.

5. Distance at Constant Speed:

The image is a speed-time graph showing an object's motion over 25 seconds. The
object accelerates from 0 to 5 m/s in the first 5 seconds, maintains a constant speed of 5
m/s from 5 to 15 seconds, and then decelerates back to 0 m/s over the final 10 seconds.
The graph provides a clear visual representation of the object's speed at different points
in time.

To find the distance the object travels at constant speed, calculate the area under the
graph between 5 s and 15 s, where the speed is constant at 5 m/s.

Distance = Speed ∗ T ime Distance = 5 m/s ∗ (15 s − 5 s) = 5 m/s ∗ 10 s = 50 m

6. Constant Non-Zero Acceleration: Constant non-zero acceleration means the object's

speed increases by the same amount each second.

7. Least Distance Traveled: To find which body traveled the least distance, calculate the
area under each speed-time graph for the 6.0 s duration. The body with the smallest
area under its graph traveled the least distance.

8. Mass and Weight:

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Weight is the effect of a gravitational field on a mass.

9. Car's Motion:

Time (s) Speed (m/s)

0 0
10 4
20 8
30 12
40 12
50 12
60 12

During the first 30 seconds, the car's motion involves non-zero acceleration, and during
the last 30 seconds, the car moves at a constant speed.

10. Effect of Gravitational Field: Weight is a property of an object that results from the
effect of a gravitational field acting on it.

11. Distance Traveled by Car: To find the distance traveled by the car in 35 s, calculate the
area under the velocity-time graph.

12. Property from Gravitational Field: Weight results from the effect of a gravitational field
on its mass.

13. Length of the Train: The length of the train can be calculated using the formula:

Length = Speed ∗ T ime Length = 40 m/s ∗ 2.0 s = 80 m

14. Acceleration: Acceleration is equal to the gradient of a speed-time graph.

15. Objects Falling on the Moon: On the Moon, all objects fall with the same acceleration
because the weight of an object is directly proportional to its mass.

16. Speed-Time Graph:

Graph Gradient Area Under Graph

Acceleration Distance Traveled

17. Skydiver at Terminal Velocity: When a skydiver has reached terminal velocity, their
speed is constant.

18. Acceleration of a Tennis Ball: If air resistance is ignored, the acceleration of the ball
stays the same as it falls.

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19. Final Speed of the Car: To find the final speed of the car, use the formula:

F inal Speed = I nitial Speed + (Acceleration ∗ T ime)

2
F inal Speed = 14 m/s + (4.0 m/s ∗ 5.0 s) = 14 m/s + 20 m/s = 34 m/s

20. Mass and Weight on Mars:

Quantity Value

Weight on Venus 42 N
Gravitational field strength on Venus 8.8 N/kg

M ass = W eight/Gravitational F ield Strength M ass = 42 N /8.8 N /kg ≈ 4.8 kg

On Mars, the gravitational field strength is 3.81 N/kg.

W eight on M ars = M ass ∗ Gravitational F ield Strength

W eight on M ars = 4.8 kg ∗ 3.81 N /kg ≈ 18 N

21. Constant Speed Graph: The graph that represents an object moving at constant speed is
a straight, horizontal line on a distance-time graph.

22. Object Mass Comparison: Object X has a greater mass than object Y if object X shows a
greater resistance to change in motion than object Y, and both experience the same
resultant force.

23. Increasing Speed Graph: An object moving with increasing speed is represented by a
distance-time graph with an increasing gradient over time.

24. Distance-Time Graph: The distance-time graph that represents the motion of the car
over the same time period will show a curve with an increasing slope initially,
corresponding to the car's increasing speed.

25. Mass and Weight on the Moon:

Value

Weight on Earth 6.4 N

Gravitational Field Strength on Earth 10 N/kg

M ass = W eight/Gravitational F ield Strength M ass = 6.4 N /10 N /kg = 0.64 kg

On the Moon: W eight = M ass ∗ Gravitational F ield Strength

W eight = 0.64 kg ∗ 1.6 N /kg = 1.024 N ≈ 1.0 N

26. Mass and Weight: Weight is caused by a gravitational field acting on a mass.

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27. Smallest Average Speed: The ball with the smallest average speed is the one dropped
from the smallest height.

28. Speed Variation with Time: The graph shows how its speed varies with time will show a
curve that decreases in gradient due to air resistance.

29. Meaning of Mass: The best description of the meaning of the mass of an object is the
resistance of the object to changes in motion.

30. Average Speed for Whole Journey: The average speed for the whole journey is
calculated by dividing the total distance by the total time.

31. Weight of an Object: The weight of the object is the gravitational force acting on the
object.

32. Acceleration of the Ball: To find the magnitude of the acceleration of the ball, use the
formula:

Acceleration = (F inal V elocity − I nitial V elocity)/T ime

2
Acceleration = (−20 m/s − 30 m/s)/0.10 s = −500 m/s

The magnitude of the acceleration is 500 m/s².

33. Average Speed of the Train: To find the average speed of the train, divide the total
distance by the total time.

34. Statement about Mass: The greater the mass of a body, the more it resists a change in
its motion.

35. Vertical Motion of Concrete Block: The graph that shows the vertical motion of the
concrete block will illustrate an initial increase in speed due to gravity, followed by a
decrease in speed when it hits the sea, and then a constant speed as it sinks.

36. Weight as an Example: Weight is an example of force.

37. Mass of an Object: The mass of an object resists any change in motion of the object.

38. Distance Traveled: The area below section X of the graph is greater than the area below
section Y.

39. Final Velocity of the Car: To find the final velocity of the car, use the formula:

F inal V elocity = I nitial V elocity + (Acceleration ∗ T ime)

2
F inal V elocity = 2.0 m/s + (0.20 m/s ∗ 2.5 ∗ 60 s) = 2.0 m/s + 30 m/s = 32 m/s

40. Steel Spheres on Earth and Mars:

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Property Earth Mars

Gravitational field strength Greater Smaller

Weight of sphere P 10 N
Weight of sphere Q 10 N

Since the gravitational field strength on Earth is greater than on Mars, the mass of sphere
P is less than the mass of sphere Q.

41. Acceleration of the Object: To find the acceleration of the object, calculate the gradient
of the velocity-time graph.

42. Constant Speed Objects:

Motion: Practice Problems

Uniform Velocity
Uniform velocity implies constant speed and direction.

Consider these objects:

Object P moves at a constant speed of 5 m/s horizontally.

Object Q moves at 5 m/s vertically downwards.

Object R moves at a constant speed of 5 m/s in a circle.

Objects P and Q have uniform velocity because their speed and direction are constant.
Object R does not since it is moving in a circle.

Gravitational Field Strength

An object of mass 1.0 kg is at rest on Earth. An identical object is at rest on a planet with
a gravitational field strength twice that on Earth.

How does the object on the planet compare to the object on Earth?

Weight: double that on Earth

Acceleration (when the same horizontal force is applied): equal to that on Earth

Deceleration

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Four objects are moving along a straight line, and their distance from a fixed point is
plotted against time.

To identify which object is decelerating, look for a curve where the slope decreases over
time.

Average Acceleration
The velocity of an object increases from 30 m/s to 50 m/s in 5.0 seconds.

What is the average acceleration of the object?

Use the formula: a = (v f − vi)/t

2
a = (50m/s − 30m/s)/5.0s = 4.0m/s

Uniform Deceleration
An object is moving with uniform deceleration. This means its speed is decreasing.

Acceleration from a Speed-Time Graph

Given a speed-time graph, the acceleration between two points in time can be found by
calculating the slope of the graph during that interval.

For example, between 6 s and 10 s, if the speed changes from 10 m/s to 12 m/s, the
acceleration is:
2
a = (12m/s − 10m/s)/(10s − 6s) = 0.50m/s

Finding Greatest Acceleration

To find the greatest acceleration on a speed-time graph, look for the section with the
steepest slope.

Average Speed Calculation

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To calculate average speed, use the formula:

AverageSpeed = T otalDistance/T otalT ime

For instance, if an athlete runs at 8 m/s for 10 s and then at 6 m/s for 12 s:

Total distance = (8m/s ∗ 10s) + (6m/s ∗ 12s)

Total time = 10s + 12s = 22s

Average speed = ((8 ∗ 10) + (6 ∗ 12))/22

Speed vs. Time Graph

For a small, light ball dropped from the top of a tall building, the speed-time graph
shows an increasing slope that gradually becomes less steep due to air resistance.

Calculating Average Speed

A runner runs 300 m at 3.0 m/s and another 300 m at 6.0 m/s.

To find the average speed for the total distance:

Time for first 300 m: t 1

= 300m/3.0m/s = 100s

Time for second 300 m: t 2

= 300m/6.0m/s = 50s

Total distance: 600m

Total time: 100s + 50s = 150s

Average speed: 600m/150s = 4.0m/s

Motion with Air Resistance

When an object falls in a gravitational field with air resistance, the distance-time graph
shows a curve where the rate of increase of distance decreases over time.

Calculating Time

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A boy runs 400 m at an average speed of 4.0 m/s. He runs the first 200 m in 40 s.

How long does he take to run the second 200 m?

Total time: t = 400m/4.0m/s = 100s

Time for the second 200 m: 100s − 40s = 60s

Motion in an Evacuated Tube

In an evacuated tube, objects fall without air resistance. Therefore, two balls of different
masses will fall at the same rate.

Terminal Velocity
An object falling vertically through the air reaches terminal velocity when air resistance
equals the weight of the object.

Constant Acceleration
For a car moving along a straight, level road with constant acceleration, the graph that
shows this motion is one where speed increases linearly with time.

Here is an image of the graphs described.

Graph D depicts a straight line with a positive slope, showing a direct and constant
relationship between speed and time, which is a car accelerating at a constant rate.

Average Acceleration of a Sprinter

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To find the average acceleration of a sprinter between two time intervals, calculate the
change in speed divided by the change in time.

For example, between 2.0 s and 3.0 s, if the speed changes from 4.1 m/s to 5.7 m/s:
2
a = (5.7m/s − 4.1m/s)/(3.0s − 2.0s) = 1.6m/s

Terminal Velocity for a Parachutist

When a parachutist is falling through the air at terminal velocity:

The resultant force acting on the parachutist is equal to zero.

His acceleration is equal to zero.

Acceleration at a Specific Time

On a curved line graph showing the motion of a car, the acceleration at a specific time is
found by determining the slope of the tangent to the curve at that time.

Falling Balls
Four balls with different masses are dropped simultaneously from different heights.

Ignoring air resistance, the ball that hits the floor last will be the one dropped from the
greatest height. This is independent of mass since acceleration due to gravity is
constant.

Here is an image of the dropped ball set up:

The diagram depicts four objects, labeled A, B, C, and D, each with a corresponding mass and
height above the ground. Because gravity is constant on all of the objects, the one that travels
the furthest (Object D) will take the longest amount of time.

Motion on Earth vs. Moon

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The gravitational field strength on Earth is greater than on the Moon. Earth has an
atmosphere, but the Moon does not.

When a light ball is dropped from a great height:

On Earth, the ball will reach terminal velocity due to air resistance.

On the Moon, there is no air resistance, so the ball's speed increases constantly.

Hitting the Floor First

When multiple balls with different masses are dropped simultaneously from different
heights and air resistance is ignored, the ball that hits the floor first is determined solely
by the height from which it is dropped. The one dropped from the lowest height hits
first.

Calculating Speed of a Bubble

To determine the average speed of a bubble rising through a liquid at a constant speed,
measure the distance it travels over a known time interval.

speed = distance/time

Acceleration and Distance

Given a speed-time graph for a toy car traveling in a straight line:

Acceleration during a specific interval is the slope of the graph during that time.

Total distance is the area under the speed-time graph.

Interpreting Distance-Time Graphs

On a distance-time graph:

A constant speed is represented by a straight line with a constant slope.

A zero speed is represented by a horizontal line.

An increasing speed is represented by a curve with an increasing slope.

A decreasing speed is represented by a curve with a decreasing slope.

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Analyzing Speed-Time Graphs

Given a speed-time graph, the acceleration of an object can be analyzed using the slope
of the graph.

The statement that is true would be that the acceleration in the first 10 seconds is
(10/10)m/s .
2

Resultant Force
When a car travels along a straight road and the speed-time graph is given, the resultant
force on the car is zero during the part of the journey where the speed is constant
(horizontal line on the graph).

Falling Stone
When a large stone is dropped from a bridge into a river and air resistance can be
ignored:

The acceleration of the stone is constant (equal to g, the acceleration due to

gravity).

The speed of the stone is increasing.

Runners' Speed
Given a graph showing how the speed of two runners changes with time:

At time t, you can compare their speeds by looking at the graph to see if both
runners are moving at the same speed.

Here is the image of the runners:

The graph shows two distinct lines, one dashed and one solid, representing "runner 1" and
"runner 2", respectively. At time t, both runners are moving at the same speed, where the lines
intersect.

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Stationary Car
Given a graph showing how the speed of a car changes with time, the car is stationary
between two times when the speed is zero (horizontal line on the time axis).

Here is the image of the car:

The x-axis is labeled "time" and marked with points U, V, W, X, and Y, while the y-axis is
labeled "speed". The car is stationary between points X and Y.

Average Speed
An airplane flies from town X to town Z, stopping at town Y.

The average speed of the airplane in the air is the total distance flown divided by the
total flying time (excluding the stop).

Averagespeed = T otalDistance/T otalF lyingT ime

Constant Speed
A distance-time graph representing motion at a constant speed is a straight line.

Average Speed of a Car

A car takes 15 minutes to travel 20 km.

The average speed of the car is:

Averagespeed = 20km/(15/60)h = 80km/h

Distance Traveled

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Given a graph showing how the speed of a car changes with time, the distance traveled
by the car is the area under the graph.

