POULTRY PRODUCTION

AND MANAGEMENT
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POULTRY PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

DEFINITION OF TERMS

 POULTRY-collective term for all domestic birds rendering economic service to man.
 FOWL- term applied to all poultry species specifically, applied to designated mature domestic
cocks and hens. Poultry can refer also to the dressed carcass of fowls.
 BEAK- the projecting mouthparts of the chickens and turkey, consisting of upper and lower
mandible ; organs of prehension
 BILL- the projecting mouthparts of waterfowl, consisting of upper and lower mandibles
 BREED- a race of domestic fowls which maintains distinctive characteristics shape, growth,
temperament, and shell color of egg produced.
 BROILER- meat type chicken commonly grown up to 35-42 days and weighting 1.5-2.0 kgs
liveweight.
 BROODER-a place where young chicks / ducklings are cared for after hatching until they have
grown to a point where they no longer need additional heat.
 CAPON- caponized cockerels; usually grown up to 4 months and weights up to 3 kgs with
more improved quality of meat.
 CHICK- young domestic chicken while at the downy stage
 CLUTCHES- groups of eggs layed for successive days
 COCK/ ROOSTER- a male fowl one year old or over
 COCKEREL- a male fowl less than one year old
 COMB- made of vascularized tissue growing on tops of fowls head. This serves as an
ornamental function signs of status and conditions of the male and for heat dissipation. The
standard varieties are single, rose, pea, V-shaped, strawberry, cushion and the buttercup.
 CROP- the receptacle in which s fowls food is accumulated before it passes to the gizzard.
 CULLS- old hens that had passed their usefulness for commercial egg production
 DOWN- the first covering of a chick whose major function is for insulation
 DRAKE- the male of the duck family
 DUBBING-cutting of the comb, wattles, or earlobes, so as to leave the head smooth
 DUCKLING- the young of the duck family in the downy stage of plumage
 FEED CONVERSION RATIO-volume of feed necessary to produce a kilogram gain in weight
 HARVEST RECOVERY- the number or volume of chicken sold marketed based on the number
of days old chick raised
 INCUBATION- period (in days) where embryonic development takes place outside the body
of the hen.
 LAYER- egg type or dual type 6 months old female that lay eggs.
 OVIPOSITION- act of laying eggs
 PLUMAGE- the feather of the fowl
 POULT-the young of a domestic turkey; the term is properly applied until sex can be
distinguished, when they are called cockerels and pullets
 PULLET- female fowl 5-6 months of age intended for egg production
 PRIMARIES- the longest feathers of wing, growing between the pinions and secondaries,
hidden when wings is folded, otherwise known as flight feathers
 QUILL-the hollow horny , basal part of the stem of a feather
 SECONDARIES- long, large quill feathers that grow between the first and second joints of the
wing, nearest to the body, that are visible when the wing is folded.
 SHANK- the portion of the fowls legs below the hock, exclusive of the foot and toes
 STRAIN- family of any variety of poultry that possesses and reproduces with mark regularity,
common individual characters which distinguish it from other families of the same variety
 VARIETY- a subdivision of a breed, term to use to distinguish fowls having the standard
shape and other characteristics of the breed to which they belong, but differing in colors of
plumage, shape of combs, etc. from the other groups of the same breed.

ECONOMIC POULTRY SPECIES

a) Chicken- Gallus gallus, Gallus domesticus

b) Ducks- Mallard ( Anas platyrynchos), Muscovy (Cairina muscata), Pekin and other varieties
c) Turkey- Meleagris galapavo
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d) Geese- Anser waser

e) Pigeon- Columbia livia
f) Guinia Fowl- Numida mileagris
g) Pea fowl- Pavo cristatus
h) Pheasants- Phasianus colchicus
i) Swan- Cygnus oler
j) Ostrich- Strauthus camilos
k) Quails- Coturnix coturnix or C. japonica

TRENDS IN POULTRY PRODUCTION

SPECIALIZATION

1) BREEDER FARM-a poultry breeding farm in the real essence of the field is a system of
researching or discovering the best combination of genes of parents stocks that will be the
source of commercial chicks for the poultry producers.
2) EGG FARM-egg farming can readily split into two phases of operations. The first phase can be
strictly for raising pullets. The second phase is the keeping of the layers per se when they are
in the stage of production. In the present set-up being practiced by egg producers, they do
both the raising of pullets and the production of eggs.
3) BROILER- this is the growing of meat-type chicken essentially for meat production. Stocks
are used for this purpose are so-called broiler type chickens which are known for their fast
growth, meaty conformation, and good feed conversion. Broiler chicks are grown for a period
of only about 6 to 7 weeks. At this stage they are marketed and slaughtered for feed.

Other specialized areas that contribute to the success of the three major areas.

1) FEED MILLING INDUSTRY-most poultry raisers are dependent totally or partially for their
feed supply from the feed miller. The set-up has been very successful to the point that the
feed milling industry is halted, the entire poultry industry will also stop. This industry has done
a great job in the development and achievement of the poultry industry as a whole.
2) MEDICATION, FEED SUPPLEMENT AND BIOLOGICAL PREPARATIONS- this group inputs
for poultry production is very vital to the poultry industry. Without these segments, poultry
diseases can not be controlled and production can be uneconomical.
3) POULTRY PROCESSING, STORAGE AND STORAGE AND DISTRIBUTION OF PRODUCTS-
this segment of the poultry industry is very important since without the proper processing and
marketing channels of poultry products , the producers may not be able to dispose off all their
products. Proper marketing is the ultimate area in order to faciltitate more production at
profitable levels.
4) FARM EQUIPMENT AND FACILITIES- the facilities needed in poultry operation has come to
the point of sophistication that contributes to economic production. Feeders, waterers, feed
mixers, crates, autonomic devices to ease labor have been contributing to better poultry
production at present. The poultry raisers can depend on such facilities.

FARMSITE LOCATION

1) Land availability and costs

2) Topography of the area
3) Neighbors and human populations
4) Acceptability of the poultry business
5) Availability of electricity
6) Water supply
7) Feed supply
8) Market relationship

CLASSIFICATIONS OF BREEDS AND VARIETIES OF CHICKENS

1) BREED-a group of chickens (fowls) possessing certain conformation or shape of body that
distinguishes them from other chickens
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2) VARIETY-a group of chickens within the breed which possesses the same plumage color and
type of comb
3) STRAIN- a group of chickens within a variety of a breed which has been under constant
specific selection for certain traits by a specified breeder for periods of about 5 to 8 years.
4) STRAIN CROSSES
5) LINE CROSSES OR FAMILY LINES

UTILITY CLASSIFICATION

1) EGG CLASS-the breed belonging to this class is characterized by their comparatively small
size. They lay large white-shelled eggs, very active and nervous in temperament. They are
non-sitters. Examples- Leghorns, Anconas, Minorcas, Mikawa
2) MEAT TYPE/ BREED- to this class belong the breeds that are large, slow in movement, quite,
gentle in disposition. They are generally poorer egg layers and generally lay brown-shelled
eggs. Examples- Brahmans, Cochin, Langsans, Comish, Jerseys, White Rocks.
3) DUAL PURPOSE/ GENERAL PURPOSE- breeds of chicken in this class are medium-sized,
good layers and the young are fast growers. They are not nervous as eggs but much more
active than the meat class. Examples- Rhode Island Reds, New Hampshire, Polymouth Rock,
Lancaster, Nagoya, Cantonese.
4) ORNAMENTALS/ FANCY- the breeds under this class may be characterized as possessing
desired beauty of plumage or form having a rare ununsual appearance. Most of them are
raised chiefly as ornamentals or pets by hobbyist, regardless of the value as a source of food.
Examples- Silkies, Frizzles, Chinese Bantams.
5) FIGHTING CLASS- these are groups of this kinds of chicken now developed by national and
international aficionados in this game. Examples- Rubie, Hulsay, Claret and Oasis

STANDARD CLASSIFICATIONS-under this classifications, breeds and varieties are grouped to their
geographical origin

1) AMERICAN CLASS-breeds and varieties that were developed in American continent.

Polymouth Rocks, Jersey, Wyandothes.
2) ASIATIC CLASS- these breeds were developed in Asia. Examples- Cantonese, Mikawas,
Nagoya
3) MEDITERRANEAN CLASS- developed in the Mediterranean regions. It is related to its utility
grouping since most of the Mediterranean origin are of the egg type breeds. Examples-
Leghorn, Anconas, Minorcas
4) ENGLISH BREEDS- developed in England. Examples- Cornish, Australorps, Orpington,
Dorkings
5) Other classes by origin of development are Polish, Hamburg, French and Oriental classes.

CHICKEN BREEDS/ STOCKS TO RAISE

1) Stocks should only be purchased from a reliable hatchery or franchised dealer where the
parent stock are well-housed and well-managed
2) The kind of stock to buy depends upon the purpose for which it is going to be raised
3) Chicks should be free from diseases and deformities.
4) Chicks should have uniform size and color and in the case of the broiler chicks should not be
less than 33 grams at day-old
5) For a start, a popular strain is raised in the community can be selected as it is an indication of
the bird good performance under existing farm conditions
6) For broilers, choose those that have high livability and are fast growers
7) For layers, choose those that have good egg size, high egg production and long productive
life.

