Measuring length & volume
When making measurements in physics, different instruments are used for
different measurements
Measuring length
Rulers can be used to measure small distances of a few centimetres (cm).
o They are able to measure to the nearest millimetre (mm)
A ruler can measure lengths in cm or mm
A tape measure is used to measure lengths of tens of centimetres
A trundle wheel is used to measure lengths of tens of metres
Trundle wheels can be used to measure larger distances
Measuring volume
Measuring cylinder are used to measure the volume of liquids
o By measuring the change in volume, a measuring cylinder can also
be used to determine the volume of an irregular shape
Measuring cylinders can be used to determine the volume of a liquid or an
irregular shaped solid
Worked Example
The diagram shows four identical ball-bearings placed between two blocks on a steel
ruler.
Calculate the diameter of one ball-bearing.
Answer:
Step 1: Measure the length of all four ball-bearings
The blocks mark the edges of the first and last ball bearings
The blocks make it easier to measure the length of all four ball-bearings
Step 2: Find the diameter by dividing the total length by the number of ball-
bearings
Measuring time
In physics, stop-clocks and stopwatches are usually used to measure time
intervals
An important factor when measuring time intervals is human reaction time
o The standard human reaction time for an alert person is 0.25 s
o This can have a significant impact upon measurements when the
measurements involved are very short
Worked Example
A stopwatch is used to measure the time taken for a runner to complete a lap of a
400 m track.
The images below give the readings on the stopwatch at the start and the end of the
lap.
Calculate how long it took the runner to complete the lap. Give your answer in
seconds.
Answer:
Step 1: Identify the start time for the lap
The stopwatch was already at 0:55:10 when the runner started the lap
Start time = 55.10 seconds (s)
Step 2: Identify the finish time for the lap
The stopwatch reads 1:45:10 at the end of the lap
Finish time = 1 minute and 45.10 s
Multiple readings
In physics, multiple readings of measurements are often taken to reduce the
impact of measurement errors
Taking multiple measurements in physics
The measurement of the thickness of a single sheet of paper is so small that it
would be very difficult to get an accurate answer
o However, measuring the thickness of 100 sheets of paper can be done
much more accurately
o Dividing the answer by 100 then gives an accurate figure for
the average thickness of one sheet
Measuring the time period of a simple pendulum would incur a human
reaction time error at the start of the measurement and at the end of the
measurement
If the measurement is small, the uncertainty in the measurement is huge
Therefore, multiple readings can be taken to reduce the uncertainty of the
measurement
o The time taken for 10 swings of the pendulum can be measured
o Dividing the answer by 10 gives a more accurate figure for
the average time taken for one swing
A fiducial marker can be used when measuring oscillations
o A fiducial marker is a visual reference point such as a line or a dot
o The marker is added to the point at which the measurement is taken,
such as the equilibrium position of an oscillating pendulum
o This makes it easier to see when the pendulum passes this
point, reducing the error in starting and stopping the timer
Calculations with vectors
Extended tier only
Vectors can be drawn using vector diagrams
Vector diagrams
Vectors are represented by an arrow
o The length of the arrow represents the magnitude
o The direction of the arrow indicates the direction
o the scale of the arrows should be proportional to the relative
magnitudes of the forces
an arrow for a 4 N force should be twice as long as an arrow for
a 2 N force
Vector diagram of two forces acting on an object
The length of the arrows are proportional to the magnitude of the forces, and
show the direction that forces act in
Calculating vectors graphically
Vector diagrams can be used to combine vectors
Vectors at right angles to one another can be combined into one resultant
vector
o The resultant vector will have the combined effect of the two original
vectors
o For example, a resultant force vector will have the combined effect of
two component forces
Component vectors are sometimes drawn with a dotted line and
a subscript indicating horizontal or vertical
o A force , for example, may have two components:
is the vertical component of the force
is the horizontal component of force
To calculate vectors graphically means carefully producing a scale drawing
with all lengths and angles correct
o This should be done using a sharp pencil, ruler and protractor
Follow these steps to carry out calculations with vectors on graphs
1. Choose a scale which fits the page
For example, use 1 cm = 10 m or 1 cm = 1 N, so that the diagram is
around 10 cm high
2. Draw the vectors at right angles to one another
3. Complete the rectangle
4. Draw the resultant vector diagonally from the origin
5. Carefully measure the length of the resultant vector
6. Use the scale factor to calculate the magnitude
7. Use the protractor to measure the angle
Vectors can be measured or calculated graphically using scaled vector
diagrams
Combining vectors by calculation
In this method, a vector diagram is still essential but it does not need to be
exactly to scale
The vector diagram can take the form of a sketch, as long as the resultant
side, component sides are clearly labelled
Using a vector diagram to resolve two force vectors F1 and F2 into a resultant
force vector FR
When the magnitude of only one vector is known, and the angle is known,
then trigonometry can be used to find the magnitude of the missing vector
o The mnemonic 'soh-cah-toa' can used to remember the trigonometric
functions
Trigonometry can be used when the magnitude of one vector and the angle is
known
When the magnitudes of two of the vectors are known, then Pythagoras'
theorem can be used to find the magnitude of the missing vector
Pythagoras's theorem can be used when the magnitudes of two of the three
vectors are known