For example, if the speed is 14 m/s for 24 seconds, the distance traveled is
(24 ∗ 14)m.

Greatest Rate of Speed Change

On a speed-time graph for a train, the train's speed is changing at the greatest rate
during the part of the graph with the steepest slope.

Motion of a Steel Ball

A small steel ball is dropped from a low balcony. Ignoring air resistance:

It falls with constant acceleration (due to gravity).

Speed of a Vehicle
On a distance-time graph:

The speed of the vehicle is constant when the line is straight and has a constant
slope.

The speed is zero when the line is horizontal.

Average Speed During Stages

To determine during which two stages a car is traveling at the same average speed,
calculate the average speed for each stage and compare the results.

Experiencing Acceleration
A person is experiencing an acceleration if their velocity is changing. For example, a
driver of a car that is braking to stop at traffic lights.

Falling Stones

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Two stones of different weights fall at the same time from a table. Ignoring air resistance:

Both stones hit the floor at the same time because the acceleration of free fall is
constant for all objects, regardless of weight.

Average Speed in a Race

In a race, a car travels 60 times around a 3.6 km track, which takes 2.4 hours. The
average speed of the car is:

Averagespeed = (60 ∗ 3.6km)/2.4h = 90km/h

Speed-Time Graph
If a car is moving downhill along a road at a constant speed, the speed-time graph is a
horizontal line.

Length of a Train
A train traveling at 30 m/s takes 3.0 s to pass a child. The length of the train is:

Length = Speed ∗ T ime = 30m/s ∗ 3.0s = 90m

Average Speed of a Snail

A snail moves along a ruler from Q to R in 20 s. To find the average speed from Q to R:

Averagespeed = Distance/T ime = (12cm − 2cm)/20s = 10cm/20s = 0.5cm/s

Distance of a Body
Given a speed-time graph, the distance a body has moved after a certain time is the area
under the graph up to that time.

Force of Gravity
When a ball is thrown upwards, the force of gravity produces a constant acceleration
downwards.

Mass and Weight

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Determining Density
To determine the density of a material, you must know its mass and volume.

Density is defined as mass per unit volume. Density = M ass/V olume

Spring Extension
On Earth, a spring stretches by 5.0 cm when a mass of 3.0 kg is suspended from it.

On the Moon, where the gravitational field strength is 1/6 of that on Earth, the mass that
would stretch the spring by the same amount can be calculated as:

M ass = 3.0kg

Reading on a Spring Balance

A shopkeeper pours rice into a dish hanging from a spring balance and records the
reading.

When a customer buys pasta, and the spring balance reading is the same as it was with
the rice, the weight must be the same for the rice and the pasta.

Here is the image of the spring balance scale:

In the image, the dish contains rice, which is labeled accordingly. The dial face of the spring
balance features numbers ranging from 0 to 6, with the pointer currently indicating a weight of
approximately 2.

Falling Object
When an object is falling and accelerating close to the Earth's surface, the weight of the
object is constant, but the force of air resistance on the object is increasing.

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Comparing Masses
To compare the masses of two rectangular blocks made of different materials, use the
following methods:

Hang each in turn from the same spring and compare the extensions.

Place one in the right-hand pan of a beam balance and the other in the left-hand
pan.

Mass of Water in a Pool

A rectangular swimming pool is 50 m long, 25 m wide, and contains water at a depth of
2 m. The density of the water is 1000 kg/m³. The mass of the water in the pool is:
3
V olume = 50m ∗ 25m ∗ 2m = 2500m

3 3
M ass = Density ∗ V olume = 1000kg/m ∗ 2500m = 2500000kg

Weight on Earth
An object in a space probe weighs 3.5 N, and the gravitational field strength is 7.0 N/kg.

On Earth's surface, the gravitational field strength is 9.8 N/kg.

M ass = W eight/GravitationalF ieldStrength = 3.5N /7.0N /kg = 0.5kg

W eightearth = M ass ∗ g = 0.5kg ∗ 9.8N /kg = 4.9N

Finding Density of a Liquid

To find the density of a liquid, use a balance and a measuring cylinder.

Measure the mass of the liquid using the balance.

Measure the volume of the liquid using the measuring cylinder.

Calculate density using Density = M ass/V olume

Density of Metal

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To calculate the density of a metal block, use the formula:

Density = M ass/(length ∗ p ∗ q)

Lowest Density
To find the substance with the lowest density, calculate the density for each substance
and compare the values. The lowest density is found with the following equation:

Density = M ass/V olume

Determining Density
To determine the density of a rock, a student needs to measure the increase in mass and
the increase in volume of liquid.

Density of a Stone
A measuring cylinder contains 40 cm³ of water. A stone of mass 94 g is lowered into the
water, and the water level rises to 80 cm³.

The density of the stone is:

3 3 3
V olume = 80cm − 40cm = 40cm

3 3
Density = 94g/40cm = 2.35g/cm

Density of a Liquid
The mass of an empty flask is 34 g. The volume of liquid added to the flask is 20 cm³.
The total mass of the flask and the liquid is 50 g.

The density of the liquid is:

M ass = 50g − 34g = 16g

3 3
Density = 16g/20cm = 0.80g/cm

Mass of Water in a Tank

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A tank has dimensions of 5.0 m x 4.0 m x 4.0 m. It is completely filled with water of
density 1000 kg/m³. The mass of water in the tank is:
3
V olume = 5.0m ∗ 4.0m ∗ 4.0m = 80m

3 3
M ass = 1000kg/m ∗ 80m = 80000kg

Density of a Liquid
A small bottle has a mass of 20 g when empty. The volume of the bottle is 10 cm³.
When full of liquid, the total mass is 150 g.

The density of the liquid is:

M ass = 150g − 20g = 130g

3 3
Density = 130g/10cm = 13g/cm

Density of a Metal
A rectangular metal block is 20 cm long, and the cross-sectional area is 25 cm². The
mass of the block is 4000 g.

The density of the metal is:

2 3
V olume = 20cm ∗ 25cm = 500cm

3 3
Density = 4000g/500cm = 8.0g/cm

Weight and Mass

Sphere P, made of steel, has a weight of 10 N on Earth. Another sphere Q, also made of
steel, has a weight of 10 N on Mars.

The gravitational field strength on Earth is greater than on Mars. The mass of
sphere P is greater than the mass of sphere Q.

Density of Cork

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A metal ball is attached to a cork and lowered into a measuring cylinder.

The mass of the cork is 4.8 g.

The density of the cork is:

3 3 3
Density = M ass/V olume = 4.8g/(80cm − 56cm ) = 0.20g/cm

🪵 Raft on a Lake

A square wooden raft floats on a lake. The density of the water is 1000 kg/m³. The sides
of the raft are 2.0 m long, and the thickness of the raft is 0.20 m. The mass of the raft is
700 kg.

How many barrels, each of mass 100 kg, could be placed on the raft before its
surface sinks to the surface of the water?
3
V olume = 2.0m ∗ 2.0m ∗ 0.20m = 0.8m

3 3
M axM ass = Density ∗ V olume = 1000kg/m ∗ 0.8m = 800kg

ExtraM ass = 800kg − 700kg = 100kg

N umberof Barrels = 100kg/100kg = 1

Mass of an Object
The mass of an object resists change in the motion of the object.

Mass and Weight

When a body is moved from place X to place Y where the gravitational field strength is
different:

Its mass stays the same.

Its weight changes.

🪶 Brass Ball and Feather

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A brass ball and a feather are released at the same time.

On Earth, the ball reaches the ground first.

On the Moon, they reach the ground at the same time.

The explanation for this is that there is no air resistance on the Moon.

Gravitational Field Strength

The gravitational field strength on the Moon is less than on the Earth.

The gravitational potential energy gained by a stone lifted through the same
vertical height differs when done on the Moon compared to when done on the
Earth.

Helium Balloon
A helium balloon is tied to a top-pan balance. A metal block of mass 100 g is placed on
the balance. The balance reads 91 g.

The balloon exerts a downward force of 0.09 N on the top-pan balance.

Mass and Weight

Both mass and weight are affected by a change in gravitational field strength.

Mass and Weight

Key Differences Between Mass and Weight

The following points highlight the differences between mass and weight:

Mass is the amount of matter in an object and is a scalar quantity.

Weight is the force exerted on an object due to gravity and is a vector quantity.

Other key differences are summarized below:

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Feature Mass Weight

Amount of matter in an
Definition Force on an object due to gravity
object
Type of
Scalar Vector
Quantity
Measurement Balance Spring balance or force meter
Unit Kilogram (kg) Newton (N)
Varies depending on the gravitational field
Varies with Independent of location
strength
Only present when a gravitational field acts on
Presence Always present
the mass

Measuring Mass and Weight

Mass is measured using a balance, which compares the object's mass to known masses.
Weight is measured using a spring balance or a force meter, which measures the force
exerted by gravity on the object.

Gravitational Fields and Weight

An object must be in a gravitational field to have weight. If there is no gravitational field
acting on the mass, the object will be weightless.

‍Mass vs. Weight on the Moon

An astronaut on the Moon weighs less than on Earth because the Moon has a weaker
gravitational field. However, the astronaut's mass remains the same.

Evaporation Effects
When a liquid evaporates, its mass decreases because there is less liquid. Consequently, its
weight also decreases.

Density
Density is defined as mass per unit volume. density = mass

volume

The density of an object doesn't change when the object is compressed.

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Calculating Weight
Weight is calculated using the formula: W eight = mass × gravitationalf ieldstrength
W = mg

Example of Weight Calculation

An object with a mass of 75 kg on the Moon, where the gravitational field strength is 1.61
N/kg, would have a weight of: W = 75kg × 1.61N /kg = 120.75N

Therefore, the weight of the astronaut on the moon is approximately 121 N.

Bathroom Scales
Bathroom scales record both mass and weight.

Using a Balance to Find Weight

The diagram above illustrates how mass and weight are measured using a beam balance
(diagram 1) and a spring (diagram 2).

When using a balance with standard weights, the experiment would have different results on
the Earth versus on the moon. On the Moon, the beam balance will still be balanced because it
is measuring mass, which does not change based on gravitational field strength. But a spring
would extend less because weight is reduced due to lower gravitational field strength.

Density Calculations
To calculate density, both mass and volume must be accurately measured. For irregularly
shaped objects, the volume can be determined by water displacement.

Spring Balance in a Market Setting

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The image shows a spring balance being used to measure the weight of rice. If the reading on
the spring balance is the same for rice and pasta, it means they have the same weight.

Weight vs. Mass on Different Planets

The graph illustrates how weight varies with mass on planet P and planet Q. For instance, an
object weighing 400 N on planet P would have a mass of 40 kg.

Measuring Density with Water Displacement

The image shows how the volume of an irregularly shaped stone can be measured by the
water displacement method using measuring cylinders. The density of the stone can then be
calculated using the formula density = .
mass

volume

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Graphing Mass and Volume to Determine Density

The graph shows the relationship between mass and volume for four samples of rock.
Samples of the same type of rock will have the same density, which is represented by the
slope of the line on the graph.

Measuring Cylinder and Evaporation

The image illustrates how evaporation affects the mass and volume of a liquid in a measuring
cylinder. By measuring the change in mass and volume, the density of the liquid can be
calculated.

Density Calculations
Here are some example problems about calculating density:

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Problem 32: A measuring cylinder contains 50 cm³ of liquid. The total mass of the
measuring cylinder and the liquid is 160 g. What is the density of the liquid?

To solve this, we need more information, such as the mass of the empty measuring
cylinder, to find the mass of the liquid alone.

Problem 33: A stone has a volume of 0.50 cm³ and a mass of 2.0 g. What is the density
of the stone?

Use the formula: density = mass/volume = 2.0g/0.50cm³ = 4.0g/cm³

Problem 34: A liquid has a density of 0.80 g/cm³. Which could be the volume and mass
of this liquid?

We need to check each option to see which one satisfies the density formula:
density = mass/volume

Option C: Volume = 10 cm³, Mass = 8.0 g. Density = 8.0g/10cm³ = 0.80g/cm³. This

is the correct answer.

Problem 40: A rectangular box with inside measurements of 5 cm x 6 cm x 4 cm has a

mass of 40 g when empty. When filled with a liquid, it has a total mass of 220 g. What is
the density of the liquid?

First, find the volume of the box: volume = 5cm ∗ 6cm ∗ 4cm = 120cm³ Then, find the
mass of the liquid: mass = 220g − 40g = 180g Finally, calculate the density:
density = mass/volume = 180g/120cm³ = 1.5g/cm³

Equipment for Density Measurement

These problems address the equipment needed to measure density:

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Problem 35: A student is told to measure the density of a liquid and also of a large cube
of metal. Which pieces of equipment are sufficient to be able to take the measurements
needed?

To measure the density of a liquid, you need a balance to measure mass and a
measuring cylinder to measure volume. For a cube of metal, you need a balance for
mass and a ruler to measure the sides and calculate volume. Therefore, the answer is a
balance, measuring cylinder, and ruler.

Problem 37: A student is trying to find the density of water and of a large, regularly
shaped concrete block. Which apparatus is needed to find the density of both the water
and the concrete block?

Similar to the previous question, you need a balance to measure mass. For water, use a
measuring cylinder to find the volume. For the concrete block, use a ruler to measure its
dimensions and calculate the volume. Thus, the answer is a balance, measuring cylinder,
and ruler.

Problem 39: Which items of apparatus are required to determine the density of a liquid?

To determine the density of a liquid, you need a balance to measure mass and a
measuring cylinder to measure volume.

Mass Calculation
Problem 38: The diagram shows a rectangular block of density 2 g/cm³. What is the
mass of the block? The dimensions are 3cm x 2cm x 2cm.