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Major Traits to Consider

1. Sexual maturity or age, at first egg production. A pullet is said to be sexually matured
when she lay her first egg. Approximate h2 30%. Sexual maturity can be greatly advanced or
delayed by environmental, especially by the lighting program followed during rearing
2. Intensity or rate of egg production- this refers to the number of eggs laid by a hen during
a given period of time. Intensity as an approx h2 of 10%
a. Hen day average/ANOL=
Total number of eggs
no. of hen days

Hen days average egg production is the percent day production from the time birds
reach 50% production to end of a given period of time

b. Hen Housed Egg production =

Total Number of Eggs
No. of hens originally housed

Hen housed egg production is the number of eggs per pullet housed computed from
time of housing to the end of a given period.

3. Egg size- this trait has an approximate h2 of 50%. Size of egg is correlated with a number of
factors , among them : 1) hatching date, 2)body size 3) Age at maturity 4) age of pullets 5)
weather 6) second year 7) period of time within the clutch- those last at the beginning of the
clutch are larger than those at the end, 8) total eggs laid
4. Egg Quality – h2 = 20 – 50%

2 groups :
 Exterior quality- shell, color, texture, strength and shape
 Interior quality- freedom from blood spots, height of thick albumen

5. Body weight- h2 of 55%

Large body weight is primary important to broiler and chicken breeders. On the other hand, egg laying
strains of chickens, small or intermediate body size is preferred.

6. Growth rate- about 30% h2

This is important in broiler and turkey production. Rapid growth means a saving in time, labor, feed
consumption and overhead cost in the production of meat

7. Feed conversion

a. FC of egg production is the kg of feeds required per kg of eggs produced

FC of egg production = Total kg of feed

Total kg of eggs

FC of egg is 15% h2

b. Feed conversion of broiler production is the kg of feeds required per kg of broiler

produced.

FC of broiler production =Total kg of feeds

Total kg of broilers

FC of broiler is 50% h2

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8. Viability and disease resistance- viability or livability is influenced greatly by feeding and
management practices
 Growing mortality is the percentage of birds that died on or before they were 150
days old or subsequent age at housing
 Laying mortality-is the percentage of layers that died after they were 150 days old or
subsequent age at housing. Mortality has an approx of 10% h2.

9. Fertility- this is the fraction of eggs set in the incubator which are fertile

% Fertility = total fertile eggs x 100

Total eggs set

10. Hatchability- the fraction of fertile eggs set in the incubator which hatched h2 = 15%

2 METHODS OF SELECTION

1. Individual Selection- a bird may be saved or culled depending on the desirability of its
individual records. The effectiveness of individual selection is determined by the heritability of
the character for which individual selection is practiced. In general individual selection would
be quite effective for traits that are 20% more h2, e.g. body weight, egg weight, shell quality,
rate fo feathering and sexual maturity.
2. Family selection- in poultry breeding “ family” originally refers to a group of full sibs and half
sibs. A group of full sibs means birds from the same sire and dams. While a group of half sibs
means birds from the same sires but different dams.
 Average performance is the average or percent performance of the members of the
family
 Egg production, hatchability, fertility and viability are fairly low heritability and could
be effectively improved by family.

Selection and Culling of Breeding Stocks

Selection of males and hens for the breeding flocks is very important. The first step in poultry
breeding work is the selection of male and females to be used as breeding stocks. The selection is
based on 1) health 2) breed and strain characteristics, 3) production characteristics

Culling standard for Breeding Stocks

CHARACTER BREEDING STOCKS
Health condition Disease birds, too fatty
Head Bad color of combs,
irregularity of the pupil of
the eye, silver or blue color
of eye, deformity of beak
Neck Crooked neck
Body Curved backbone
Vent Vent diphtheria
Legs Weak legs, perosis
Feather Delayed feathering
Growth Poor growth
Egg production Non layer and low producer
Egg size and quality Small and large size poor
quality
Molt Heavy molting

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Separating Layers and Non-layers

CHARACTER LAYER NON-LAYER
Comb Large, smooth bright Dull, dry,
red, and glossy shriveled, scaly
Face Bright red Yellowish tint
Vent Large, smooth, Shrunken,
moist puckered dry
Pubic bones Thin, pliable, spread Blunt, rigid
apart closed together
Abdomen Full, soft, pliable Contracted, hard,
fleshy
Skin Soft, loose Thick, underlaid
with fat

Separating High and Low Producers

CHARACTER HIGH PRODUCER LOW PRODUCER
(CONTINUOUS (BRIEF LAYING)
LAYING)
Vent Bluish white Yellow or flesh
color
Eye ring White Yellow
Ear lobe White Yellow
Beak White Yellow
Shanks White, flattened Yellow, round
Plumage Worn, soiled Not much worn
Molting Late, rapid Early, slow

CULLING POOR LAYERS

Consider the following pointers in culling poor layers

CHARACTERISTICS DESCRIPTION
Comb, Wattles and Small, pale, cold,
Earlobes shrunken and dry
Pubic Bones (2 small Close together, only one
bones extending along the finger can be placed
sides of the vent) between them, thick and
hard
Vent Small, dry puckered and
round
Abdomens Hard with thick skin,
contracted
Span(distance between About 1-3 fingers in width
end of breast bones and
ends of pubic bones)
Pigmentations Remains yellow even after
months in laying pen

Methods of Mating

1. Pen Mating- in single mating pen, a pen of 8-12 hens in one male. The birds are trap-nested
and the hen’s wing ban number is recorded on the egg. This system makes it possible to know
the parent stock of every chick hatched from pen mating
2. Artificial insemination- this system of breeding works, hens are kept in cages

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3. Flock mating- means that a number of males are allowed to run with the entire flock pof hens.
It is to use one male for 10-15 hens. Young males are more active than older males.

EGGS FOR HATCHING

If hatchability percentage of above 65% of all eggs set are to be obtained and this is generally
considered to be satisfactory percentage, then care must be given in the selection of suitable fertile
eggs, in their handling before and during incubation

Fertility depends very largely on the number and viability of the sperm produced by cock, and on the
time relationship between mating and ovulation. Fertile eggs can be laid within 30 hours of mating.
Sperm may retain their viability in the female tract for as long as 32 days but the usual range is 11
to 14 days. Newly laid eggs should remain fir for hatching for up to 7 days provided that they are kept
at a temperature of 12.8C (55F) and at a RH of 60-70%. If eggs are not to be incubated immediately
then some provision must be made for their storage at lower the normal ambient temperatures and
preferably within the range of 10 to 21C (50-75F)

Care must be exercised in the selection of eggs for incubation. Too small (<50 g) or too large (> 71 g)
eggs should not be used, neither should poor-shelled, dirty or cracked eggs

INCUBATION

Eggs may be naturally or artificially incubated. The incubation period for fowls is 21 days

1. Natural Incubation- the principal requirements for a setting hen are a plentiful supply of clean
drinking water, subsistent feed supply, protection against pest diseases. Nest should be placed
in some quite, cool corner at ground level and should be enclosed, so that hen can leave it
only when permitted. Hens should be fed with grains and provided with fresh drinking water
and a sand bath in which to dust herself
2. Artificial incubation- large scale commercial hatcheries equipped with various types of
automatic or semi-automatic artificial incubators

During incubation the essential air conditions are that there should be sufficient oxygen in circulation
to supply the needs of the growing embryo, carbon dioxide resulting from embryonic metabolism
should not be accumulated, relative humidity should be such as to allow not more than 10% of the
water content of the egg to be lost, and that temperature should be such that life within the eggs is
maintained at an optimum level.

Incubating eggs should be preferably be turned at least six times daily up to 18th day. During the
fourth and seventh day and 14th day of incubation it is customary to check and remove all infertile
eggs and those with dead embryos. This is done by candling which is accomplished by passing a
beam of light through the egg. Infertile eggs show up as “clear”, dead embryos are seen as a dark
spot of varying size and degree of density, live embryos casts a cobweb like structure from which
radiates blood vessels.

BROODING

During the last stages of incubation the chicks absorbed sufficient nutrients to last it for at least 48
hours of life (yolk materials) that’s why day old chicks can be transported in boxes for long distances.

The basic requirement for brooding is 1) sufficient heat to keep the chicks warm without crowding
themselves together 2) brooder should be well lighted and ventilated 3) sufficient floor space should
be available to allow for uniform growth of chickens.

The initial temperature below the hover should be 35C (95F) and should be reduced by 2.8C 95F) per
week till it equals the mean daily ambient temperature. Good light is desirable as it encourages the
chick to start feeding. Good ventilation is also desirable for the exchange of gases.

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Litter- this should be placed in the house of litter brooder is used. the entire floor should be covered
by at least 2 inches of litter which are perfectly dry. The purpose of the litters is to absorb moisture,
damp litters should be replaced or adding some litters as the birds grow.