First, calculate the volume of the block: volume = 3cm ∗ 2cm ∗ 2cm = 12cm³ Then, use
the density formula to find the mass: mass = density ∗ volume = 2g/cm³ ∗ 12cm³ = 24g

Forces

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Problem 1: A train is traveling horizontally in a straight line. A book is on a table in the

train. The diagram shows all the forces acting on the book (contact force, frictional force,
weight of book). How is the train moving?

If the forces are balanced (i.e., the net force is zero), the train is moving at a uniform
speed.

Problem 2: A cyclist is traveling in a straight line along a horizontal road at a constant

speed. A constant driving force F acts on the cyclist in the forward direction. Which
statement about the magnitude of the frictional forces acting on the cyclist is correct?

Since the cyclist is moving at a constant speed, the driving force must be equal to the
frictional forces. Therefore, the magnitude of the frictional forces is equal to F.

Extension of a Spring

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Problem 3: A student measures the length of a spring. She then attaches different
weights to the spring and measures the length of the spring for each weight. What is the
extension of the spring with a weight of 3.0 N attached to it?

To find the extension, subtract the original length from the length with the weight
attached: 533mm − 520mm = 13mm.

Problem 4: A metal wire is loaded up to the limit of proportionality. Which statement is

correct?

Up to the limit of proportionality, Hooke's Law is obeyed, and when the load is removed,
the wire returns to its original length.

Problem 5: A tennis ball has a mass of 57 g. A tennis player hits the tennis ball with a
tennis racket. The tennis ball has a velocity of 25 m/s when it hits the racket. The velocity
of the tennis ball when it leaves the player's racket is 15 m/s in the opposite direction
from its approaching direction. The average force exerted by the tennis racket on the ball
is 35 N. For how long is the tennis ball in contact with the tennis racket?

We use the impulse-momentum theorem: F ∗ Δt = m ∗ Δv

Δv = 15m/s − (−25m/s) = 40m/s Convert the mass to kg: 57g = 0.057kg

35N ∗ Δt = 0.057kg ∗ 40m/s Δt = (0.057kg ∗ 40m/s)/35N = 0.065s

Problem 6: A cart has a mass of 10 kg. A boy pushes on the cart horizontally with a force
of 50 N. The cart accelerates at 0.50 m/s². What is the frictional force acting on the cart?

Use Newton's second law: F net = m ∗ a Fnet = 10kg ∗ 0.50m/s² = 5N

Fapplied − Ff riction = Fnet 50N − Ff riction = 5N Ff riction = 50N − 5N = 45N

Problem 7: A car of mass 1200 kg is traveling along a horizontal road. The total frictional
force is 1000 N, and the driving force is 4000 N. What is the acceleration of the car?

Fnet = Fdriving − Ff riction = 4000N − 1000N = 3000N Use Newton's second law:
a = Fnet/m = 3000N /1200kg = 2.5m/s ²

Problem 8: The diagram shows three forces acting on an object. What is the value of the
resultant force acting on the object?

Find the net force: 9N − 6N − 1N = 2N

Problem 9: A stone is dropped from rest at a height of 2.0 m above the surface of a
planet. The planet has no atmosphere. The speed of the stone just before reaching the
surface of the planet is 3.8 m/s. What is the acceleration of free fall on the planet?

Use the equation of motion: v² = u² + 2as 3.8² = 0² + 2 ∗ a ∗ 2.0 14.44 = 4a

a = 14.44/4 = 3.61m/s² ≈ 3.6m/s²

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Problem 10: A mass of 20 kg is held stationary by a rope passing over a frictionless

pulley. What is the tension T in the rope?

Since the mass is stationary, the tension in the rope must equal the weight of the mass:
T = m ∗ g = 20kg ∗ 10N /kg = 200N

Problem 11: A car is driven from rest on a long straight road. The car engine exerts a
constant driving force. The diagram shows the horizontal forces acting on the car. The
resistive forces are proportional to the speed of the car. Does the car eventually reach a
maximum speed?

The car eventually reaches a maximum speed because the resistive forces increase with
speed until they equal the driving force, making the net force zero and the acceleration
zero.

Problem 12: A box of mass 2.0 kg is pulled across the floor by a force of 6.0 N. The
frictional force acting on the box is 1.0 N. What is the acceleration of the box?

Fnet = Fapplied − Ff riction = 6.0N − 1.0N = 5.0N a = Fnet/m = 5.0N /2.0kg = 2.5m/s ²

Problem 13: A resultant force of 4.0 N acts on an object of mass 0.50 kg for 3.0 seconds.
What is the change in velocity caused by this force?

First, find the acceleration: a = F /m = 4.0N /0.50kg = 8m/s² Then, find the change in
velocity: Δv = a ∗ t = 8m/s² ∗ 3.0s = 24m/s

Problem 14: An object accelerates from 10 m/s to 30 m/s in 4.0 seconds. The
accelerating force is 150 N. What is the mass of the object?

First, find the acceleration: a = (v − u)/t = (30m/s − 10m/s)/4.0s = 5m/s² Then, find
the mass: m = F /a = 150N /5m/s² = 30kg

Problem 15: An object decelerates from 25.0 m/s to 5.0 m/s in a time of 4.0 s. It has a
mass of 50 kg. What is the resultant force on the object?

First, find the acceleration: a = (5.0m/s − 25.0m/s)/4.0s = −5m/s² Then, find the force:
F = m ∗ a = 50kg ∗ −5m/s² = −250N (The negative sign indicates deceleration)

Problem 16: The diagram shows a bird in flight, flying horizontally to the right. In which
direction does air resistance act on the bird?

Air resistance acts in the opposite direction to the motion, so it acts towards the left.

Problem 17: A force acting on a moving ball causes its motion to change. This force stays
constant. What makes the force produce a greater change in the motion of the ball?

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Decreasing the mass of the ball will result in a greater change in motion for the same
force.

Problem 18: A stone of mass 0.12 kg is fired from a catapult. The velocity of the stone
changes from 0 to 5.0 m/s in 0.60 s. What is the average resultant force acting on the
stone while it is being fired?

a = (v − u)/t = (5.0m/s − 0m/s)/0.60s = 8.33m/s ²

F = m ∗ a = 0.12kg ∗ 8.33m/s ² = 1.0N

Problem 19: The diagram shows the vertical forces acting on a ball as it falls vertically
through the air. The ball does not accelerate. Which row describes what happens to the
resultant force on the ball and what happens to the acceleration of the ball as it falls
through the air?

Since the ball does not accelerate, the resultant force must be zero.

Problem 20: A car travels forwards along a straight horizontal road. Only the horizontal
forces acting on it are shown (air resistance and friction, driving force). The length of each
arrow represents the size of each force. How do these forces affect the motion of the car?

If the driving force is greater than the air resistance and friction, the car's forward speed
increases.

Problem 21: An object travels in a circular path at constant speed. Which statement
about the object is correct?

Even though the speed is constant, the direction is changing, so it has changing
momentum and is accelerating.

Problem 22: Below are four statements about acceleration. Which statement is not
correct?

Acceleration always involves changing speed is not correct because circular motion
involves acceleration even if speed is constant.

Problem 23: The engine of a car produces a driving force of 5000 N on the car. Resistive
forces R also act on the car. The car has a mass of 800 kg and an acceleration of 1.0 m/s².
What is the value of R?

Fnet = m ∗ a = 800kg ∗ 1.0m/s ² = 800N Fdriving − R = Fnet 5000N − R = 800N

R = 5000N − 800N = 4200N

Problem 24: Which properties of a body can be changed by applying a force to the
body?

Applying a force can change motion and shape, but not mass.

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Problem 25: In which situation is no resultant force needed?

A car moving in a straight line at a steady speed needs no resultant force.

Problem 26: A force acting on an object causes some properties of the object to change.
Which list contains only properties that can be changed by the action of the force?

Motion, shape, and size can be changed by a force.

Problem 27: A box is being moved by a fork-lift truck. The total weight of the box is
3000 N. The force exerted by the fork-lift truck on the box is 3500 N upwards. What is
the resultant force on the box?

Fresultant = Fupward − Fweight = 3500N − 3000N = 500N upwards.

Problem 28: A child sits on a rubber ball and bounces up and down on the ground. What
stays the same when the ball hits the ground?

The mass of the ball stays the same.

Problem 29: A car moves along a level road. The diagram shows all of the horizontal
forces acting on the car (800N air resistance, 2000N force from engine, 500N friction).
Which statement is correct?

Fnet = 2000N − 800N − 500N = 700N Since the net force is positive, the car is speeding
up.

Problem 30: A large parcel is on a horizontal conveyor belt moving towards a lorry at a
constant speed. Only two horizontal forces act on the parcel: air resistance and friction
with the conveyor belt. Which row correctly compares the directions and the sizes of
these two forces?

The forces are opposite in direction and the same in size since the parcel moves at a
constant speed.

Problem 31: On which ball is a non-zero resultant force acting?

A ball moving at constant speed on a smooth surface has no net force. A ball floating on
water has balanced forces. A ball at rest on a bench has balanced forces. Only a free-
falling ball has a non-zero resultant force (gravity).

Circular Motion

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Problem 1: The diagram shows an object moving at a constant speed in a circular path. A
force acts on the object to keep it in the circular path. In which labeled direction does this
force act when the object is in the position shown?

The force acts towards the center of the circle (centripetal force).

Problem 2: A car is traveling around a circular track at a constant speed. In which

direction is the resultant force on the car?

The resultant force is towards the center of the circle.

Problem 3: An object moves at constant speed around a circular path. Which statement
is correct?

A resultant force acts on the object towards the center of the circle.

Problem 4: An object on the end of a string moves in a clockwise circular path at

constant speed. What is the direction of the resultant force on the object when it is in the
position shown?

The resultant force is towards the center of the circle.

Problem 5: A satellite orbits the Earth in an anticlockwise direction at constant speed.

When the satellite is in the position shown, in which direction does the resultant force
act upon it?

The resultant force acts towards the center of the circle, which is the Earth.

Problem 6: An object moves at constant speed in the circular path shown. Which
statement about the acceleration of the object when it is at point P is correct?

The acceleration is directed towards the center of the circle.

Problem 7: A car moves in a circular path as it turns a corner on a horizontal road. The
car moves at constant speed. Which description of the forces acting on the car is correct?

The forces are unbalanced, and the resultant force acts towards the center of the circle.

Problem 8: A satellite orbits the Earth above the atmosphere at a constant speed. Which
labeled arrow shows the direction of the resultant force on the satellite at the position
shown?

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In this diagram, the satellite is orbiting the earth. The resultant force is the gravitational force,
which acts towards the center of the Earth. Therefore, the answer is the arrow pointing
towards the Earth.

Deformation
Problem 1: A spring has an unstretched length of 3.0 cm. When a force of 60 N is
applied to the spring, its length increases to 5.0 cm. The limit of proportionality is not
exceeded. What is the spring constant of the spring?

First, find the extension: extension = 5.0cm − 3.0cm = 2.0cm Then, use Hooke's Law:
F = k ∗ x, so k = F /x = 60N /2.0cm = 30N /cm

Problem 2: The extension-load graph for a spring is shown. The unstretched length of
the spring is 17.0 cm. When an object is suspended from the spring, the length of the
spring is 19.2 cm. What is the weight of the object?

First, find the extension: $extension = 19.2 cm - 17.0 cm = 2.2 cm$

From the graph, for an extension of 2.2 cm, the load is approximately 2.6 N.

Problem 3: An experiment is done to determine the spring constant for a spring.

Different loads are hung from the spring, and its length is measured for each different
load. The graph shows how its length varies with load. What is the value of the spring
constant?

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To determine the spring constant, you need to find the slope of the graph in the Hooke's Law
region. You can use two points from the graph to calculate the spring constant
k = F orce/Extension.

Problem 4: A student wishes to determine the spring constant of a spring where it obeys
Hooke's law. Different loads are hung from the spring, and its length is measured for
each different load. What is the value of the spring constant of the spring?

To find the spring constant k use the formula k = F orce/Extension. Calculate the extension
for each load and then find the spring constant. For example, for a 2.0 N load, the extension is
20cm − 12cm = 8cm. Thus, k = 2.0N /8cm = 0.25N /cm.

Problem 5: An experiment is carried out to determine the spring constant for a spring
that obeys Hooke's law. A load is hung from the spring, and the extension of the spring is
measured. Which calculation is used to calculate the spring constant?

The correct calculation is k = W eightof theload/Extension.

Problem 6: The extension / load graph for a spring is shown. The unstretched length of
the spring is 15.0 cm. When an object of unknown weight is suspended on the spring,
the length of the spring is 16.4 cm. What is the weight of the object?

First, find the extension: extension = 16.4cm − 15.0cm = 1.4cm Now, use the graph to find
the load corresponding to an extension of 1.4 cm. It is approximately 0.7 N.

Problem 7: The graph shows how the length of a spring changes when the stretching
force is increased. In the Hooke's law region, what is the spring constant for this spring?

To find the spring constant, you need to find the slope of the graph in the Hooke's Law region.
Choose two points in the linear region of the graph.

ChangeinF orce
k =
ChangeinLength

Problem 8: A load is hung from a steel wire. The load is increased. The length of the
wire increases until the limit of proportionality is reached. The load is now increased
slightly. What happens?

The extension of the wire increases, and the wire no longer obeys Hooke's law.

Problem 9: A spring is stretched by hanging a piece of metal from it. Which name is
given to the force that stretches the spring?

The force that stretches the spring is the weight of the metal.

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Problem 10: A spring which obeys Hooke's Law has an unstretched length of 10 cm. A
load of 20 N is hung from the spring. The new length of the spring is 36 cm. What is the
spring constant k of the spring?

First, find the extension: extension = 36cm − 10cm = 26cm Then, use Hooke's Law: F = k ∗ x ,
so k = F /x = 20N /26cm ≈ 0.77N /cm

Problem 11: Different loads are hung on a spring. The diagram shows the length of the
spring with and without the loads attached. What is the extension of the spring when
the load is 400 N?

When the load is 400 N, the length is 65 cm. The original length is 20 cm, so the extension is
65cm − 20cm = 45cm.

Problem 12: A scalar quantity has:

Magnitude but no direction. A scalar quantity is fully described by its magnitude

(size or amount). Examples include mass, temperature, and time.

Problem 13: A student measures the length of a spring. She then hangs different
weights from the spring and measures the length of the spring for each different weight.
What is the extension of the spring when the weight hung from it is 3.0 N?

To find the extension, subtract the original length from the length with the weight attached:
533mm − 520mm = 13mm

Problem 14: A student adds weights to an elastic cord. He measures the length of the
cord for each weight. He then plots a graph from the results, as shown. What has he
plotted on the vertical axis?

The vertical axis represents the extension, which is the measured length - original length.

Problem 15: The diagrams show a steel spring and a graph of its length against the load
applied to it. What is the extension of the spring when a load of 20 N is applied to it?

Find the length on the graph corresponding to a load of 20 N. Subtract the original length (at 0
N load) from this value to find the extension. For example, if the length at 20 N is 12 cm and
the original length is 8 cm, then the extension is 12cm − 8cm = 4cm.

Problem 16: A student adds weights to an elastic cord. He measures the length of the
cord for each weight. He then plots a graph from the results, as shown. Which length
has he plotted on the vertical axis?

The vertical axis represents the extension, which is the measured length - original length.

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Problem 17: Objects with different masses are hung on a spring. The diagram shows
how much the spring stretches. The extension of the spring is directly proportional to the
mass hung on it. What is the mass of object M?

Since the extension is directly proportional to the mass, we can set up a proportion:
100g/10cm = M /30cm. Solving for M: M = (100g ∗ 30cm)/10cm = 300g

Problem 18: A force acts on a moving rubber ball. Which of these changes could not
happen to the ball because of the force?

A force cannot change the mass of the ball.

Problem 19: An experiment is carried out to measure the extension of a rubber band for
different loads. Which figure is missing from the table?

The extension should be the length minus the original length (15.2 cm). Thus, the missing
length should be 15.2cm + 1.0cm = 16.2cm.

Problem 20: The object in the diagram is acted upon by the two forces shown (3N to the
right, 2N to the left). What is the effect of these forces?

The net force is 3N − 2N = 1N to the right. Thus, the object moves to the right with constant
acceleration.

Problem 21: Which property of an object cannot be changed by a force?

A force cannot change the mass of an object.

Turning Effect and Conditions for Equilibrium

Problem 1: A uniform beam is pivoted at the center, and two identical masses, X and Y,
are placed so that the beam balances. A smaller mass is then added at the position
shown. How can the masses be positioned so the beam balances again?

To balance the beam again, move X away from the pivot to counteract the additional moment
caused by the smaller mass.

Problem 2: The diagram shows the minimum force F acting vertically on a lever
1

required to lift a heavy log of weight W . The log needs to be lifted by a smaller force
than F . In which situations will F be smaller than F ?
1 2 1

According to the principle of moments, a smaller force can lift the log if the distance from the
pivot to the applied force is increased, or if the distance from the pivot to the load (log) is
decreased.

Problem 3: The diagrams show four beams, each of negligible weight and freely pivoted.
Which beam is not in equilibrium?

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A beam is in equilibrium if the sum of the clockwise moments equals the sum of the
anticlockwise moments. Check each diagram:

Diagram A: 3.0N ∗ 2.0m = 6.0N m (clockwise) and 6.0N ∗ 1.0m = 6.0N m (anticlockwise).
Balanced.
Diagram B: 6.0N ∗ 2.0m = 12.0N m (clockwise) and 6.0N ∗ 2.0m = 12.0N m
(anticlockwise). Balanced.
Diagram C: 3.0N ∗ 1.0m = 3.0N m (clockwise) and 3.0N ∗ 2.0m = 6.0N m (anticlockwise).
Not balanced.
Diagram D: 4.0N ∗ 2.0m = 8.0N m (clockwise) and
4.0N ∗ 1.0m + 2.0N ∗ 2.0m = 4.0N m + 4.0N m = 8.0N m (anticlockwise). Balanced.

Therefore, beam C is not in equilibrium.

Problem 4: Two boys of equal weight sit on one side of a see-saw. Their father, of
weight 1000 N, sits on the other side. During one part of the cycle, the father descends
through a distance of 40 cm. At the same time, the boy nearest the pivot rises through 20
cm, while the other boy rises through 80 cm. What is the weight of each boy?

Let W be the weight of each boy.

b

1000N ∗ 40cm = Wb ∗ 20cm + Wb ∗ 80cm 40000 = 100 ∗ Wb Wb = 400N

Therefore, the weight of each boy is 400 N.

Problem 5: The diagram shows a metre rule MN on two supports, P and Q. Two loads
are placed on the rule. The rule rests steadily on the supports. Which row is correct?

If the rule rests steadily, the total moment about any point must be zero.

Problem 6: A wheelbarrow has a weight W of 140 N. Which vertical force F is needed to

support the wheelbarrow in the position shown?

Take moments about the wheel: F ∗ 1.4m = 140N ∗ 0.6m F = (140N ∗ 0.6m)/1.4m = 60N

Problem 7: A metal rod of length 80 cm is pivoted at a point

Equilibrium and Moments

Equilibrium Conditions
For an object to be in equilibrium, two conditions must be met:
The resultant force acting on the object must be zero.
The resultant moment about any point must be zero.

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Example Questions:
Question: A metal rod has its center of mass at its midpoint. Four pulley wheels are
attached with cords, and the rod is in equilibrium. What is the weight of the rod?
Solution: To solve this, analyze the forces acting on the rod and ensure they balance out.
Question: A beam is pivoted at one end, with its weight acting at a point 40 cm from the
pivot. A force of 4.0 N is applied to balance it horizontally. Where and in which direction
is this force applied?
Solution: Calculate the moments created by the weight of the beam and determine
where the 4.0 N force must be applied to counteract it.

Moments
Definition of Moment:

The moment of a force is the turning effect it has on an object around a pivot.
It is calculated as the product of the force and the perpendicular distance from
the pivot to the line of action of the force.

M oment = F orce × Distance

Example Question: A uniform meter rule is pivoted at its midpoint with two weights
hung on either side. Which row correctly indicates the direction of the resultant moment
about a point and the resultant force on the rule?

Solution: Determine whether the moments created by the weights balance each other
out and if the forces are balanced to maintain equilibrium.

Machines and Moments

Certain simple machines utilize the principle of moments to function.
Examples:
Wheelbarrows
Scissors
Screwdrivers
These machines apply the moment of a force to perform tasks more easily.

Hooke's Law and Springs

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Hooke's Law:

States that the force needed to extend or compress a spring by some distance
is proportional to that distance.

F = k × x

Where:

F is the force applied

k is the spring constant

x is the extension or compression

Example Question: A spring has an unstretched length of 10 cm. A load of 20 N is

suspended, and the new length is 36 cm. What is the spring constant k of the spring?

Solution: Use Hooke's Law to find the spring constant. k = F

x
=
20N

0.26m
≈ 0.77N /cm

Bridge Stability
Example Question: A 20 m long uniform bridge weighing 100 kN is supported at each
end by pillars. What are the forces T and T exerted by the pillars when a van of weight
1 2

24 kN is on the bridge, 5 m from the left-hand pillar?

Solution: Calculate the forces by considering the moments and forces in equilibrium.

Force on a Bar Supported by Two Points

Example Question: A uniform bar rests on two supports, P and Q. The weight of the bar
is 4.0 N. What is the force exerted on the bar by support P?
Solution: Analyze the distribution of weight and the reaction forces at the supports.

Moment of a Force
Moment Calculation:
The moment of a force F about a point P is calculated using relevant distances.
M oment = F × d, where d is the perpendicular distance from the line of action of

the force to the point P .

Example Question: An object is pivoted at point P , and a string is tied to a peg on the
object. A student pulls the string with a force F . What is the moment of the force F
about the point P ?
Solution: Identify the correct distance to use in the moment calculation.

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Lifting a Beam
Example Question: A beam lying on the ground has end Q lifted by force F , while end P
remains on the ground. The beam's length is 3.0 m, and its weight is 600 N, with the
center of mass G at 1.0 m from end P . What is the size of the force F when it just raises
end Q from the ground?
Solution: Calculate the force required to balance the moment created by the weight of
the beam.

Stability of a Stand
Stability Factors:
Lowering the mass and widening the base increases stability.
This adjustment lowers the center of gravity and provides a broader base of
support.
Example: A stand holds a heavy mass above a bench. Which two changes would
definitely make the stand more stable?
Solution: Lower the mass and widen the base.

Balancing a Plank
Example Question: A uniform plank rests on a pivot at its center. Two children, P and Q,
sit on the plank at different positions. The mass of child P is 25 kg, and the plank is
balanced. What is the mass of child Q?
Solution: Use the principle of moments to find the mass of child Q. m × d = m × d .
P P Q Q

Balancing a Trolley
Example Question: A trolley is used to transport a load of 400 N. A force F vertically
downwards is needed to balance the trolley. The center of mass of the trolley is vertically
above the pivot. What is the value of F ?
Solution: Apply the principle of moments to calculate the balancing force F .

Resultant Moment Calculation

Example Question: A beam is pivoted at its center of mass and acted upon by two
forces, 10 N and 5.0 N, at different distances from the pivot. What is the resultant
moment about the pivot?
Solution: Calculate the moments created by each force and find the resultant moment.

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Identifying Equilibrium
Equilibrium Check:
An object is in equilibrium if both the resultant force and the resultant moment
acting on it are zero.
Example Question: Which object is in equilibrium when various forces are applied?
Solution: Check if the sum of forces in any direction is zero, and verify that the moments
are also balanced.

Moving Body with Resultant Force

Resultant Force:
If a body is moving at a constant speed in a straight line, the resultant force acting
on it is zero.
Example Question: Which moving body has a resultant force acting on it?
Solution: An aircraft circling an airport at constant speed since it is constantly changing
direction, indicating a resultant force.

Tension in Strings Supporting a Beam

Example Question: A beam is suspended from two strings, P and Q. The tension in
string P is 2.0 N. What is the tension in string Q, and where is it attached so that the
beam is in equilibrium?
Solution: Use the conditions for equilibrium to find the tension in string Q and its
position.

Force Required to Keep a Bar in Equilibrium

Example Question: A uniform bar is pivoted at a point 40 cm from the left end. A load of
W is suspended from the right-hand end. What is the magnitude of force F applied to

the left-hand end to keep it in equilibrium?

Solution: Calculate the force required by balancing the moments.

Spacecraft in Space

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Equilibrium in Space:
A spacecraft traveling in space with no resultant force and no resultant moment
acting on it is in equilibrium.
Therefore, its speed is not increasing or decreasing.
Example Question: A spacecraft is traveling in space with no resultant force and no
resultant moment acting on it. Which statement is correct?
Solution: The spacecraft is in equilibrium.

Rod and Balloon System

Example Question: What action causes the rod to rotate clockwise?
Solution: Consider the forces and distances from the pivot to determine which action
creates a clockwise moment.

Here's an image of a rod and balloon system:

Meter Rule and Weights

Example Question: A uniform meter rule is pivoted at the 30 cm mark. The rule balances
when a weight of 6.0 N is hanging from the zero mark and a weight of 2.0 N is hanging
from the 70 cm mark. What is the weight of the rule?
Solution: Calculate the weight of the rule by equating the clockwise and anticlockwise
moments.

Equilibrium of a Rod Suspended by a Thread

Example Question: A uniform rod of weight 2.0 N has a length of 80 cm and is
suspended by a thread 20 cm from end X. A weight of 5.0 N is suspended from end X.
Where should a 6.0 N weight be hung to achieve equilibrium?
Solution: Calculate the distance by balancing the moments about the suspension point.

Forces on a Plank Resting on Rocks

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Force Relationship:
When a plank rests in equilibrium on two rocks, the sum of the upward forces
provided by the rocks (P and R) must equal the downward force of the plank's
weight (Q).
P + R = Q

Example Question: How are the sizes of the forces related when a wooden plank rests in
equilibrium on two rocks on opposite sides of a narrow stream?
Solution: P + R = Q

Equilibrium of a Metal Plate

Equilibrium Conditions:
A metal plate is in equilibrium when the forces acting on it are balanced, meaning
the resultant force in any direction is zero and there is no net torque.
Example Question: In which diagram is the plate in equilibrium?
Solution: The diagram where the sum of forces in each direction is zero.

Balancing a Beam with a Pivot and Load

Example Question: A uniform beam is pivoted 60 cm from end X. A load of 8.0 N hangs
10 cm from end X. What magnitude of force F is required to keep the beam balanced
when applied 80 cm from end X?
Solution: Calculate the force by balancing the moments about the pivot.

Cutting a Rope with Cutters

Optimal Force:
To produce the greatest cutting force, the rope should be positioned close to the
pivot (Q), and the hands should be positioned as far from the pivot as possible (S ).
Example Question: Where should the rope be positioned and at which labeled points
should the hands be positioned to produce the greatest cutting force?
Solution: Rope at Q, hands at S .

Force to Keep a Beam Horizontal

Example Question: A wooden beam of weight 20 N has its center of mass labeled M .
The beam is kept horizontal by an upward force F . What is the magnitude of F ?
Solution: Use the principle of moments to calculate the force F needed to balance the
beam.