Floor space- the amount of space required varies with the type and age of birds

1st 6 weeks old .5 sq ft/ bird Egg type

6-10 weeks old 1 sq ft/ bird Egg type

Meat Type / Broiler

1st 8 weeks old - .75 to 1 sq ft
8 weeks onward – 1 to 1.5 sq ft

Feeder space

1 to 3 weeks old one linear inch / bird

3-6 weeks 2 inches/ bird
6 weeks onward 3 inches/ bird

Rule of thumb- at least 80% of the bird utilizes the feeder space at feeding time

Watering requirement – two (2) one galloon size water fonts are adequate for 100 birds and
increases after one week old. For automatic waterers is used provide at least 1 inch/ bird for water
space

Lighting Requirement – amount of light provided for birds during brooding varies with the type of
chicks raised

Broilers- 24 hours lighting

Egg type- 12-14 hours is sufficient

SPACE REQUIREMENT

LAYERS
Day old chicks to four 15 sq. in / chick
weeks
Four to Eight Weeks 30 sq. in / chick
Nine weeks to laying age 50-60 sq. cm/ bird

BROILERS
Day old to three weeks 0.3 sq. ft/ chick
3 weeks to 4 weeks 0.5 sq. ft/ chick
5 weeks to market age 1.0 sq. ft/ bird

Recommended minimum feeding space requirement

Day old to 4 weeks 2.5 to 5 cm / bird
4 weeks to 8 weeks 5 to 6.5 cm / bird
9 weeks to near laying 7.5 to 9 cm. / bird
age
Layers 10 cm / bird

Recommended minimum watering space requirement

Day old to 4 weeks 0.5 cm/ bird or two 1
gal.drinking fountains /

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100 birds
4 weeks to 8 weeks 0.6 to 1 cm. /bird or two
2 –gal drinking fountain/
100 birds
9 weeks to near laying 1 to 2 cm/ bird or four 2-
stage gal drinking fountain/ 100
birds
Layers 2 to 2.5 cm/bird or six 2
gals drinking fountains/
100 birds

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS-Birds must be protected from poor ventilation and extremes in

temperature. When the land dimension allows it, the poultry houses should be constructed with their
length parallel to the wind direction. This set-up will expose to the wind only in southern or the
northernmost portion of the houses. If it were the other way around, that is, the length of the house
facing south, all the pens with the birds therein would be exposed to draft and heavy rain during
typhoons and bad weathers

Discarded feed sacks when available, can be utilized as wind and sun breakers. Planting trees will also
serve as windbreaks

SANITARY PROVISIONS IN THE POULTRY HOUSE-In planning the construction, due consideration
should be given to facilities cleaning of the poultry house. Thus, in the case of brooders, the floor sides
and partitions should be detachables. This will permit their removal for thorough cleaning and
disinfection after every batch. There should have good water drainage from the house site.

Due consideration should be given to the aspect of poultry diseases prevention and control. When
there is ample land area, the breeding, growing and laying house should be reasonably spaced from
one another as a health safety measure.

PROVISION OF EASY EXPANSION-Consider future expansion plans. The buildings that are to be
constructed should consider the setting up of additional new houses that may be needed later.

HOUSING EQUIPMENT

1) FEEDING TROUGHS OR FEEDERS- can be placed inside or along the front of the cages.
When making feeders, considers the ease in cleaning and avoided by placing metal or wooden
strip along the inner mouth of the feeding trough
2) WATERS- to facilitate cleaning, the shape and size of the waterer should be semi-circular.
Fairly wide and supported by an adjustable bracket to permit easier adjustment. It may have
a removal stopper at the drainage end to allow for easier cleaning. For chicks the waterer are
usually one-gallon plastic jars. The most common water are the plastic waterer because they
do not rust therefore they will last longer. Backyard poultry raisers usually use bamboo
waterer. They are cheap but there is a great tendency for slime to develop and oftentimes
they do not last long. They need constant changing.
3) PORTABLE CATCHING PANELS-THIS is usually made of either bamboo, wood or wire
frames. This device comes in handy during vaccination.
4) FEED CARTS- in a well-planned poultry house with cemented service alleys, the feed cart is a
handy equipment which can reduce the number of hours spent in feeding the chickens. It
makes the feeding less tiresome and laborious. In the absence of a feed cart a wheel barrow
will do.

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POULTRY MANAGEMENT

REARING OF OLD DAY CHICKS-Brooding is essential for the chicks. Brooding is the process of
supplying artificial heat to the chicks from the time they are taken out from the incubators up to the
time their bodies can control their heat requirements and they are covered with feathers. The
following are the basic requirements for brooding day-old chicks
 Sufficient Heat- provide artificial heat to keep chicks comfortably warm during day or night.
Avoid abrupt changes in brooder temperature during the first two weeks of life. The following
set of temperature have been found to be ideal for brooding under Philippine conditions

AGE OF CHICKS BROODING

(WEEKS) TEMPERATURE (C)

0-1 32.2-35.0 (90-95F)

1-2 29.4-32.2 (85-90F)
2-4 26.7-29.4 (85-90F)
Above four weeks Remove the heat supply

The behavior of the day-old chicks in the brooder can be used as guidelines for the correct brooding
temperature. When the temperature is hot, the chicks will pant, spread out their wings, eat less and
remain inactive, move away from the source of heat and stay close to the edges of tile brooder. When
the temperature is low, the chicks will crowd under the heater, pile up and make known their comfort
loud chirping.

 Adequate Light and Ventilation- a well lighted brooder attracts and encourage the chicks
to start feeding.

LIGHT REQUIREMENT -Light requirement is very important in the development of new layers. The
correct light to dark ratio in the rearing house will influence the production of larger eggs.

During the first few days of brooding, lighting the chicks throughout the night (24 hours) is favorable
to growth because there is more eating time if feed is available. The light in the brooder will
encourage the birds to keep close to the source of heat, feed and water.

One cardinal rule to follow in the light management of poultry intended for egg production is NEVER
INCREASE LIGHT DURING GROWING PERIOD and NEVER DECRESE LIGHT DURING THE
LAYING PERIOD. Increase day length (light) during the growing period of birds will hasten their
sexual maturity, which will result to production of more pullet eggs (small eggs), layers are prone to
prolapse and shorter egg production cycle.

Under local conditions where there are only slight variations in day length, it is recommended that the
day must not exceed 11-12 hours during the growing stage (4-18 weeks) of the developing pullets.

Sources of Heat for Brooders

 Electricity
 LPG (Liquefied petroleum Gas)
 Infra-Red Lamp
 Kerosene Lamp
 Charcoal

Provide sufficient ventilation to supply plenty of oxygen and facilitate the removal of carbon dioxide
and excess ventilation, the chicks will not only be weak and in poor conditions but will also be more
predisposed to respiratory diseases.

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 AMPLE SPACE TO AVOID OVERCROWDING- provide brooder with enough space to avoid
overcrowding which leads to poorly developed chicks, high mortality as well as harmful vices
like toe picking, feather picking or cannibalism

At the beginning of the brooding period, the chicks need very little space but as the chicks grow older
they must be provided much wider area.

Egg Type Chicken

1 day to 3 weeks 0.3 sq.ft / bird
3 to 8 weeks 0.5 sq. ft/ bird
8-12 weeks 1.0 sq.ft/ bird

Meat Type/ Broiler

1 day to two weeks 0.3 sq.ft / bird
Two weeks to marketing 1.0 sq.ft/ bird
age

After 12 weeks, the floor space requirements of growing pullets varies according to the system
housing used.

Litter floor 2.0-2.5 sq.ft/bird

Slat floor 1.5-2.0 sq.ft/bird
Cages 0.75-1.0 sq.ft/bird

 HEALTHY STOCKS- select only healthy chicks which can easily recognize by their fluffy
feathers, bright eyes and alert, active appearance. Avoid chicks with wet vent and dull eyes.

 CORRECT FEEDING
o Provide the chicks with good quality feeds either home grown or commercially sourced
(chick starter mash)
o Feeds must be provided after about 2-3 hours when the chicks have learn to drink
o The addition of 5-10% sugar in the drinking water can be done for the 1st 6-8 hours
during the arrival of DOC. Supplementation of the water soluble vitamin-mineral
antibiotic preparation can give the chicks a good start.
o Feed the chicks intermittently rather than continuously. Research studies have shown
that when using intermittent feeding chicks utilize nutrient better.
o Do not allow troughs to go empty longer than 1 to 2 hours

 Proper Sanitation- cleanliness and dryness of the brooding quarters will prevent
contamination of the chicks from parasites and diseases which may be carried by previous
brooded chicks
 Regularity of Care and Management
o Environment should be kept as uniform as possible. Sudden changes in surroundings
cause a certain degree of stress or insecurity. Such examples are removal of brooder
canopy and slamming doors of brooder houses or the presence of drafts.
o It is advisable that a regular caretaker feed the chicken following a definite schedule
during the first 3 weeks of the chicks life.

 Environmental Control- optimum houses temperature for laying birds is between 18-29C.
Within this range, maintain a uniform house temperature when possible. Flock health and
performance are tightly dependent on temperature control and good ventilation. Fans may aid
in keeping the birds more comfortable during hot summer months. In environmentally
controlled houses be sure to provide for adequate air movement especially during hot
weather. Evaporating cooling may be used to lower the house temperature. Make sure that
feeds are fresh and fresh water is always available. Vitamins, minerals and antibiotic
supplements may be added to the drinking water during the first few days. Always check the
chicks at night.
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o After 7 to 10 days the brooder floor mats can be removed

o More feeders and waterers should be made available as the chick grows.