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Lifting a Bridge
Example Question: What is the lifting force as the bridge starts to move upwards?
Solution: Calculate the force required by balancing the moments about the pivot.

Non-Uniform Beam in Equilibrium

Example Question: A non-uniform beam of weight 120 N is pivoted at one end and kept
in equilibrium by force F . What is the value of force F ?
Solution: Apply the principle of moments to calculate the force F needed for equilibrium.

Here is an image of a beam being held in equilibrium by a force:

Clockwise Rotation of Beams

Example Question: Which beams rotate clockwise when two forces act on each beam?
Solution: Calculate the net moment on each beam to determine the direction of rotation.

Equilibrium of a Heavy Beam

Equilibrium Condition:
For a heavy beam in equilibrium, the resultant force on the beam is zero, and the
resultant turning effect on the beam is zero.
Example Question: A heavy beam rests on two supports. Which statement is correct if
the beam is in equilibrium?
Solution: The resultant force on the beam is zero, and the resultant turning effect on the
beam is zero.

Uniform Rod in Equilibrium

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Equilibrium Check:
A uniform rod is in equilibrium when the sum of the forces and the sum of the
moments are both zero.
Example Question: Which diagram shows the rod in equilibrium when forces are applied
in different ways?
Solution: The diagram where the forces and moments are balanced.

Here is an example of a diagram showing a rod in equilibrium:

Turning Effect on a Wooden Bar 🪵

Turning Effect:
The turning effect (torque) is greatest when the forces are applied at the maximum
distance from the pivot and perpendicular to the bar.
Example Question: In which diagram is the turning effect greatest when two equal
forces F are applied to a wooden bar pivoted at its center?
Solution: The diagram where the forces are applied farthest from the pivot and
perpendicular to the bar.

Object in Equilibrium
Equilibrium Definition:

An object is in equilibrium when the net force and the net torque acting on it
are both zero.

Example Question: Which object is in equilibrium when acted upon by only the two
forces shown?

Solution: The object where the two forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in
direction.

Lifting a Heavy Weight with a Lever

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Lever Advantage:
To lift a heavy weight with a smaller force using a lever, move the force to the right
(farther from the pivot) or move the pivot to the left (closer to the heavy weight).
Example Question: Which change would enable a heavy weight to be lifted with a
smaller force?
Solution: Move the force to the right.

Effect of Forces on a Handle

Net Effect:
The handle will turn clockwise (to the right) if the net moment of the forces causes
a clockwise rotation.
Example Question: What is the effect of the forces on the handle?
Solution: The handle will turn clockwise (to the right).

See-Saw Equilibrium
Equilibrium Conditions:
For a see-saw to be balanced, the total downward force must equal the total
upward force, and the resultant moment must be zero.
Example Question: Which statement must be true for a balanced see-saw?
Solution: The resultant force and resultant moment are both zero.

Centre of Mass

Scalar vs. Vector Quantities

Scalar Quantities:
Have only magnitude.
Examples: distance, speed, time, mass, energy, temperature.
Vector Quantities:
Have both magnitude and direction.
Examples: velocity, force, weight, acceleration, momentum.

Here's a table summarizing the difference between Scalar and Vector Quantities

Feature Scalar Quantities Vector Quantities

Definition Magnitude only Magnitude and direction

Examples Distance, speed, time, mass, etc. Velocity, force, weight, momentum

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Centre of Mass Shift

Centre of Mass Movement:
When part of an object is removed, the center of mass shifts away from the
removed part.
Example Question: What happens to the center of mass when the top of a triangular
lamina is cut off?
Solution: The center of mass moves towards the bottom of the page.

Lamp Stability
Factors Affecting Stability:
A wider base and a lower center of gravity increase stability.
Example Question: Which changes would definitely make the lamp more stable?
Solution: A wider base and lower center of gravity.

Table Lamp Stability

Stability Criterion:
The lower the center of mass, the more stable the object.
Example Question: Which lamp is the most stable based on the position of its center of
mass?
Solution: The lamp with the lowest center of mass.

Cone Stability
Stability and Centre of Mass:
The lower the center of mass, the more stable the cone.
Example Question: Which cone is the most stable based on the marked center of mass
M?

Solution: The cone with the lowest center of mass.

Metal Sheet and Centre of Mass

Hanging Freely:
When a metal sheet hangs freely from a point, the center of mass lies directly
below the point of suspension.
Example Question: Which point is at the center of mass of the metal sheet?
Solution: The point along the vertical line from the nail.

Here is an example of a metal sheet hanging from a point:

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Lamina Equilibrium
Equilibrium Condition:
A lamina is in equilibrium when its center of mass is vertically aligned with the
point of support.
Example Question: Which diagram shows the lamina in equilibrium?
Solution: The diagram where the center of mass X is directly above the point P .

Object Stability
Stability and Centre of Mass:
The object with the widest base and lowest center of mass is the most stable.
Example Question: Which object is the most stable?
Solution: The object with the widest base and lowest center of mass.

Double-Decker Bus Stability

Stability Issue:
Passengers are not allowed to stand on the upper deck of double-decker buses
because it would cause the bus to become less stable.
Example Question: Why are passengers not allowed to stand on the upper deck?
Solution: They would cause the bus to become less stable.

Momentum

Change in Velocity

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Formula:

Change in velocity (Δv) can be calculated using the formula derived from
Newton's second law:
Δv
F = m × a = m ×
t

Therefore, Δv = F ×t

Example Question: A resultant force of 2.0 N acts on an object of mass 3.0 kg for 6.0 s.
What is the change in velocity of the object?

Solution: Δv = 2.0N ×6.0s

3.0kg
= 4.0m/s

Impulse Calculation
Impulse Definition:

The impulse experienced by an object is equal to the change in its

momentum.

Impulse Formula:

I mpulse = Change in M omentum = m(v − u)

Where:

m is the mass of the object

v is the final velocity

u is the initial velocity

Example Question: A ball of mass 0.25 kg hits a wall at a speed of 16 m/s and rebounds
at 12 m/s. What is the impulse experienced by the ball?

Solution: I mpulse = 0.25kg × (−12m/s − 16m/s) = −7.0N s (The negative sign

indicates the change in direction.)

Force Acting on an Object

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Formula:
m(v−u)
F =
t

Where:

F is the force
m is the mass
v is the final velocity

u is the initial velocity

t is the time

Example Question: An object of mass 1.2 kg moving at 2.0 m/s is acted on by a force of
4.0 N, increasing its velocity to 5.0 m/s. For what period of time does the force act on the
object?

Solution: 4.0N
1.2kg×(5.0m/s−2.0m/s)
= ⟹ t = 0.90s
t

Factors Affecting Momentum Change

Change in Momentum:

The change in momentum is given by Δp = F × t

Increasing Momentum Change:

Doubling the force for the same time increases the change in momentum.

Example Question: Which action increases the change in momentum?

Solution: Doubling the force for the same time.

Collision of Trolleys
Conservation of Momentum:

In a closed system, the total momentum before a collision equals the total
momentum after the collision.

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Example Question: A trolley of mass 4.0 kg collides with a trolley of mass 2.0 kg. After
the collision, what is the velocity V of the 2.0 kg trolley?

Solution: 4.0kg × 4.0m/s + 2.0kg × 2.0m/s = 4.0kg × 3.0m/s + 2.0kg × V V = 5.0m/s

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Force Applied to a Hose

Force Calculation:

The force applied to the hose can be calculated using the change in
momentum of the water:
Δp m(v−u)
F = =
t t

Example Question: 15 kg of water flows through a hose each second, changing speed
from 1 m/s to 6 m/s. Which force is applied to the hose by the water?

Solution: F = 15kg × (6m/s − 1m/s) = 75N

Relationship Between Force, Mass, Time, and Velocity

The correct equation relating force (F ), mass (m), time (t), initial velocity (u), and final
velocity (v) is:

F × t = m(v − u)

This equation represents the impulse-momentum theorem.

Impulse on an Object
Definition of Impulse:

Impulse is the change in momentum of the object.

Correct Statement:

Impulse is the change in momentum of the object.

Collision of Balls
Example Question: A ball of mass 0.16 kg strikes a stationary ball of mass 0.10 kg. After
the collision, what is the speed of the first ball?
Solution: Use the conservation of momentum to find the speed of the first ball after the
collision.

Situations Involving Momentum Change

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Situations:
An object has a resultant force acting on it.
A moving object experiences an impulse.
An object is decelerating.
Answer: The momentum of the object is changing in all three situations.

Correct Equation for Impulse

The correct equation for impulse is:

I mpulse = F × t = m(v − u)

Cannonball Fired from a Cannon

Kinetic Energy and Momentum:
The total kinetic energy changes (increases)
The total momentum remains the same (zero)
Example Question: What happens to the total kinetic energy and the total momentum of
the cannon and cannonball?
Solution: The total kinetic energy changes, and the total momentum remains the same.

Resultant Force on a Car

Final Velocity Calculation:
Use the impulse-momentum theorem to find the final velocity.
Example Question: What is the final velocity of the car?
Solution: v = 5m/s

Rocket Launch
Rocket Motion:
When a rocket is launched upwards and hot gases are ejected downwards, the
total momentum of the hot gases is equal to the momentum of the rocket. The
rocket experiences an upward force.
Incorrect Statement: The rocket experiences a downward force.

Relationship Between Impulse and Change in Momentum

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Relationship:

Impulse = change in momentum

This is the impulse-momentum theorem.

Cricket Ball Hit by a Bat

Contact Time Calculation:
Use the impulse-momentum theorem to find the contact time.
Example Question: For how long was the ball in contact with the bat?
Solution: t = 0.0044s

Ball Rebounding from a Wall

Impulse Calculation:
Impulse = change in momentum = m(v − u).
Example Question: What is the impulse on the wall?
Solution: I mpulse = 8.0N s.

Collision of Objects
Correct Equation:
Impulse of force acting on X = impulse of force acting on Y .
This reflects Newton's third law of motion (action-reaction).

Gas Molecule Striking a Wall

Changes:
Kinetic energy stays the same.
Momentum changes.
Example Question: What happens to the kinetic energy and momentum of the
molecule?
Solution: Kinetic energy stays the same; momentum changes.

Football Kick

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Average Force Calculation:

Use the impulse-momentum theorem.
Example Question: What is the average force exerted on the ball by the footballer's
foot?
Solution: F = 200N

Object with Identical Momentum

Momentum Matching:
Identify the object with the same momentum.
Example Question: Which other object has a momentum that is identical to the
momentum of this object?
Solution: An object with m = 0.40kg and v = 0.10m/s.

Ball Falling and Rebounding

Change in Momentum:
The change in momentum of the ball is m(v + v ).
1 2

The direction changes, so you add the magnitudes.

Object Moving in a Straight Line

Momentum:

Momentum = mass × velocity

p = m × v

Example Question: What is the momentum of the object?

Solution: p = 12kg ⋅ m/s

Momentum and Impulse

Momentum
Definition: Momentum (p) is a measure of the mass in motion.

p = mv

where m is mass and v is velocity.

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Type: Momentum is a vector quantity, meaning it has both magnitude and direction.

Force and Momentum

Relationship: A constant force acting on a body causes the momentum of the body to
increase.
change in momentum
f orce =
time taken

Collisions
Scenario: Objects stick together after a collision.
Example: An object of mass 3.0 kg traveling at 6.0 m/s collides with an object of mass
2.0 kg traveling in the opposite direction at 2.0 m/s. The objects stick together during the
collision.
Key Point: The direction of the combined mass after the collision can be determined
based on the initial momentums.

Momentum Transfer
Scenario: A moving ball collides head-on with a wall and rebounds with the same speed
in the opposite direction.
Key Point: The average force exerted on the wall by the ball during the collision can be
calculated using the change in momentum and the time of collision.

Impulse
Definition: Impulse is the change in momentum of an object.
Expression: Momentum of an object is given by:

mass × velocity

Example: An object of mass 50 kg accelerates from a velocity of 2.0 m/s to a velocity of

10 m/s in the same direction. The impulse provided to cause this acceleration can be
calculated.

Center of Mass
The image shows a truck with a platform, and a man standing on the platform. The
center of mass of the whole system (truck, platform, and man) will determine the
stability of the truck.

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Energy

Energy Transfer
Internal Energy: Internal heating leads to the transfer of chemical energy into kinetic and
sound energy.
Chemical Energy Transfer: Chemical energy can be transferred through:
Electrical work done
Mechanical work done
Electromagnetic waves
Sound waves

Gravitational Potential Energy

Change in Gravitational Potential Energy: The change in gravitational potential energy (
ΔEp) of an object can be found using the equation:

ΔEp = Y ×Z×Δh

Where:
Y is mass
Z is gravitational field strength
Δh is the change in height

Energy Transformation
Falling Object: When an object falls towards the Earth's surface:
Gravitational potential energy decreases
Kinetic energy increases

Forms of Energy Storage

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Stretched Spring: Energy is stored as elastic potential energy.

Moving Car Slowing Down: Kinetic energy is mostly converted into thermal energy.

Pendulum: The pendulum swings from P to Q to R, and back to P.

Pendulum

As the pendulum oscillates, gravitational potential energy, kinetic energy, and

elastic energy alternately increase and decrease.