The following allowances are considered minimum per bird

Feeder (Linear)
Day old to 2 weeks 2.5 cm
2-6 weeks 4.5 cm
6-10 weeks 7.5 cm

Waterer
Day old to 2 weeks 0.5 cm(1 gal/100 chicks)
2-6 weeks 1.0 cm
6-10 weeks 2.0 cm
o Vaccination against avian pests is a good measure to prevent the outbreak of the
disease
o All weak, deformed and sickly chicks should be culled right away and properly
disposed
o The immediate burning or burying of dead birds is an important part of good
sanitation program. Use an incubator if dealing with large numbers or bury them
in the ground right away. Do not expose to flies and rats

CANNIBALISMS AMONG GROWING CHICKS

One of the common problems encountered in raising pullets is feather picking which almost results to
more serious problems- cannibalism. Cannibalism is a bad habit developed by some growing birds. It
usually starts from feathers or to picking which may result to serious wounding and death of birds.
The possible cause of cannibalism are:
a) Imbalance ration- a high energy diet with low protein leads to this problem
b) Overcrowding and insufficiency of feeding and drinking space
c) Extended period without feed and water
d) Poor ventilation
e) Excessive heat and too much light
f) It may also be a strain characteristics

To remedy this, provide feed and housing conditions , or beak trimming as preventive measures

Requirements for successful brooding

a) Good quality chicks
b) Proper temperature
c) Good ventilation
d) Adequate floor space, feeding and drinking
e) Dryness and cleanliness
f) Protection from predators
g) Proper feeds and feeding system

Factors affecting the length of brooding period

 Weather/ climatic conditions- longer during colds and rainy months; shorter during
dry and warm months
 Rate of feathering- shorter for fast feathering breeds/varieties/strains longer for
slow feathering; can be due to genetic make-up or nutrition of the birds.

REARING OF THE GROWING STOCKS

1) Broilers are marketed when they reach 45-60 days of age depending on strain.

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2) For the egg type, chicks are transferred to the growing houses or pens at 6-8 weeks old. They
are kept in these quarters until they are 16-18 weeks old at which time then they are
transferred to the laying house
3) Birds are given anti-stress drugs, either in the feed or in the drinking water 2-5 days before
and after they are transferred to the growing houses.
4) Thoroughly clean and disinfect the growing house to the transfer of the growing stocks.
Transfer birds only during good weather.
5) During hot summer days, the appetite of the birds diminish but this may be sufficiently
restored by wet mash feeding or by taking appropriate measures to lower house temperature
like spraying , misting or sprinkling the roofing with water.
6) Provide clean fresh drinking water at all times.

MANAGEMENT OF LAYER FLOCKS

1) Pullets are transferred to the laying house at the age of 16-18 weeks or at least 3 weeks
before the onset of egg production
2) A few days before and after the transfer, the birds ration should be fortified with antibiotics
and vitamins to minimize or counteract the effects
3) Cull those birds that slow or no response of becoming potential layers
4) Birds will start laying when they are 20-22 weeks old. Generally, pullets reach maximum egg
production when they are between 30-60 weeks old, after which the egg production tends to
decline anf then levels off
5) After the first year of laying, the layers undergo a physiological process called molting. Early
molters are poor layers while late molters are good ones.
6) During the second year of production, the layers usually average about 10-20% fewer eggs as
compared to the first year but the eggs are bigger
7) Provide layers with calcium supplements like limestone and ground oysters shell and insoluble
grit.

SYSTEM OF REARING-After the brooding stage, the chicks are transferred to the grower house or
provided with a much wider floor space. Grower houses are no longer provided with heaters.
Generally, the chicks are reared on wider floor space of any kind of the following house constructions.

1) Range system- this is a good system but because of more land area is required, this system
is commonly practiced by native chicken growers and duck raisers
2) Semi-confinement- this is a system of raising where the birds are provided with shed or
housing and an area to graze or pasture.
3) Complete confinement- the modern trend in raising strains of chickens.
a. Litter floor
b. Slat floor
c. Combinations
d. Cages

REARING OF PULLETS

FEEDING REQUIREMENTS OF GROWING PULLETS

6-14 weeks Grower ration 16% protein

14-20 weeks Pullet developer 14 % protein
ration

The correct level of good quality protein and other essential elements must be present in the growing
ration. Birds tend to lay eggs early when fed with feeds of high protein content. This is not desirable
since early sexual maturity results in smaller pullets and consequently production of smaller eggs.
Furthermore, small pullets can not carry on a long egg production period. If pullets tend to mature
quickly pullet developed ration can be given to the birds up to 22 weeks old. Although pullets fed with
low level of protein start laying eggs at a later period, they will produce many more standard size eggs
and consequently, bring bigger income.
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A grower ration may be given in mash, crumbles, or pelleted form, pellets /crumbles however are
more expensive

It is recommended that pullets should be allowed to clean out the feeds hoppers before the next
feeding. The method would tend to keep the pullets on their feeds better and solve the problem of
musty or stale feeds.

Feed wastage must be reduced to increase profits. Using conventional feeding trough and a mash
ration, it has been found out that when feeders are :
 Completely full- 30% of feed is wasted
 3/2 full- 10% of feed is wasted
 ½ full- 3% of feed is wasted
 1/3 full- 1% of feed is wasted

The feeder should be replenished 3-4 times a day to stimulate feed consumption. The use of tube
feeders save labor.

CULLING AND REVACCINATION-Only healthy pullets should be transferred to the laying houses.
Healthy pullets are :
 Vigorous and active
 Have bright and alert eyes
 Prominent red combs and wattles
 Possess well developed body and exhibit deep yellow pigmented beaks and shanks

These characteristics are related to high production performance. The stunted and poorly developed
pullets must be culled. The pullet must also be revaccinated specially against New Castle Disease or
Avian Pest before transferred to the layer house.

SIGNS OF SEXUAL MATURITY-After 16 weeks of age, the reproductive organs of pullets will start to
develop in preparation for egg production. This is manifested by change in appearance of the
secondary sexual characters
 The combs and wattles begin to increase in size and the color becomes red
 The pullets become friendly and cackle
 She instinctively looks for a nests
 Pullets become docile(easily manage) and gregarious (sociable)
 The vent and abdomen become large

The surest sign of sexual maturity is the laying of the first egg

The age at which the first egg is laid depends on the bred or strain and the kind of management
given. In general, however, egg type breeds should come into production when they are about 22
weeks (5 ½ months)

Although the most awaited time in raising pullets is when they begin producing eggs, it is not
desirable to hurry them up to production early. Too early will lead to:
 Production of too many small eggs
 Tendency to obtain lower egg production rate during the whole production period
 High mortality
 Higher incidence of prolapsed

If too early maturity is being shown by the pullets, some delaying measures may be worthwhile. The
following are some suggestions to delay sexual maturity

1) Actual amount of feed can be reduced. The amount of reduction will depend on the extent of
delaying required and the composition of diet. Some poultry raisers have practiced as much as
20% reduction based on full feed capacity.
2) The feeds can be diluted by incorporating a high fiber material(like rice hull). The pellets
should not be full fed.
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3) A low protein, specially low lysine diet, will delay sexual maturity.
4) Skip feeding
5) Together with any method of feed restriction, light must be reduced.

LAYER FLOCK MANAGEMENT

HOUSING-The design and construction of houses for layers should be such as to provide for :
 Top performance of the layer
 Optimum environment control
 Maximum labor efficiency
 Satisfactory waste disposal
 Minimum housing and care cost per dozen eggs produced
 Like the grower house, layer houses can be either be
o Litter floor pens
o Slat floor pens
o Combination of litter and slated floor (used only for breeder stocks)

TRANSFERRING THE PULLETS TO THE LAYER HOUSE-Before the pullets actually start laying eggs
they must be transferred to the laying house. They should not be allowed to lay eggs on the rearing
floor to avoid the development of egg eating habits. Also if they have started laying, transferring birds
from the raring pen to laying house may affect the laying performance.

If everything is so programmed so that layer houses are prepared at the proper time, whether it is a
first batch of pullets or replacement stocks, pullets are best transferred before they commence laying.
This should be done at approximately 16-18 weeks or a month before laying.

DAILY ROUTINE WORK IN THE LAYER HOUSE

 FEEDING-layers must be fed a dietary composition refereed to as layer ration or breeder

ration. Commercial feed millers may have some variation of each of these kinds for their
purpose of selling. Layer ration will generally contain protein level ranging from 15% to as
high as 18%.

The amount of feed consumed by layers is influenced by a variety of factors:

o Age, size and egg production rate of the particular layer
o Energy content of the diet
o Climatic conditions
o Health status of the hens

Generally, mature laying hens will consume about as low as 90 grams to a high as 140 grams per
day. One year consumption varies from 40 to 42 kilos per year.

 WATERING- drinking water must be available to the layer at all times. The egg is about 65 to
70 % water. 100 layers can consume about 7 gallons of water during a normal day and will
drink much more when the temperature of the environment becomes higher. Layer can take
certain short period of starvation (w/o) feeds when water is available and keep a normal egg
production rate. When they are deprived of drinking water for a couple of hours, even when
there is feed all the time, this will certainly be reflected in a declined egg production.

 EGG COLLECTION-laying hens are expected to produce one egg per day. They are capable of
doing it but it is next to impossible to realized the one-egg-one-day for long period of time.
They are therefore expected to skip some days om egg production.

Oviposition (the act of egg laying) takes place normally as early as 7:00 AM to as late as 4:00 PM.
Majority of hens lay their eggs between 10:00 AM to 2:00 PM. The concentration of egg laying takes
place before noon as a common observation.

Collecting eggs more often than once has the following advantages
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 The eggs can be kept in the egg storage room where favorable environmental conditions can
be provided.
 Eggs kept long in the nest or pens or cages are liable to be exposed to high temperature,
more dust and dirt, birds dung, trampled by hen, intentionally picked, or broken by some
layer and other possible agencies that can injure them.

Eggs must be collected in wire basket to provide good air circulation.

 CULLING- As a general practice, culling can be executed at any time if it is necessary that
some of the birds must be removed due to whatever characteristics conditions existing at a
particular time.
 FLOCK MANAGEMENT PROGRAM- in a set up of one year laying program and a total
replacement of all old hens, the number of chicks to be raised can be determined. The raising
of replacement pullets must be started so as to coordinate or synchronize the time of
maturity together with time of disposal of the old birds to be replaced.

LAYER MANAGEMENT ON HOT CLIMATE

VENTILATION-Air movement around the birds at floor level has a beneficial cooling effects. In shade
houses, take full advantage of natural breezes using paddles or circulating fans in periods of still
weather and particularly during the heat of the day. In controlled environment houses, use inlets with
movable louvers that can direct moving air directly on to the birds at floor levels.

In controlled environment houses, over ventilate during the cool part of the day in order to cool down
the whole house. Birds experiencing a cool period each day are better able to withstand hotter period
with no adverse effects on performance

FLOOR SPACE-Provide birds with up to 100 %( depending on the severity of conditions) more floor
space than is recommended for temperate climates. Three birds per square meter is an absolute
maximum. In controlled environment houses, rearing males with females makes the most economic
use of expensive floor space

LITTER MANAGEMENT-Maintain only a very shallow layer of litter on concrete floors. This will
maximize any cooling effect that the concrete floor may have on the birds through absorption of body
heat. Fry, dusty litters can cause severe irritation and damage to the eyes of chickens. Avoid dustiness
by sprinkling water generously on litter at regular intervals. This spraying can, during extremely hot
dry spells, be advantageously extended to the birds themselves and the feed.

WATER SUPPLIES

1) Whenever possible, use water supply such as well which provides cool water. Water
consumption can double in very hot weather
2) Bury or insulate pipes to maintain the original coolness
3) Supply troughs in which breeders may sip their combs and wattles so that evaporation of
water cool the blood supply in the combs and wattles
4) In extremely hot weather, when water consumption may be doubled to prevent heat
prostration, do not place drugs or other substances in the water that might decrease its
palatability and, therefore its uptake. The distribution of waterers should be such as to
minimize the distance any birds has to move in order to drink; ideally both feed and water
should be distributed so that no birds has to move more than 1 ½ meters to get its
requirement.

LIGHTING-In shade houses, natural daylight must be supplemented with artificial lighting in order to
obtain desirable lighting patterns that are necessary to adequately control sexual maturity. A
constant or decreasing lighting pattern during rearing is essential to prevent too early sexual
maturity. An increasing or constant light pattern is necessary after 22-24 weeks of age.

EGG HANDLING

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1) Supply at least one nest per four females. Ensure free circulation of air round the nest areas
to discharge broodiness.
2) Collect eggs more regularly than in temperate areas and transfer immediately to the egg
cooling room which should be located on the farm site. Transport eggs to the hatchery in an
insulated van.
3) Practice daily fumigation of eggs

NUTRITION

1) In hot climates, poor production , small egg size, and thin shells are generally the result of an
inadequate daily intake of the required nutrient.
2) Where feed consumption is lowered merely by depression of the appetite and because of high
temperature during the period of bird activity, there will be an adequate intake of ALL
nutrients. This can be corrected by allowing the feeding activity to occur during the cool part
of the day, when appetite is stimulated. Additionally, if facilities allow, advantage can be
gained by feeding damped or wet mash, as can the substitution of mash by crumbs or pellets.
3) Generally in hot climates, the energy requirement of the hen are much reduced; because she
eats to meet only her energy requirement, this results in an adequate daily intake of protein,
vitamins and minerals. In this situation, the correct daily intake of nutrients can only be
achieved by correct feed formulation based upon a denser ration in which particular attention
should be given to increasing vitamin levels as well as above temperature climate levels.
4) The correct formulation of feed depends upon local conditions. It requires knowledge of the
relationship between energy content of the feed and the amount of feed consumed daily. With
correct formulation the latter will contain the correct daily allowance of proteins, vitamins and
minerals. Some vitamin supplementation can be done via the water and a continuous level of
vitamin supplementation is virtually essential during all periods of heat stress.
5) Feed intake is the main method of controlling sexual maturity in open houses and very careful
attention must be given to controlling quantities very often to levels much below those used in
temperate areas.
6) Where intake levels are severely controlled, check weighting of the birds is absolutely vital. It
is also essential to ensure proper ration formulation particularly in respect of any drug
inclusions such as antibiotics.

FEEDING MANAGEMENT

BROILER / MEAT TYPE

1) Broiler commercial ration are fed to the birds during the first 5 weeks and from then on are
replaced by the broiler-finisher ration
2) All purpose of straight broiler ration is fed from the start to the marketing age of eight weeks
3) Commercial broilers feeds contains additives considered to be growth promoting substances.
Feed additives make the production of broiler profitable and help broiler farms control diseases

LAYER / EGG TYPE

1) Starter mash is given from day old to 8-10 weeks old

2) Growing mash is given to birds aged 8-10 weeks until they are 5 months old or when the egg
production reaches 10 percent. This mash promotes pullet growth at a rate that is just right to
allow the bird to develop its body and internal organs so that it ill start to lay at the right time.
3) The birds should not be allowed to get fat during the growing period because this causes poor
egg production and high mortality among layers. A good way of preventing fatness among the
pullets is to restrict their feed to 85% of normal consumption when they are 16-19 weeks old
then full feed them at 17-20 weeks of age.
4) Laying mash is given to pullets when they are about to lay(10% or until the layers are
replaced or when they reach 19 weeks of age.
5) Wetting the mash or instituting wet mash feeding at noon during hot days will increase
appetite of the birds

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POULTRY FEED PREPARATION AND FORMULATION

Basic Knowledge of Nutrition

The Nutrient Composition of Chickens and Eggs

Nutrient Chickenn (%) Eggs (%)
Water 55-78 2 66
Protein 21 13 3
Fats 17 10 4
Minerals 3.5 11 5
2-
depends on age of birds, ; young gave a higher water content
3-
chiefly in egg white
4-
chiefly on the yolk
5-
nearly all in calcium in shell

Water – the importance of water is demonstrated by the fact that at least 55 percent of the
liveweight of the chicken and 65 percent of the egg is water which it contains. A general average is
that the chicken will consume a weight of water equal to two or three times the weight of feed
consumed. During hot weather, chickens will consume about twice as much as water equal to two or
three times the weight of feed consumed. Chickens will consume about twice as much water as they
do under conditions of average temperature

Carbohydrates – they serve as a source of heat and energy in the body. A surplus taken into the
body may be transformed into fat and stored as a reserved supply of heat and energy

Fats – the function of fat is to serve as a source of energy for the body.The chicken may obtain its
fats from three sources: the fat, the protein and the carbohydrates in feed

Proteins- proteins are analyzed amino acids by various digestive enzymes, then various amino acids
are combined in various ways to produce meat, eggs and other proteins. A protein is said to be of
good quality when it contains sufficient available quantities of those amino acids that the animal
cannot make but which it requires for normal growth and reproduction. In general, the protein in
feedstuffs of plant origin are inferior to those in feedstuff of animal origin. Synthetic amino acids are
being used in increasing quantities to supplement natural proteins. Methionine and lysine can be
added to supplement feeds which contains chiefly plant sources protein (soybean meal)

When formulating chicken rations, they must be designed as to supply all essential amino acids in
ample amount. Additionally, there must be sufficient total nitrogen for the chicken to synthesize the
other amino acids needed.

Minerals – the minerals which have been shown to be essential for chickens are calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, manganese, zinc, iron, copper, iodine, sodium, chlorine, potassium, sulfur, molybdenum,
and selenium. Of these, calcium, phosphorus,, manganese, sodium, chlorine, and zinc are considered
to be the most practical importance since outside sources of them must be added to practical feed
formulation for chickens.

Minerals are used for bone and egg formation, digestion, maintenance of body neutrality, respiration,
and elasticity and irritability of muscles and nerves.

Vitamins – vitamins are absolutely essential for the maintenance of health, growth and reproduction.
They must be stored in the egg along with other nutrients for embryo development. Although they are
not constituents of animal tissues, they are component of certain enzyme systems, and thus are
essential for the normal processes of those tissues.