Energy Transfer Processes

Toy Car: As a toy car slows down on a horizontal surface after being released, the main
energy transfer is from kinetic to thermal.
Nuclear Fission: Electrical energy obtained from nuclear fission involves energy transfer
in the order:

Nuclear fuel → Reactor and boiler → Generator → Turbines

Stream Flowing from a Lake: The change in energy stores is described as:

Gravitational potential energy → Kinetic energy → Internal energy

Energy Production Methods

Hydroelectric Power Station: Does not emit carbon dioxide and is renewable.
Coal-Fired Power Station: Emits carbon dioxide and is not renewable.
Wind Turbine: Does not emit carbon dioxide and is renewable.
Nuclear Power Station: Does not emit carbon dioxide and is not renewable.
Method Energy Source Emits Carbon Dioxide Is Renewable

Hydroelectric Power Station No Yes

Coal-Fired Power Station Yes No
Wind Turbine No Yes
Nuclear Power Station No No

Work Done
Formula: The work done (W ) by a force (F ) over a distance (d) is given by:

W = Fd

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Efficiency
Meaning: A very efficient machine wastes very little energy.
Kinetic Energy: An object falling from a height of 25 m will have a speed upon hitting
the ground, which can be calculated using energy principles.

Energy Conversion Device

Car Engine: Converts chemical energy into kinetic energy.

Pendulum Speed
Calculation: To find the speed of a pendulum bob as it passes through a certain point.

Gravitational Potential Energy

The image shows a motor lifting a load through a pulley system.

Formula: The change in gravitational potential energy depends upon:

mass (m) , change in height (\Delta h), and gravitational field strength (g)

ΔU = m ⋅ g ⋅ Δh

Energy Dissipation
Definition: As energy is transferred into different forms, it eventually becomes
dissipated. This means the energy spreads out among the objects and their surroundings.

Aircraft Kinetic Energy

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Calculation: The kinetic energy of an aircraft with a mass of 300,000 kg flying at an

altitude of 2000 m with a speed of 100 m/s can be calculated.

Energy Changes
Ball Rolling Downhill: The energy changes that occur include:

Gravitational potential energy → Kinetic energy → Internal energy

Motor Lifting a Load

Efficiency Consideration: The time it takes for a motor to lift a load through a certain
distance depends on its power and efficiency.

Kinetic Energy Formula

The kinetic energy of an object of mass m moving with speed v is given by:
1 2
KE = mv
2

Efficiency Expression
Formula: The efficiency of a process is given by:
usef ul energy output
× 100
total energy input

Energy Sources
Sun: Understanding which energy sources are derived from the Sun (e.g., water held
behind a dam).

Energy Transfer in a Hydroelectric System

Sequence: The main energy changes taking place are:

Gravitational energy → Kinetic energy → Electrical energy

Skiing Down a Slope

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The loss of gravitational potential energy is converted into kinetic energy, thermal
energy, and sound energy.

Energy and Motion

The image illustrates a box of mass m slides down a slope of length l against a frictional
force F.

Energy Resources

Kinetic Energy
Calculation: To calculate the speed of an object given its mass and kinetic energy.

Energy Transfer Systems

Braking System: Transfers energy from a kinetic energy store to an internal energy store.
Motor: Converts energy from a chemical energy store (battery) to a kinetic energy store.
System Energy Transfer Enables

Braking System Kinetic energy store → Internal energy store Mechanical work
Motor Chemical energy store (battery) → Kinetic energy store Electrical work

Fusion Reactors
Challenges: Designing a fusion reactor involves high temperatures and obtaining a high
density of hydrogen nuclei.
Reason: The nuclei are positively charged and repel each other.

Work Done on a Mass

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Mechanical work done on a mass lifted from rest on the ground to a height Y equals the
sum of the increase in gravitational energy (P ) and the kinetic energy of the mass at Y (Q
).

M echanical W ork Done = P + Q

Energy Resources
Sun as the Only Source: Tidal energy has the Sun as its only source of energy.

Efficiency Calculation
The efficiency of a device can be calculated using the formula:
E−W
× 100
E

where \$E\$ is the energy input and \$W\$ is the amount of energy wasted.

Energy, Work, Power, and Pressure

1.14: Work
Work is done when a force causes displacement.

Equation: W = F × d, where W is work, F is the force, and d is the distance moved

in the direction of the force.

Conditions that increase the quantity of work done by a force:

Increasing the magnitude of the force

Increasing the distance moved by the force.

If there is no movement, there is no work done and no energy transferred.

Example: A heavy load hanging from a strong bar involves no work being done.

When calculating the work done in lifting an object, you must consider:

The gravitational potential energy gained by the object

The kinetic energy gained by the object.

1.15: Power and Efficiency

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Power is the rate at which energy is transferred or work is done.

Calculated using: P = , where P is power, W is work done (or energy

W

transferred), and t is time.

Efficiency is the ratio of useful energy output to the total energy input.

Equation: Ef f iciency =
U sef ul Output Energy
× 100
T otal I nput Energy

To calculate power, you need to know the size of the force and the time for which the
force acts on the object.

When the power of a machine is increased:

The work done in a given time increases.

The time taken to do a given quantity of work decreases.

Information not needed to calculate the rate at which a student is doing work against
gravity when running up a flight of stairs:

The length of the flight of stairs

In the context of energy resources:

Nuclear fusion is the main process by which energy is released in the Sun.
A solar cell is used to generate electricity without needing any moving parts.
To transfer energy from uranium to electrical energy in a nuclear power station, the
correct order of the stages is: reactor → turbine → boiler → generator.

Here is an image of a solar panel in use:

As you can see, the solar panel produces 0.80 W of electrical power. To find the power input
of the sunlight onto the solar panel, you must use the following equations:
Power Output 0.80
Ef f iciency = × 100 0.20 =
Power Input Power Input

0.80
Power Input = = 4.0 W
0.20

1.16: Pressure
Pressure is force per unit area.

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F orce
P ressure =
Area

The pressure at a depth in a liquid depends on:

The depth (h)

The density of the liquid (ρ)

The gravitational field strength (g)

The equation to calculate this is: p = hρg

Factors that affect pressure at a point X in a reservoir:

The depth of the water at point X.

As the volume of gas in a cylinder decreases and temperature is constant, the pressure of
the gas increases.

This is illustrated in the following image:

Pressure & Depth

Pressure in fluids, like water, increases with depth. This is because the weight of the fluid
above exerts a force on the area below.

Factors Affecting Pressure

The pressure at a certain depth in a liquid depends on:

Depth (h)
Density of the liquid (ρ)
Gravitational Field Strength (g)

The relationship is given by the formula:

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P = hρg

Keep in mind that the pressure does not depend on the Earth's magnetic field or the surface
area of the liquid.

Atmospheric Pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the force exerted by the weight of air above a given point. A
barometer is used to measure atmospheric pressure, indicated by the height of a mercury
column.

Pressure and Force

Pressure is defined as force per unit area:

P ressure = F orce/Area or P = F /A.

Examples of Pressure in Action

Submarines: Submarines need to withstand immense pressure at great depths.
Divers: Divers experience increased pressure as they descend deeper into water.
Everyday Objects: The pressure exerted by objects on a surface depends on their weight
and the contact area.

Conceptual Questions on Pressure

1. Container Shapes: The pressure at the base of containers filled with the same liquid to
the same height depends on the liquid's density and depth, not the shape of the
container.
2. Book on a Table: A book exerts pressure on a table due to its weight distributed over the
contact area.
3. Syringe Compression: Compressing air in a syringe increases pressure because the
molecules hit the walls more frequently.
4. Floating Stone: When a stone is suspended in liquid, pressure increases as you lower
the stone deeper into the liquid or use a liquid with higher density.

Scenarios of Pressure

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Athlete on the Ground: An athlete exerts the least pressure when the contact area with
the ground is maximized, such as lying flat on their back.
Washbasin Plug: The force on a washbasin plug due to water is determined by the
depth of the water and the area of the plug.
Toy Bricks: The pressure a tower of bricks exerts on a table is directly proportional to its
weight.

Pressure and Area Relationship

For a constant force, pressure and area are inversely proportional. This means that a larger
area results in smaller pressure, and vice versa.

If the area is increased then the pressure exerted is decreased.

Key Takeaways
Pressure in a liquid increases with depth and density.
Atmospheric pressure is measured using a barometer.
Pressure equals force divided by area.
Understanding pressure is crucial in various real-world scenarios, from underwater
exploration to everyday activities.

Multiple Choice Questions

Below are examples of multiple choice questions related to Pressure.

Question Answer

A container is filled with liquid to a certain depth h. Which factor does the pressure
D
NOT depend on?
Identical toy bricks are placed one on top of another to make a tower on a table.
Which graph shows the relationship between the pressure P that the tower exerts A
on the table and weight?
What does a barometer measure? B
Which action will increase the pressure that the man exerts on the ground? D
A brick with flat, rectangular sides rests on a table. The brick is now turned so that it
rests on the table on its smallest face. How has this affected the force and the C
pressure?

Molecular Model of Matter

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The molecular model of matter describes the behavior of matter based on the motion and
arrangement of its constituent molecules. Here are a few concepts related to this model.

Brownian Motion: The random movement of microscopic particles in a fluid, caused by

the bombardment of surrounding molecules.

Brownian motion, named after Robert Brown, who observed this

phenomenon in 1827, is the random motion of particles suspended in a fluid
(a liquid or a gas) resulting from their collision with the fast-moving atoms or
molecules in the fluid.

Gas Pressure: Gas particles exert pressure on the walls of a container due to collisions.
The pressure increases with the frequency and force of these collisions.

Pressure and Kinetic Energy

Increasing the temperature of a gas increases the average kinetic energy of its molecules.
With constant volume, increased kinetic energy leads to more frequent and forceful
collisions, thus increasing pressure.
The relationship between pressure, volume, and temperature is described by the ideal
gas law:

P V = nRT , where:

P is the pressure of the gas

V is the volume of the gas
n is the number of moles of gas
R is the ideal gas constant
T is the temperature of the gas

States of Matter
Solids: Fixed shape and volume; strong intermolecular forces.
Liquids: Fixed volume but takes the shape of its container; moderate intermolecular
forces.
Gases: No fixed shape or volume; weak intermolecular forces.

Gas Particle Behavior

Energy and Motion of Gas Particles

When the temperature of air in a sealed, rigid container decreases, the average speed
and energy of the air particles decrease.

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Brownian Motion
Brownian motion is the random movement of particles (like smoke or pollen) suspended
in a fluid (liquid or gas). This is observed through a microscope with a bright light source.
This motion is caused by collisions between the larger observed particles and the much
smaller, fast-moving molecules of the fluid.
Smoke particles suspended in air move with short, random movements because air
particles move at high speeds and in random directions.

Explaining Compressibility
Gases are much easier to compress than solids like iron because the molecules in a gas
are much further apart than molecules in a solid.

Molecular Behavior and Temperature

When the temperature of a gas increases, the gas molecules move more quickly.
In a gas storage tank with a fixed volume, as the temperature of the gas increases, the
gas molecules hit the sides of the tank harder.

Pressure Exertion by Gas Molecules

Gas molecules exert pressure when they collide with the walls of a container.
The pressure is due to the change in momentum of the molecules as they rebound off
the wall, which exerts a force over an area. P ressure = F orce

Area

Evaporation Explained

Understanding Evaporation
Evaporation is the process where a liquid changes into a gas.

Evaporation causes the remaining liquid to cool, as the more energetic particles escape
from the surface.

Factors Affecting Evaporation Rate

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Factor Effect on Evaporation Rate

Increasing Surface Area Increases

Increasing Temperature Increases
Wind/Draught Increases

How Evaporation Cools

When a liquid evaporates, the molecules with the most energy leave the liquid, resulting
in a decrease in the average energy and temperature of the remaining liquid.
When air is blown across a liquid, the liquid cools because the molecules with the most
energy leave the liquid.

Boiling vs. Evaporation

Feature Boiling Evaporation

Bubble Formation Bubbles seen No bubbles seen

Location Occurs throughout the water Occurs at the surface only
Temperature Occurs at a definite temperature Occurs at all temperatures

Practical Applications of Evaporation

A swimmer feels cold after leaving warm water on a windy day because the water on
their skin evaporates quickly, cooling their skin.
Wrapping ice cream in newspaper soaked in water prevents melting because the water
evaporates, and the more energetic molecules that escape reduce the temperature of the
remaining water molecules.

Absolute Temperature and Pressure Changes

Absolute Zero
The lowest possible temperature, known as absolute zero, is -273°C. At this
temperature, particles have the least kinetic energy.

Ideal Conditions for Drying

Wet clothes dry most quickly under conditions of high wind speed and high
temperature.

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Evaporation Effects
Evaporation involves a change of state from liquid to gas and occurs at the surface only.
A body in contact with an evaporating liquid loses thermal energy.
Bubbling air through a liquid increases the rate of evaporation by increasing the surface
area of the liquid and removing evaporated molecules at a greater rate.

Pressure and Volume Relationship

When a gas in a sealed container is compressed at a constant temperature, the pressure
of the gas increases.
This happens because, as the volume decreases, air molecules strike the container more
frequently.

Gas Pressure Explanation

When a closed container of gas is heated, the pressure increases because the changes in
the momentum of the gas molecules striking the walls of the container increase.##
Gases Under Pressure

Pressure, Volume, and Temperature Relationships

When dealing with gases, understanding the relationship between pressure (p), volume (V ),
and temperature is crucial. Let's explore these relationships:

Boyle's Law: If the temperature and mass of a gas are kept constant, the pressure and
volume are inversely related. pV = constant
When a gas is cooled in a cylinder of constant volume, the pressure of the gas decreases,
and the kinetic energy of the gas molecules decreases.
Increasing the temperature of a gas in a constant volume container increases the
pressure. This is because the average speed of the air molecules in the container is
greater.

Gas Compression
When a gas is compressed in a sealed cylinder by moving a piston:

Density increases because the same mass occupies a smaller volume.

Pressure increases because the molecules collide more frequently with the walls.