Factors Involved in Formulating Chicken Rations

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1. Nutrient requirements of the particular bird to be feed

2. Availability of nutrient content and the cost of feedstuffs
3. The palatability and physical conditions of feedstuffs
4. The presence of substances harmful to product quality.

HEALTH MANAGEMENT

General Symptoms of Diseases in Poultry

1. Off-feed- commonly the first sign of illness. The birds does not eat all its normal amount of
ration. Some feed remain the feeding troughs.
2. Listlessness- in some infectious diseases, the sick birds losses its alertness and tends to
isolate itself from the flock
3. Sick birds do not respond to calls of caretakers- they will not come even during feeding time
4. Fever- most infectious diseases are accompanied by rise in body temperature
5. Respiratory disorders- when the respiratory system is affected, there is difficulty in breathing.
Sometimes there are discharge from the nostrils
6. Weakness and loss of weight- as the disease progresses the birds become weak and losses
body weight

Ways of Protecting Flock from Diseases

1. Obtain stock only flock known to be free from diseases

2. Raise birds in a clean, dry and well-ventillated house that is free from cold and draft
3. Provide chickens with a balance diet. Make sure they always have fresh and clean drinking
water
4. Undertake vaccination regularly against the common animal diseases
5. Do not mix at once newly acquired stocks with original ones. Isolate the new arrivals for at
least 2 weeks for observation of infection
6. When diseases are prevalent in the neighborhood, avoid visiting premises of neighbors whose
animals are sick.
7. Disease outbreak can be prevented by instituting the following vaccination programs

AGE OF TYPE OF VACCINE ROUTE OF REMARKS

BIRD USED ADMINI-
STRATION
8-10 days New Castle Intranasal Chicks from unvaccinated parents may be
Disease or Avian vaccinated as early as 3 days of age
Pests Vaccines
21-24 Fowl Pox Vaccine Wing Web May not be given in areas where the disease is
days not common
26-28 NCD Intranasal or Check protection to 10-14 days after
days Intramuscular vaccination. Revaccination if protection is low.

Common Diseases of Poultry

AVIAN PEST (NEW CASTLE DISEASE)

Cause: Virus
Transmission
 Direct contact with nasal and a mouth discharges of infected birds
 Airborne transmission
 Through mechanical means such as being carried by sparrows(maya), predators or other birds
 Human being transmit the diseases through infected cloths and shoes
Signs
 In the young birds, gasping, coughing, rattling of the windpipe, hoarse chirping, paralysis,
walking backward and circling
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 In adults, coughing, occasional paralysis, abrupt drop in egg production, soft-shelled eggs,
greenish watery diarrhea
Prevention-vaccination. Consult your veterinarian
Treatment
 There is no treatment for the disease. In case of an outbreak, the following measures could be
adapted to minimize its further spread and effect control of the disease.
o Isolate the birds quickly
o Quarantine area by regulating persons entering the disease-affected premise or from
other farms as well as from one poultry house to another
o Revaccination of the birds if titer(detected by serological tests) is already low
o Thoroughly disinfect the house and premises. Allow to dries up before occupancy
o Burry dead birds

CHRONIC RESPIRATORY DISEASE (CRD)

Cause: Mycoplasma organisms or Pleuropneumonia-like organisms (PPLO)

Transmission
 CRD organisms is egg borne; contracted exposure to infected flock
 Airborne transmission
Signs
 Tracheal rales, sneezing, coughing watery or sticky discharge from the nostrils
 Foamy exudates in the eyes
 Feed consumption is reduced and the birds lose weight

Treatment-Broad spectrum antibiotics, either by injection or mixed with the feeds or drinking water

COCCIDIOSIS

Cause: Microscopic organisms called Coccidia (Eimeria species) usually occurs in flocks below two
months of age.
Transmission
 When birds pick up or swallow the coccidial organisms
 Contaminated feed and water
 Indirect contact thru flies, human beings and other mechanical means
Signs
 Tendency to huddle together in a corner
 Decreased feed and water intake and poor weight gain
Prevention-Icorporation of Coccidialstats in the feeds or drinking water. Use of sulfa drugs. Most feed
companies incorporate this in the feed mixture as indicated in the feed drugs

MEREKS DISEASE

Cause : Virus
Transmission-Exposure to infected birds or to environment with existing virus, poultry nests and
feeders
Signs
 Initial symptoms are legs weakness and paralysis of one or both legs
 Birds tend to rest on their breasts with one leg extended and the other backward
 They could hardly reach the feeders and waterers resulting in dehydration and emanciation
which finally causes death
Prevention-Vaccination with MD vaccine, the most commonly used is the so called Herpes Virus of
Turkey (HVT)
Treatment-There is no known treatment for the disease

AVIAN MALARIA

Cause : Microscopic protozoan parasite

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Transmission-Bites of mosquitoes, mechanically by blood transfer as in mass vaccination,

caponization and injections

Signs
 Severe anemia (paleness), extreme leg weakness, emaciation and nervous signs like twitching
of the head
 The shanks and toes are dry and birds ruffled feathers
 Greenish-yellow diarrhea

Prevention-Control of mosquitoes within the premises and houses with effective insecticide, including
spraying the breeding places of mosquitos. Proper drainage of stagnant water.

Treatment-Antimalarial drops like plasmochin, quinine hydrochloride and pyrimethemine

combinations were found effective. Confer with the veterinarians

FOWL POX

Cause: Virus
Transmission-Spread by mosquitoes that feed on pox-infected birds; direct contact, mechanically
transmitted by visitors, wild birds and predators
Signs: there are two forms:
 Dry Form- characterized by the formation of black wart-like nodules on the skin of the face, in
the region of the comb, wattles and around the eyes, causing the latter to swell and close.
There is usually profuse eye discharge
 Wet form- characterized by the presence of whitish-yellow growth of the pharynx, larynx and
windpipe. Because of the growth, there is difficulty in breathing which will result in death due
to suffocation.
Prevention-Vaccination with fowl pox vaccines. Control the mosquitoes by spraying with insecticides
Treatment-There is no effective treatment against the disease. In wet form, removal of the wart-like
growth in the throat usually leads to recovery. In the dry form, the early applications of Tincture of
Iodine directly on the wart-like growth has been found to give beneficial results

INFECTIOUS CORYZA

Cause: Bacterial organisms

Transmission-Through the air, direct contact or through contamination of the feed, water and
equipment.
Signs
 Swelling of the face and wattles and discharge from the nostrils which at first is watery, but
becomes sticky and with foul odor as the disease progresses
 In laying flock, egg production decreases
Prevention-Strict sanitation of the farm, isolate sick birds immediately
Treatment-Broad spectrum antibiotics applied in the feed and water and sulfa preparations are
recommended.

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QUAIL PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

BREEDS OF QUAIL

 Japanese Seattle
 Silver
 Negro
 Japanese Taiwan/ Chinese Quail
 Tuxedo
 Brown Cross nos. 1 and 2

SELECTION OF STOCKS

BODY CONFORMATION
1) The feathers should be tidy and neat
2) Avoid buying those with steak of white or black feathers- these could be signs of inbreeding

CHOOSE BIRDS WITH UNIFORM SIZE-A mature (60 day old ) Japanese quail (C. japonica) have an
average weight of 120 grams. However, a 30-35 day old bird would only average 100 grams. The
American quail (C. cuturnix) however weight heavier at 220 grams for the mature bird and 200
grams for the 30-35 days-old.

RECORDS OF THE PARENT STOCK

1) Size of eggs
2) Laying efficiency- a 65% average laying efficiency within 300 days laying period is desirable
3) Growth rate and body weight

MANAGEMENT

HOUSING AND EQUIPMENT-One of the advantages in quail raising is the relatively small space that
is required. Commensurately, the cost of putting up a cage is less. The materials commonly used in
making quail cages are plywood, ¼ inch mesh wire and 1”x1” lumber to serve as framework. For
every stage in the quails life, space requirement varies. This is true as in the case of other fowls and
even livestock animals. The following are the space requirements for quails

Japanese American
(per bird) (per bird)

Chick stage 2½“X2½“ 2½“X2½

(1-15 day old
Growing stage 3” x 3” 3 ½” x 3 ½”
(16-35 days old)
Laying stage 3 ½” x 3 ½” 4 ½” x 4 ½ “
(36 days old and
Up)
Since quails are not efficient feed converted, they should not be raised for broiler production

Layer cages should not be too high preferably a 5” and 6” height can accommodate the Japanese and
American breed respectively. Providing too much space will encourage too much movement thereby
increasing the risks of injuries

BROODING MANAGEMENT

TEMPERATURE-During the first five days, the temperature requirement of the quail chick is 95 F this
may be reduced to 90 F on the 6th day down to 85 F on the 10th day after which the quail birds will
have developed enough feathers to keep their body warm under ordinary room temperature.

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To ensure better circulation of air in the brooding box, air vents should be provided. Used clean cloths
or sack can be spread over the screen portion of the brooder especially during the first 10 days. This
will help conserve the heat in the brooder. Five to six layers of clean and dry newspaper shall be used
to cover the mesh wire flooring during the first 10 days. This practice is necessary because it will not
only help conserve the heat inside the brooder box but more importantly, cleaning and removal of
quail manure is facilitated by just rolling the topmost layer of paper. After the 10 th day, all the papers
removed and feeding through covered with ¼ mesh wire (to avoid too much spillage) will be used.
Water in the drinking should be changed daily and care must be exercised to avoid spilling of water
over the paper to prevent unnecessary dumpness.

Gas lamp or electric bulb may be used to control the temperature inside the brooder. The brooder box
must be cat and rat proof. With proper feeds. Enough water and optimum temperature maintained,
the mortality of quails can be kept at 5%-8% during the brooding stage which usually last up to 15
days.

REARING MANAGEMENT-After the 15th day, the birds are transferred to the growing cages. During
the growing stage, it is not advisable to expose the birds to more than 12 hours of light. For smaller
operation, a brooder/ grower box combination can be constructed but the shape requirement of the
birds should be observed.

Only birds which are healthy and with uniform size should be transferred to the growing cages. The
small ones should be disposed. The average mortality from the start of the growing period up to 35
days is 1-4%. On the 35th day, the male birds are already discernable by the dark brown color of the
breast feathers. At this stage, the female birds can be segregated and transferred to the laying cages.
Approximately 40% of the total population can be chosen as layers on an assumed 50/50
male/female ratio. The remaining birds can be fattened up to 60 days before these are dressed and
sold as broilers. During the 25 days fattening period, light should be restricted from 6-8 hours a day.
This practice will improve the quality of the meat.

LAYER MANAGEMENT

On the average, quail start laying after 45 days from hatching. The production cycle lasts for 300-320
days and within this period the laying efficiency should be maintained at 65%. Some of the major
consideration when managing layers are

a) Feeding
b) Water- like any other bird, quail needs a lot of fresh and clean water. Whenever possible ,
flowing water should be maintained except when there is supply problem in which case water
should be replaced daily and watering trough must be cleared everyday.
c) Culling- for large scale operation, it is advisable that massive culling be done regularly,
preferably on a quarterly basis or even obce every 4 months. Birds that have physical defects
should be removed including those which grown fat, or are sickly and are not laying eggs. This
latter condition is manifested by the size of the vent and the conformation of the abdominal
parts.
d) Removal of waste- Because of the high protein content of the quail feeds, quail manure has
high ammonia content which will cause discomfort for the birds if not removed daily. Removal
of the manure can be facilitated by placing a manure receptacle or receiver under the cage.
e) Light- laying quails may be given extra light up to midnight. This will allow the birds to
consume the feed in the trough. Furthermore, the weaker birds in the group will have enough
time to eat after the dominant ones have eaten their share.
f) It is not advisable to mix male birds in the laying cage except when fertile eggs are t be
produced. If there is an intention of producing fertile eggs for future replacement, the male
should be kept in separate cage and should only be mixed with layers at the time fertile eggs
are to be produced at a ratio of 1: 6 to 1:3 for the Japanese and American breed respectively.
g) Quail birds are very sensitive to high salt level in the feeds. The optimum level of this mineral
should be kept at 7% and in no case be more than 1%.

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FEEDING MANAGEMENT-The protein requirements of chicken and quails are different and as such
the use of chicken feeds in quail raising is not advisable. Below is a comparison of the crude protein
requirement of chicken and quail.

QUAIL CHICKEN
Chick Stage 28% 21%
Grower Stage 24% 16%
Layer Stage 26% 15%

Quail cannot survive on chicken feeds for a long time. If ever they will survive, the mortality rate will
be very high sometimes reaching up to 70% from day old to 45 days. Moreover, the growth of the
birds is very uneven and the survivors will not be efficient layers. The productive laying period for
quails fed with chicken feed do not go beyond six months.

Another disadvantage of feeding chicken mash to quails is the very occurrence of molting which
affects severely the egg production.

The claim that mixing quail feeds with higher protein is expensive and not economical is baseless. The
advantages of giving the right ration far outweight the costs of giving cheicken feeds. This advantages
can be summarized below.

1. Mortality rate can be kept low with good feed

5-8% from 1-15 days
1-4 % from 16-35 days
8-12% from 36- 360 days

2. Production
a) Laying efficiency can be easily maintained within the average range of 63-68% for a period of
300-320 days. It is not rare to get laying efficiency of 80%.
b) Eggs are bigger and more nutritious
c) For breeders- fertility and hatchability are high

These things when quantified and taken together would positively refute the claim that feeding with
higher protein content as recommended here is costly and uneconomical.

The feed consumption of quail at different stages are :

Japanese American
Chick stage (per 7 grams/ day 10 grams / day
bird)
Growing stage 17 grams / day 32 grams/ day
(per bird)
Laying stage 23 grams/ day 45 grams/ day
(per bird)

During the first 15 days, the feed of the birds should be grounded to fineness enough to pass an
ordinary screen wire

Like chickens, quails are affected by abrupt changes in feeding. Hence, it is not advisable to change
feed abruptly.

MAINTAINING HEALTH-There is no known morbid disease of quails. While they suffer from some
respiratory disorders, these do not spread fast and the mortality rate is very low. Hence it is not
difficult to maintain the health of birds. Regular cleaning and disinfection program, however, should be
followed. Cages and broiler boxes including the incubator and hatchery trays can be cleaned with

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strong water dried under the sun. spraying with disinfectant follows. Vitamin premix can also be
added to the feeds or the drinking water to promote growth and improve the laying performance.

MARKETING

EGGS-Eggs are the main product of quails. For small scale/ backyard quail raising, this can be placed
in a bascket and marketed fresh. For bigger operation, it is advisable to pack eggs in carbon boxes
with individual dividers to protect the quality of the eggs. Storing eggs in a cool dry place where air
circulation is good can keep the eggs fresh for a period of seven days.

BROILERS/ STEWERS-The average feed conversion ratio of quail is 3: 1 this poor feed conversion
efficiency makes a broiler uneconomical and therefore any broiler produced should be treated
secondary product in quail raising. The procedure in dressing quail is the same as in chicken. The
birds are bled ans scaled in hot water (about 132-135 F) after the feathers are removed. Evisceration
follows. The dressed birds are then chilled and packed by the dozen or in kilos.

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DUCK PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

KINDS OF DUCKS

EGG- TYPE DUCKS

NATIVE OR PATEROS DUCKS-The native or Pateros ducks commonly called itik, is the most
popularly raised locally. Although smaller than imported breeds, they are good layers and non-sitters.
Their eggs are large.

Its predominant colors are black and gray. Some are barred (bulek), others are brown or have white
feathers mixed with black/ green. Males have coarser heads and heavier bodies than females. Males
emit shrill high-pitched sounds. They have curly feathers on top of their tails

The females emit low-pitched quacking sounds. Their tail feathers lie flat or close to the bodies.

In all commercial duck hatcheries, determining the sex of duckling is done at the age of 2 to 3 days.

KHAKI CAMPBELL DUCK-Khaki Campbell ducks have characteristics brown color, have extremely
active habits, do well in good range and show little desire for swimming.

These ducks are good layers; they lay as many as 300 or more eggs a year which are failrly large,
thicked-shelled and weigh 70 to 75 grams each.

COMMERCIAL HYBRID DUCK-The world first hybrid egg-type duck was known as CV2000 was
developed at Cherry valley Farms, England. It has white plumage and lays it eggs at about 20 weeks
of age. The body weight at point of lay is about 1.50 kg. On the average this duck could lay 285 eggs
up to 72 weeks of age, with a mean egg weight of 75 kg. This duck can be distinguished by their pure
white feathers. Their eggs are either white or greenish.

INDIAN RUNNER-This breed originated from the East Indies, but its egg production capability was
developed in Western Europe.

This duck assumes a very erect normal posture with a re almost straight neck. The back is long,
straight and narrow. An adult weighs about 2.10 kg while an adult duck weighs about 1.80 kg. the egg
production characteristics of this breed resembles that of the Khaki Campbell.

TSAIYA-This breed was developed in Taiwan. The original color ranges from black neck to pure white.
Due to farmers preferences, the brown breed was selected and raised as a major variety while the
white variety was developed for the production of mule ducks (Hybrid of Mallard & Muscovy). Tsaiya
ducks have small body size. An adult female weighsabout 1.30 kg. while the male weighs a bout 1.40
kg. The average age at just egg is 126 days with eggs weighing about 68 9 at 40 weeks of age. They
could lay about 207 days in 360 days.

MEAT TYPE- DUCKS

MUSCOVY DUCK- MEAT TYPE-Muscovy duck (pato) is easily identified by its carunculated face or
red knobby I nodules along the eyes and above the base of the bill.

Muscovy is a heavy breed. It has plump body and yellow skin. It has three varieties : the white, the
colored and the blue.

Unlike other breeds, Muscovy ducks prefer to stay on land. They are good forgers, so they require less
care and can subsists on what they can pick up in the field supplemented only with palay and corn.

Muscovy has low egg production but is more self-sustaining than Pateros duck. It hatches her egg in
33 days to 35 days.

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The objection to this breed is its tendency to fly far away from home and get lost. It is therefore
necessary to clip their flight feathers regularly. Clip only those of one wings to remove the birds
balance flying

PEKIN DUCK-Pekin duck is a native of China belonging to the meat type of ducks. Sometimes it is
mistaken for a goose because it carries its body rather upright. It is docile and well-adapted to
Philippine climate.