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Molecular Behavior
Changes in volume affect how gas molecules behave:

Increasing the volume of a gas in a sealed syringe at constant temperature results in gas
molecules hitting the syringe walls less often.
Increasing the temperature of a gas in a sealed jar leads to gas molecules colliding with
the inside of the jar more often.

Everyday Examples
A car tire with constant volume experiences increased pressure when the temperature
increases.
When you trap air at the outlet of a bicycle pump and push the handle, the pressure
increases, and the volume of the trapped air decreases.

Melting and Boiling

Absolute Zero
Absolute zero is the lowest possible temperature.

Changes of State
Here's what happens to particles during condensation:

Condensation: Particles are close to each other and slide over each other.

Gas Behavior with Temperature Increase

When the temperature of a gas in a rigid container increases:

The gas molecules have greater kinetic energy.

The gas molecules hit the walls of the container harder and more frequently.
The average distance between the molecules remains constant, as they cannot move
further apart in a rigid container.

Pressure Changes in Stages

Let's look at how pressure changes when the condition of a gas changes in two stages:

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Stage 1 (Constant Volume) Stage 2 (Increased Volume)

Temperature increases Temperature remains constant

Pressure compared to original pressure: Pressure compared to stage 1 pressure:
Increases Decreases

Connecting Cylinders
If you have two cylinders connected by a narrow tube, one with gas at a certain pressure and
the other with a vacuum, and you open a tap to allow the gas to fill both cylinders, the new
pressure of the gas can be found using P V = P V . If you have 80 cm³ of gas at a pressure of
1 1 2 2

2.0 x 10⁵ Pa, and you connect it to a 20 cm³ vacuum, the new pressure is:
5 3
P1V1 (2.0×10 Pa)(80 cm ) 5
P2 = = 3 3
= 1.6 × 10 Pa
V2 80 cm +20 cm

Gas Volume and Temperature

The above image displays gas in a cylinder with a

piston, demonstrating the effects of temperature changes on the gas's pressure and volume.
As the temperature increases, the piston rises, indicating gas expansion. With reference to the
image, if you have the same mass of a gas trapped in four identical cylinders by a piston that
can move, the pressure of the gas, from lowest to highest, corresponds with the diagram
showing the highest temperature, which can be explained by the ideal gas law.

Changes of State on a Graph

When a block of ice is heated at a constant rate, the temperature changes indicate different
states. On a temperature vs. time graph:

Point 1 represents when the ice has completely changed to water.

Point 3 represents when all the water has completely changed to steam.

Specific Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice

Specific latent heat of fusion of ice is the energy needed to change unit mass of ice
into water at constant temperature.

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Ice Melting
As ice at 0°C starts to melt:

Energy is absorbed.
The temperature remains constant.

Temperature of Melting Ice and Boiling Water

In a laboratory at 20°C:

Melting ice remains at a constant temperature.

Boiling water remains at a constant temperature.

Liquid vs. Gas

Comparing a liquid below its boiling point to a gas above its boiling point:

Characteristic Liquid Gas

Average distance between particles Smaller Greater

Average speed of particles Smaller Greater

Phase Changes on a Temperature vs. Time Graph

In a temperature vs. time graph, the portion PQ could represent:

Gas condensing
Liquid solidifying

Boiling vs. Evaporation

Process Boiling Evaporation

Location Throughout the liquid Only on the liquid surface

Temperature Only at the constant boiling temperature At all temperatures

Condensation and Solidification

When steam condenses to liquid water or liquid water solidifies to ice:

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The temperature of steam stays the same while condensing.

The temperature of water stays the same while solidifying.

Energy Input for Changes of State

For changes of state:

Changes needing energy input: melting (S to Q) and boiling (P to R)

Determining Melting Point

If you measure the temperature of a hot liquid every half minute as it cools, the melting point is
indicated when the temperature remains constant for a period.

Boiling on a Graph
On a temperature vs. time graph, the substance is boiling during the part of the graph where
the temperature remains constant despite continued heating.

Comparing Liquids
When equal masses of two different liquids are heated using the same heater, and the
temperature of each liquid changes with time:

The liquid that reaches its boiling point sooner starts to boil sooner.

Identifying a Liquid at 0°C

Given melting and boiling points, a substance is liquid at 0°C if its melting point is below 0°C
and its boiling point is above 0°C.

Cooling Wax Experiment

In an experiment to find the melting point of wax:

At point X, the temperature drops more slowly than at Z.

At point Y, all the wax is solid, and thermal energy is being given out by the wax.

Mass During Phase Changes

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During melting and solidification, the mass of the metal remains constant.

Boiling Point on a Graph

The boiling point is represented by the portion of the graph where the temperature remains
constant as heat is applied.

Thermal Properties and Temperature

Specific Heat Capacity

Specific heat capacity is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a
unit mass of a substance by 1°C.

If solid P has a greater specific heat capacity than solid Q, it means:

More energy is needed to raise the temperature by 1°C of unit mass of solid P than unit
mass of solid Q.

Thermal Expansion
When fitting a cable between two electricity pylons, engineers use a cable longer than the
distance between the pylons to allow for contraction of the cable in cold weather.

Thermal Expansion of Solids, Liquids, and Gases 창

Thermal Expansion Magnitudes

State of Relative
Explanation
Matter Expansion

Molecules in gas are in random motion; weaker attractive

Gases Most Expansion
forces between molecules
Liquids Intermediate
Solids Least Expansion

Effect of Temperature Increase on Liquids

When the temperature of a liquid increases:

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The volume of the liquid increases.

The density of the liquid decreases.

Fitting Metal Components

To fit an iron cylinder into an aluminum ring:

Cool the iron cylinder.

Heat the aluminum ring.

Changes in a Metal Plate

When a metal plate with a hole is cooled:

The length of the plate decreases.

The diameter of the hole decreases.

Railway Tracks
Small gaps are left between metal rails of a railway track to allow for expansion of the rails on
a hot day.

Thermometers
The liquid level in a thermometer rises when placed in hot water because the liquid expands.

Bimetallic Strips
Bimetallic strip before and after heating

A bimetallic strip is made of two different metals fixed together. When heated, it bends
because one metal expands more than the other. If metal Q is on the inside (less curved) after
heating, that means metal P expands more than metal Q on heating.

Concrete Slabs on Bridges

Gaps are left between concrete slabs when building a bridge because concrete expands on
warm days.

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Metal Lid on a Glass Jar

A metal lid on a glass jar is easier to unscrew after placing it in a warm oven because of
thermal expansion.

Thermal Expansion Order

The relative order of thermal expansion of solids, liquids, and gases, from most to least, is:

Gases
Liquids
Solids

Quantities Affected by Temperature Increase

When there is an increase in temperature:

Density of a steel block changes.

Length of an iron rod changes.
Diameter of the hole in a metal nut changes.
The mass of a metal coin does not change.

Mercury in a Glass Flask

When a glass flask sealed with a small volume of mercury is gently warmed, the mercury rises
up the tube mainly due to the expansion of the air in the flask.

Bimetallic Strip Behavior

A bimetallic strip made of iron and brass bends when heated because the brass expands more
than the iron. When the strip is cooled, it becomes straight again because the brass contracts
more than the iron.

Solidification of Mercury
At -39°C, liquid mercury solidifies. During this process:

Energy is released.
The bonds between the mercury atoms become stronger.

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Heating a Circular Metal Disc

When a circular metal disc is heated:

Its density decreases.

Sealed Bottle of Air

In a sealed bottle of air heated by the Sun:

The average speed of air molecules increases.

The average distance between air molecules stays the same.

Telephone Wire
A telephone engineer connects a wire loosely between two poles in cold weather. If the
weather becomes very hot, the wire will sag and touch cars on the road because it expands.

Gas Molecules in a Cooling Flask

As a closed flask of gas cools:

The molecules of the gas move more slowly.

Fitting an Iron Circle on a Wooden Wheel

To make it easier to fit an iron circle over a wooden wheel:

Heating the wooden wheel and cooling the iron circle is most effective.

Fitting a Steel Washer on a Steel Rod

To fit a steel washer onto a steel rod that is just too big:

Heat the washer and then place it over the rod.

Specific Heat Capacity

Calculating Energy for Temperature Increase

To calculate the energy needed to increase the temperature of a substance:

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Q = mcΔT

Where:

Q = energy needed
m = mass
c = specific heat capacity

ΔT = change in temperature

For example, to increase the temperature of a 200 g (0.2 kg) aluminum block from 20°C to
110°C, with a specific heat capacity of 900 J/(kg·°C):

Q = (0.2 kg)(900 J/(kg ⋅ °C))(110°C − 20°C) = 16, 200 J

Determining Thermal Capacity

To determine the thermal capacity of an object, you could omit the balance.

Calculating Final Temperature

Given an initial temperature, energy absorbed, and specific heat capacity, the final temperature
can be calculated using:
Q
ΔT = Tf inal = Tinitial + ΔT
mc

For example, for a 2.0 kg aluminum block with an initial temperature of 20°C that absorbs
7300 J of thermal energy: ΔT = 7300 J
≈ 4.0°C T
(2.0 kg)(913 J/(kg⋅°C))
= 20°C + 4.0°C = 24°C
f inal

Internal Energy and Temperature

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The above image portrays a graph illustrating the relationship

between internal energy and temperature. The graph features a grid pattern with labeled axes,
where the x-axis represents temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) and the y-axis represents
internal energy in kilojoules (kJ). This positive correlation between temperature and internal
energy in the graph demonstrates how the internal energy increases when the temperature
increases, which enhances our understanding of this thermodynamic property. When you
examine the internal energy of 1.0 kg of metal changes with temperature, the increase in
internal energy for a smaller mass can be derived using ratios. If the temperature rises from
-40°C to 50°C (a 90°C increase) and the internal energy increases by 1200 kJ, the increase for
0.25 kg is:

(1200 J) × (0.25) = 300 J

Calculating Specific Heat Capacity

Given the energy absorbed, mass, and change in temperature, the specific heat capacity can be
found:
Q
c =
mΔT

If a 2.0 kg metal block absorbs 2000 J and the temperature rises from 10°C to 20°C:
2000 J
c = = 100 J/(kg ⋅ °C)
(2.0 kg)(20°C−10°C)

Blocks of Steel
For blocks of steel of different sizes, the same quantity of thermal energy will cause the
greatest temperature rise in the smallest block.

Experiment with Water and Ice

In an experiment where 100 g of water at 25°C is mixed with 50 g of ice at 0°C, and 18 g of ice
remains unmelted after the water cools to 0°C, the specific latent heat of fusion of ice can be
calculated.

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Heat lost by water: Q water = mcΔT = (100 g)(4.2 J/g ⋅ °C)(25°C − 0°C) = 10500 J

Heat used to melt ice: Q = Q ice water = 10500 J Mass of ice melted: m melted = 50 g − 18 g = 32 g

Specific latent heat of fusion: L

Qice 10500 J
f
= = ≈ 330 J/g
mmelted 32 g

Comparing Aluminium and Copper

A 1 kg block of aluminum requires more thermal energy to raise its temperature by 1°C than a
1 kg block of copper because aluminum has a higher specific heat capacity than copper.

Heating Iron Blocks

When an iron block of mass M gains 10 kJ of internal energy and its temperature rises by
20°C, a second iron block of mass 2M gains 5.0 kJ of internal energy. The temperature rise of
the second block is:

Q = mcΔT For the first block: 10 kJ = M c(20°C) For the second block: 5 kJ = (2M )cΔT

Divide the second equation by the first: 10

5
=
2M ΔT

M (20)
1

2
=
2ΔT

20
ΔT =
20

4
= 5°C

Calculating Temperature Increase

An object of mass 800 g (0.8 kg) with a specific heat capacity of 250 J/(kg·°C) absorbs 5300 J
of energy. The increase in temperature is:
Q 5300 J
ΔT = = = 26.5°C
mc (0.8 kg)(250 J/(kg⋅°C))

This material provides a comprehensive understanding of the relationship between pressure,

volume, temperature, and heat.

Thermal Energy Transfer Problems and Solutions

Specific Heat Capacity Calculations

Here are some examples of how to calculate temperature changes given specific heat capacity
and energy transfer:

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1. Waterfall Example: Gravitational potential energy converts to thermal energy. To find

the temperature difference ΔT , use the formula:

m ⋅ g ⋅ h = m ⋅ c ⋅ ΔT

Where c = 4200, J/(kg °C) and h = 21, m. Solving for ΔT yields approximately 0.05, °C.

2. Copper Block Example: A 2.0 kg copper block absorbs 12,000 J of thermal energy. Given
the specific heat capacity of copper is 385, J/(kg °C), the temperature rise ΔT is
calculated as:

Q = m ⋅ c ⋅ ΔT 12000 = 2.0 ⋅ 385 ⋅ ΔT ΔT ≈ 15.6, °C

3. Aluminum Block Example: An aluminum block with a mass of 2.0 kg increases in

internal energy by 13,500 J. The specific heat capacity of aluminum is 900, J/(kg °C). The
temperature increase ΔT can be found using:

13500 = 2.0 ⋅ 900 ⋅ ΔT ΔT = 7.5, °C

Comparing Thermal Capacities

Consider two different liquids with equal masses in identical beakers. Liquid 1 is heated for
100 s, and Liquid 2 is heated for 200 s using heaters of the same power. Both liquids
experience the same temperature rise.

Which statement is correct?

The thermal capacity of liquid 1 is less than the thermal capacity of liquid 2.

Energy Required to Raise Temperature

A copper container (0.20 kg) holds 0.10 kg of water. The specific heat capacity of copper is
385, J/(kg °C), and water is 4200, J/(kg °C).