Pekin ducks are good layers, and duckling are ready for market at 2 to 3 months old.

HOUSING

 Build your duck house in a quite, cool place and near as possible to a stream or pond. Local
materials like bamboo, nipa and cogon are cool
 Provide each duck with at least 3 to 4 square feet of floor space. Cover the flavor with rice
hulls, corn cubs, peanut hulls or similar materials to keep it dry and clean and help prevent
spread of pests and diseases. A house of 100 ducks measure 4 x 4 meters and 3 meters high
or high enough to let a man stand indside.
 You may provide a swimming pond 10 feet wide and 20 feet long for 50 birds. However, the
pond is not becessary in duck raising as they lay just as many eggs without it.
 House ducks in groups according to size or age to facilitate management and to avoid quarrels
common among ducks of different ages. Older ducks tend to push out younger ones from
feeding troughs.
 Separate duck houses from one another by bamboo fences low enough to go over them from
one pen to another. Fence should extend down to the shallow edge of the water to prevent
ducks from straying away too far.

SELECTION AND MATING

 Select vigourous breeding stock. Select breeders when birds are about 8 weeks old and again
at 4 to 5 months old before they are placed in breeding pens.
 Eggs from hatching purposes should come from ducks not less than 7 months old to insure
better fertility, hatchability and livability of offspring.
 Drakes (male ducks) should have the same age as ducks or even a month older. They should
be raised separately from ducks. They are put together only when ready for mating.
 One drake may be mated to 6 to 10 ducks. Heavier breedings, however should have a closer
ratio of males to females than light breeds
 Pateros ducks start laying when they are 4 to 6 months old. Muscovy and Pekin ducks start
laying at 6 to 7 months old.

HATCHING

 The period of incubation for duck eggs is 28 days, except Muscovy which is 33 days to 35
days. Breeds of ducks that have high degree of laying are non-sitters and their eggs are
hatched through artificial incubation.
 The muscovy is a natural mother. She hatches and breeds her own duckling with none or little
assistance from man. Native or Pateros duck is a non-sitter, so her eggs are incubated under
the native method of incubation called balutan.
 The balutan or hatchery is a simple one-room house made of bamboo wood or hallow blocks
and roofed with nipa or galvanized iron or some convert the frist floors of their houses into
balutan, commonly called kamalig or barn. It is provided with : 1 withonly one door to avoid
drafts; some have windows that are opened only during hot months. Its floor is of hard earth
or concrete and covered with 3-inches layer of rice hull.

CARE OF DUCKLING

 Duckling need to be brooded or warmed either by natural or artificial method until they are
one month old. Most ducks are non-sitters and are not expected to brood. Hens may be made
to sit on duck eggs and brood ducklings.
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 After removing duckling from incubator, transfer them to hardening boxes. Place these boxes
from the brooding room that is drfat free and rat proof. If boxes are not available, raise
duckling on straw-covered floor. Woven bamboo mats or sawali may be used as floor mat
 Heat is necessary when brooding duckling at least during the first week. When nights become
coolder specially during the months of January and Febuary, artificial heat may be necessary
for at least 10 days. Kerosene lamps or electric bulbs may be used for brooding
 The brooder should have a temperature of 95F for the last week; 85-90F for the second week;
70-85F for the third week and 70F for the last week
 The behavior of the duckling is a good indicator whether brooding temperature is correct.
Duckling huddle close together toward the source of the heat when temperature is very low;
scattered or spread evenly when temperature is correct; but panting and panting and moving
away from the source of heat when temperature is too hot.
 A good brooding area is at least 1 square foot per duckling during the first week. Increase the
area by about 3 sq foot every week until the fourth week.
 When duckling show signs of sickness, add 3 tablespoon of Nexal for every gallon of water for
2-3 days. Skip or withdraw after 3 days. Then continue for another 3 days. Terramycin poultry
formula can also be used

DETERMINING THE SEX-Duckling are sexed before placing in the brooder. This is done by pressing
the region of the crop inward, and with two fingers, press the vent slightly outward. By this process,
the male organ protrudes and is exposed to view, while in the female, this remains flat.

FEEDING

 Feed duckling with wet starter mash for 8 weeks. Native ducklings raised the native way are
fed moistened boiled rice for the first 33 weeks, 4 to 5 times a day. During the first few days,
give feed at night. Start giving water in drinking troughs or fountains on the 2 nd day. On the
5th day, add finely chopped small shrimps to boiled rice. Increase their feed as duckling grow
older.
 At the age of one month, feed duckling with tiny fresh water snails and boiled unhulled rice of
palay. Give only enough feed to be consumed as they tend to spoil when left long in the
troughs.
 Mash feed for ducklings is composed of corn, soybean meal, fish meal, dried whey, rice bran
with oyster shell and none meal with vitamin-mineral supplements. Feed one day to 6-weeks
old ducklings with starter mash with 10-21% crude protein; for 6 week old to 4-month old
duckling with grower mash with 16% crude protein ; and 4-month old ducks and above with
layer mash or ratio with 16% crude protein.
 If mash feed is preferred , give only enough to be consumed quickly at one time for 10 to 15
minutes. Wet mash tends to spoil when left in long in hoppers. If feed is given at intervals,
duckling learn to eat more readily and their appetites are developed to stuff themselves in
between drinks, digest food quickly and be ready to eat their fill for the next feeding time.
 Four to five feedings a day are sufficient for duckling over 2 weeks old. Provide plenty of
clean, fresh water as ducks drink after evry mouthful of foods
 Ducks are wasteful and slovenly while feeding. Provide proper adequate feeding hoppers to
prevent much waste foods.
 Fine gravel or grit is necessary to growing ducks to help them grind their feed.
 Starter ration is given when ducks are 1 day to 6 weeks only. Grower ration is given when
ducks are 6 weeks old. Developer or fattening ration is given when birds are above 6 weeks
old.

DISEASE PREVENTION AND CONTROL

 Purchase stock from reliable sources or hatcheries

 Raise only healthy stocks. Sick birds should be culled immediately and disposed of properly to
avoid spread of infection
 Feed ducks with balanced ration. Ducks feed with unbalanced ration are prone to diseases
 Provide cool, fresh and clean drinking water at all times. Clean waterers at least once a day.
Highly polluted water is detrimental to the ducks health and can affect overall performance

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 Provide clean and dry feeders at all times. Wet feeders are prone to the growth of yeasts,
harmful bacteria and harmful molds which are sources of mycotoxins such as aflatoxins,
ocratoxins, and related toxins. Since ducks are highly susceptible to aflatoxicosis, the above
activity should be strictly followed
 Keep ducks at the same age in the same pen and provide them with the same medication
 Keep farm and its surrounding clean. Ducks should be provided with clean and dry litters and
well drained areas
 Provide well ventilated with dry flooring or litter. Do not overstock the animals in the pen
 Secure constructed buildings so that dogs, cats, rats and other possible diseases ventords
cannot enter
 Minimize activities that can cause stress to the ducks and thus lower its production
 Burn or bury dead ducks as soon as possible to avoid flies from breeding on the decomposing
matter. This will also prevent infected maggots from being eaten by ducks
 Prohibit delivery trucks from entering the production area as disease organisms are often
introduced into the farm by these delivery vehicles and /or visitors
 Install footpath in strategic locations to prevent entry of infective agents into the farm.
 Vaccinate ducklings against duck cholera with polyvalent bacterin if available. Give antibiotic-
vitamin-mineral supplement to suppress build-up of bacterial infection and improve the ducks
health conditions
 Spray the animals with insecticide at least once a year to control lice and mites, beetles, and
other arthropods that can cause annoyance to the ducks
 Avid giving decomposed food such as snail, shrimps, fish and meat which may contain virulent
microorganisms or their toxins
 Make sure that palays are free from insecticides which can cause adverse effects on the health
and production of the ducks
 Maintain good production and health records
 Avoid mixing new stocks to the flocks. Quarantine newly arrived ducks for at least two weeks.
Outbreak of disease may occur through introduction of sick or carrier ducks

Bacterial Diseases
 Duck cholera
 Salmonellosis

Viral Diseases
 Duck plaque
 Viral hepatitis

REFERENCES

CAGMAT, D. 2003. Lecture / Review Notes in Poultry Production and Management. IN Preparation for
the Agriculturists Licensure Examination held at the CEC, CMU and NIA Conference Hall, Valencia City,
Bukidnon. April-June 2004.

IAS. THE INSTITUTE OF ANIMAL SCIENCE. Lecture Notes in Animal Science 2. Introduction to
Livestock and Poultry Production. IAS, College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines Los Banos,
Laguna.

PCARRD. 2003. THE PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, FORESTRY, AND NATURAL
RESOURCES RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT. The Philippine Recommends for Poultry Production.
PCARRD, Los Banos, Laguna

THERE IS NO SUCH THING AS AN EMPTY GLASS; IT IS EITHER FILLED WITH LIQUID OR

WITH AIR. THERE IS ALSO NO SUCH THING AS EMPTY MIND; IT IS EITHER FILLED WITH
POSITIVE OR NEGATIVE THOUGHTS.

END OF REVIEW MATERIAL IN POULTRY PRODUCTION AND MANAGEMENT

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