The energy needed to raise the temperature by 10, °C is:

(0.20 ⋅ 385 ⋅ 10) + (0.10 ⋅ 4200 ⋅ 10)

Calculating Final Temperature

A beaker contains 0.500 kg of water at 3.0, °C. The internal energy increases by 21.0 kJ. The
specific heat capacity of water is 4200, J/(kg °C).

The final temperature is calculated as:

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21000 = 0.500 ⋅ 4200 ⋅ ΔT ΔT = 10, °C

Therefore, the final temperature is 3.0 + 10 = 13.0, °C.

Specific Heat Capacity Expression

In an experiment, a block of aluminum gains energy E, has a mass m, and its temperature rises
by ΔT . The specific heat capacity c is given by:
E
c =
m⋅ΔT

Thermal Capacity Definition

Thermal capacity is the energy per degree Celsius needed to raise the temperature
of a body.

Internal Energy Change

If a heater supplies 80 J of energy to a metal block, and its temperature rises by 20, °C, then
when the temperature falls by 10, °C, the internal energy decreases by 40 J.

Conduction

Mechanism of Thermal Energy Transfer

Consider a copper bar heated at one end. The primary mechanism for thermal energy transfer
to the other end is:

Lattice vibrations of copper ions

Movement of high-energy electrons along the bar

Identifying Metals by Cooling Rates

Four metal blocks at 200, °C cool down. By comparing mass and energy transferred, metals
can be identified:

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Block Mass (g) Energy Transferred (J)

1 100 16200
2 150 16200
3 200 32400
4 200 8100

Blocks 3 and 4 are made of the same metal.

Pan Materials and Thermal Conductivity

The diagram illustrates a cooking pan. The base of the pan should be a good thermal
conductor, while the handle should be a poor thermal conductor.

Energy Measurement in Experiments

When measuring the energy needed to raise the temperature of an aluminum block, the
measured energy will be greater than the calculated energy because some energy is
transferred to the surroundings.

Comparing Specific Heat Capacities

Four blocks made from different metals are heated for five minutes. To find which metal has
the highest specific heat capacity, compare mass and temperature rise.

Block Mass (kg) Temperature Rise (°C)

A 2.0 5.0
B 2.0 9.0
C 4.0 5.0
D 4.0 9.0

Thermal Conductivity of Silver

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Silver is the best conductor of heat, which is why a ball on a silver rod falls off first when
heated uniformly.

Thermal Conduction Explanation

The handle of a metal saucepan is made of plastic. As the saucepan heats up, the handle gets
warmer because molecules of the plastic vibrate more and pass on their energy to nearby
molecules.

Thermal Conduction Occurence

Thermal conduction does not occur in a vacuum.

Metal vs. Plastic Rods

A metal rod conducts thermal energy better than a plastic rod because the molecular structure
in the plastic contains no free electrons, but the metal has free electrons.

Best Material for Campfire Rods

Wood is the best choice to prevent hands from getting too hot when warming food on a fire.

Thermal Energy in Lamps

A lamp with a metal filament glows when heated by an electric current. Some thermal energy
is conducted to the base of the lamp.

Metal vs. Plastic Feel

On a cold day, a shiny metal rod feels colder than a black plastic rod because the metal rod is a
better thermal conductor than the plastic rod.

Quick Heating of Metal Rods

One end of a shiny metal rod is heated, and the other end quickly gets hot because metals are
good thermal conductors.

Boiling Tube Experiment

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In a boiling tube experiment where water is heated at the top and ice remains at the bottom:

This demonstrates that water is a poor conductor of thermal energy.

Metal vs. Plastic Knob Feel

On a cold day, a metal front-door knob feels cooler than a plastic knob because metal is a
better thermal conductor than plastic.

Energy Transfer in Metal Cups

A metal cup with a plastic lining is filled with hot water. In the metal, energy is transferred by
electrons and by vibrations of the lattice. In the plastic, no energy is transferred directly
between adjacent molecules.

Copper and Wood Bar Experiment

A copper bar and a wooden bar are joined, and paper is wrapped around the join. When
heated, the paper goes brown on the copper side, showing that copper is a conductor and
wood is an insulator.

Thermal Transfer Processes

Thermal transfer of energy through a copper rod involves electrons. A second process also
involved is lattice vibration.

Method Second Process

Conduction Lattice Vibration

Free Electrons
Free electrons are involved in the transfer of thermal energy in metals only.

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Thermal Conduction Processes

In metals, thermal conduction involves electron transfer and lattice vibration.

Process Electron Transfer Lattice Vibration

Metal Conduction Yes Yes

Uses for Thermal Conductors

Good Thermal Conductor Poor Thermal Conductor

Transferring thermal energy quickly Keeping a hot liquid at a high temperature or a cold
from a hot liquid liquid at a low temperature.

Metal Rod Heating Times

Four metal rods of equal length and diameter are heated at one end. The best conductor of
thermal energy is the one that takes the least time for the temperature at the other end to rise.

Metal Time Taken (s)

P 35
Q 30
R 45
S 40

Metal Q is the best conductor.

Double Glazing
One type of double glazing consists of two panes of glass separated by a vacuum. The vacuum
prevents conduction and convection.

Ice Melting Experiment

In an experiment with ice trapped by metal gauze at the bottom of a tube containing water
heated at the top, the ice melts slowly because water is a poor conductor of heat.

Glass and Copper Rod Heating

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A rod made half of glass and half of copper has pins attached by wax. The pin on the copper
side closest to the heat will fall off first due to copper's higher thermal conductivity.

Campfire Thermal Energy Transfer

A boy sitting near a campfire feels heat through conduction and radiation.

Copper and Wood Rod

A rod made of copper and wood is heated at the join in the center. The lowest temperature
will be at the end of the wood farthest from the heat (S), and the highest temperature will be
at the center of the copper (P).

Insulated Copper Cans

Two identical copper cans filled with boiling water, one insulated with wool, will cool at
different rates. The insulated can will cool more slowly.

Vacuum Flasks
Hot liquid in a vacuum flask cools slowly because conduction and convection cannot take place
in a vacuum.

Iron Nails in Wood

An experiment with iron nails pushed through wood demonstrates that iron is a better
conductor of heat than wood.

Lowest Temperature
A rod made of copper and wood is heated at the join. The lowest temperature would be in the
wood.

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Convection

Iced Drink on a Warm Day

When water forms on the outside of a glass containing an iced drink on a warm and humid
day, this is due to condensation.

Heating Ice
When ice is slowly heated, during the melting phase (section X on a temperature vs. time
graph), the thermal energy is gained by the ice, but the temperature stays the same.

Boiling and Evaporation

Evaporation takes place at the surface of a liquid, but boiling takes place throughout the
liquid.

Boiling in a Liquid

Characteristic Description

Bubble Seen Throughout liquid

Melting Ice and Boiling Water

Phenomenon Temperature Behavior

Melting Ice (0°C) Constant

Boiling Water Constant

Air Near a Hot Kettle

Cool air that comes into contact with a hot kettle decreases in density and rises.

Convection Statement
Convection does not mean that heat rises. Convection occurs because the density of a
fluid decreases when it is heated.

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Hot Air Balloon

A balloon filled with hot air rises because cold air is more dense than hot air.

Convection Currents
Convection currents occur because, when warmed, liquids expand and become less
dense.

Immersion Heater Placement

The heating coil of a domestic immersion heater is placed at the bottom of the tank because
hot water is less dense than cold water and therefore rises.

Liquid Heating
When a liquid is heated in a beaker, its density decreases, and the energy transfer process is
convection.

Change Process

Decreases Convection

Plastic Cups Experiment

Two plastic cups are placed one inside the other with a small spacer. Hot water is poured into
the inner cup, and a lid is put on top. The lid reduces the energy lost by convection.

Refrigerator and Oven Unit Placement

Appliance Unit Placement

Refrigerator Top
Oven Bottom

Air in a Heated Room

When air in a room is heated by a heater, the air expands and becomes less dense, causing it
to rise.

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Density and Energy Transfer

Density Change Method of Energy Transfer

Decreases Convection

Cupboard in Front of a Heater

A cupboard is placed in front of a heater. Air moves through a gap under the cupboard. The air
in the gap is warm and moves away from the heater.

Air-Conditioning Unit
An air-conditioning unit draws in warm air and releases cold air. The cold air falls because it is
more dense than warm air.

Hot Metal in a Cold Room

A piece of hot metal is held in a cold room. The density of the air decreases, and the air moves
upwards.

Sheep's Wool
After a sheep has its wool cut off, it is harder for it to stay warm. The wool helps the sheep
stay warm because air trapped by the wool fibers reduces heat losses from the skin by
convection.

Refrigerator Cooling Unit

A refrigerator has its cooling unit placed at the top. As the air cools, its density increases, and it
moves down.

Convector Heater
A convector heater fixed to a wall moves warm air upwards due to convection.

Convection in Liquids

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Convection takes place in a liquid when it is heated because liquids expand when they are
heated.

Double Plastic Cups

Two plastic cups are placed one inside the other with hot water in the inner cup. This setup
reduces energy transfer.

2.10: Radiation
Radiation is a method of heat transfer that involves electromagnetic waves. It can occur
in a vacuum, unlike conduction and convection.

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1. Hot Water in a Vacuum:

A can with hot water in a vacuum in outer space loses thermal energy through
evaporation followed by radiation.

2. Cars in the Sunshine:

A black car increases temperature faster in sunshine and cools down faster at night
compared to a white car.

3. Metal Bar Heating:

Thermal energy transfers along a metal bar mainly through lattice vibration.

4. Thermal Conduction in Metals:

In metals, thermal conduction by electrons involves electrons moving freely

throughout the metal.

5. Thermometers and Radiant Heaters:

A thermometer with a shiny white bulb shows the slowest temperature rise when
a heater is first switched on.

6. Thermal Energy Transfer in a Metal Bar:

In thermal energy transfer by conduction, ions vibrate and strike neighboring ions,
but fast vibrating ions do not leave the surface.

7. Metal Rod Heating:

When a metal rod is heated at one end (X), the other end (Y) becomes hot because
energy is transferred by vibration of positive ions and movement of electrons.

8. Hypotheses on Thermal Conduction:

Hypothesis 1: "The copper rod will be a good thermal conductor because it is a

metal" is correct.
Hypothesis 2: "The glass rod will be a good thermal conductor because it has free
electrons which vibrate and transfer energy quickly" is incorrect.
Hypothesis 3: "The wooden rod will be a poor thermal conductor because it can
only transfer energy along the rod by vibrating the lattice particles" is correct.

9. Copper Rod Heating:

Thermal energy is transferred in a copper rod when one end is heated by free
electrons transferring energy from the hotter end to the cooler end.

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10. Metal Rods and Wax Balls:

When heating different metal rods with wax balls attached, the ball on the silver
rod falls first because silver is the best conductor of heat.

11. Vacuum Flasks:

Vacuum flasks have silvered walls to reflect thermal radiation back into the flask.

12. Metal Cans in a Vacuum:

Two identical metal cans, one shiny silver and the other dull black, with water
inside are placed in a vacuum. The water in the shiny can cools more slowly than
in the black can.

13. Thermal Radiation Emission:

A white shiny surface emits thermal radiation at the slowest rate.

Surface Texture Area/cm² Emission Rate

Black Dull 10 High

White Shiny 100 Low

14. Infrared Radiation Emission:

An object with a dull and large surface emits infrared radiation at the greatest rate.

15. Spherical Objects and Infrared Radiation:

A large spherical object at a high temperature emits infrared radiation at the

greatest rate.

16. Spherical Objects and Infrared Radiation:

A large black spherical object emits infrared radiation at the greatest rate.

17. Spherical Objects and Infrared Radiation:

A black object at a high temperature emits infrared radiation at the greatest rate.

18. Wooden Beam and Infrared Radiation:

A wooden beam painted part black and part white heats up more quickly on the
black part during the day and cools down more quickly on the black part at night.

19. Absorbers and Emitters of Infrared Radiation:

A black surface is both a better absorber and a better emitter of infrared radiation.

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2.11: Consequences of Energy Transfer

1. Convection Current in Water:

The temperature at point P is lower than at Q, and the density at P is higher than
at Q.

2. Air Temperature in a Cave:

Altering the height affects the air temperature because warm air is less dense than
cool air.

3. Room Heated by Radiator:

In a room heated by a radiator, the air temperature is higher at Y and the air density
is higher at X.

4. Thermal Energy from the Sun:

Thermal energy travels through space from the Sun to the Earth via radiation only.

5. Hot Drink Cooling:

After ten minutes, the hot drink's internal energy is lower.

2.12: Multiple Topics

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1. Cups of Coffee:

A black cup covered with a lid keeps coffee warm the longest.

2. Copper Containers:

A container with sides of length 20 cm containing water at 30°C radiates energy at

the lowest rate.

3. Infrared Radiation Emission:

The rate of radiation of thermal energy from an object is determined by the surface
area and the surface temperature of the object.

4. Metal Sheets and Radiation:

Sheet Q emits more radiation than sheet P because the surface area of Q is larger
than that of P.

5. Cooling Cans:

A can with a dull, black surface will cool down the fastest.

6. Copper Plate Radiation:

The hand near the dull black surface feels much hotter because the dull black
surface is a better emitter of radiation than the shiny surface.

7. Decreasing Radiation Rate:

Changing the surface texture from dull to shiny will cause a decrease in the rate of
radiation emitted by an object.

8. Thermal Energy Loss:

A sphere with a diameter of 10 cm with a dull surface initially loses thermal

energy by radiation at the greatest rate.

9. Hot Coffee in Cups:

A black cup covered with a lid keeps the coffee warm the longest.

10. Increasing Radiation:

To increase the amount of radiation produced by a warm dark-colored surface,

make the surface hotter and increase the area of the surface.

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