TAGORE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Deviyakurichi-636112, Thalaivasal(TK), Salem (DT). Website: www.tagoreiet.ac.in

Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Accredited by NAAC
1
QUESTION BANK
Name of the Department : ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
Subject Code & Name : CEC335 & ANTENNA DESIGN
Year & Semester : III& V I

UNIT I
ANTENNA ARRAY FUNDAMENTALS
PART A

1. What are the two types of beamforming?

Analog beamforming involves use of some analog phase delay line, while in digital beamforming, the
delay is applied by simply delaying the signal output from the transceiver.
2. What is array weighting?
The weight of an array is defined as the first element of the array added to the sum of absolute
difference between its elements.
3. What are weights in beamforming?
Beamformer weights returned as an N-by-M complex-valued matrix. In this matrix, N represents the
number of sensor elements of the array while M represents the number of beamforming directions.
Each column of weight corresponds to a beamforming direction specified in ang.

4. What is the difference between fixed and adaptive beamforming?

Fixed beamforming generally describes a conventional technique where the antenna array pattern is
obtained from fixed element weights that do not depend on the signal environment. Adaptive
beamforming element weights that do depend on —and can adapt to— the signal environment via
some feedback mechanism.

5. What is the difference between beam forming and beam steering?

Beamforming—the shape of the beam can be controlled by the phase difference of the individual
signals and the radiation pattern of the phased array antenna is narrow compared to single antennas.
Beam Steering—the elimination of mechanical repositioning makes the beam steering or beam
positioning flexible.
6. How does beam steering work?
Beam steering is achieved by changing the phase of the input signal on all radiating elements. Phase
shifting allows the signal to be targeted at a specific receiver. An antenna can employ radiating
elements with a common frequency to steer a single beam in a specific direction.
7. What is beamforming used for?
Beamforming is a technique used to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of received signals, eliminate
undesirable interference sources, and focus transmitted signals to specific locations. Beamforming is
central to systems with sensor arrays, including MIMO wireless communications systems such as 5G,
LTE, and WLAN.
 TAGORE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Deviyakurichi-636112, Thalaivasal(TK), Salem (DT). Website: www.tagoreiet.ac.in
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Accredited by NAAC
8. What are the advantages of beamforming? 2
Beamforming improves the spectral efficiency by providing a better signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
Working with other antenna technologies such as smart antennas and MIMO, beamforming boosts
cell range and capacity. That means mobile device users get stronger, clearer signals.
9. What are the limitations of beamforming?
Hardware complexity is higher due to use of multiple antennas and other hardware systems. The
beamforming system requires use of advanced high processing DSP chip due to use of mathematical
algorithms in the design.
10. What is side lobe blanking?
The side lobe blanking system turns the video off when the signal in an auxiliary antenna is stronger
than the signal in the main antenna.
11. What is generalized sidelobe Canceller beamforming?
The generalized sidelobe canceler (GSC) is an efficient implementation of a linear constraint
minimum variance (LCMV) beamformer. LCMV beamforming minimizes the output power of an
array while preserving the power in one or more specified directions. This type of beamformer is
called a constrained beamformer.
12. What are the advantages of adaptive beamforming?
It offers several advantages including increased data rates, improved coverage, reduced
power consumption, and enhanced overall system capacity.
Adaptive beamforming enhances spectral efficiency and link quality
. When carriers can more efficiently serve customers and produce a better user experience
at the same time, it's a win-win situation.
13. Compare Passive and active retrodirective arrays.
Passive retrodirective arrays, like the Van Atta array, use equal length transmission lines to redirect
the signal. Active redrodirective arrays use mixers to create the phase conjugation necessary to
redirecte the signal. Applications include high speed tracking, mobile communication, RADAR, and
sensors.
14. What is the relationship between antenna elements and an antenna array?
Antenna elements are individual antennas that make up an antenna array. They work collectively to
achieve the desired radiation pattern and directivity.
15. What are the different types of beamforming techniques used in antenna arrays?
Common beamforming techniques include delay-and-sum beamforming, maximum signal- to-noise
ratio (SNR) beamforming, minimum variance distortionless response (MVDR) beamforming, and
adaptive beamforming methods

PART B & PART C

1. Derive the expression for an array factor of Two - element linear array.
2. Derive the expression for an array factor of n - element linear array.
3. Explain in detail about BSA and EFA.
4. In a linear array of 4 isotropic elements spaced λ/2 apart and with equal currents fed
inphase, plot the radiation pattern.(BSA)
5. In a linear array of 4 isotropic elements spaced λ/2 apart and with equal currents fed out of
phase, plot the radiation pattern. (EFA)
 TAGORE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Deviyakurichi-636112, Thalaivasal(TK), Salem (DT). Website: www.tagoreiet.ac.in
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Accredited by NAAC
6. Explain Butler Matrices – Fixed sidelobe cancelling. 3
7. Explain passive and active retrodirective arrays.

UNIT II PRINCIPLES OF RANDOM VARIABLES AND PROCESSES

PART A
1. Define Random Variables.
In probability, a real-valued function, defined over the sample space of a random experiment, is
called a random variable. That is, the values of the random variable correspond to the outcomes of the
random experiment. Random variables could be either discrete or continuous.
2. What is Probability Density Function?
The Probability Density Function(PDF) defines the probability function representing the density of a
continuous random variable lying between a specific range of values. In other words, the probability
density function produces the likelihood of values of the continuous random variable.
3. What are expectations and moments in probability?
Expectations” are those conditions that are estimated by probability and may happen in the future. In
mathematics “Moments” is defined as the function that can be regarded as quantitative and that can
be measured.
4. What is the difference between stationarity and ergodicity?
A stationary distribution is a probability distribution that remains unchanged over time, regardless of
the starting point of the distribution. An ergodic distribution is a probability distribution that is
invariant with respect to time, meaning that it does not change over time. A stationary process is one
whose probability distribution is the same at all times. For more information see stationary process.
An ergodic process is one which conforms to the ergodic theorem. The theorem allows the time
average of a conforming process to equal the ensemble average.
5. Does stationarity imply ergodicity?
A stochastic process can be both stationary and ergodic, or it can be one but not the other.
Stationarity is a necessary but not sufficient condition for ergodicity, meaning that a process can be
stationary but not ergodic, while an ergodic process is always stationary.
6. What is the difference between wide-sense stationary and ergodic?
For a strict-sense stationary process, this means that its joint probability distribution is constant; for a
wide-sense stationary process, this means that its 1st and 2nd moments are constant. An ergodic
process is one where its statistical properties, like variance, can be deduced from a sufficiently long
sample.
7. What is meant by ergodicity?
: of or relating to a process in which every sequence or sizable sample is equally representative of the
whole (as in regard to a statistical parameter)
: involving or relating to the probability that any state will recur. especially : having zero probability
that any state will never recur.
8. What is property of ergodicity?
Ergodicity is a property of the system; it is a statement that the system cannot be reduced or factored
into smaller components. Ergodic theory is the study of systems possessing ergodicity. Ergodic
systems occur in a broad range of systems in physics and in geometry.
 TAGORE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Deviyakurichi-636112, Thalaivasal(TK), Salem (DT). Website: www.tagoreiet.ac.in
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Accredited by NAAC
9. What is the autocorrelation of a stationary process? 4
The correlation between two values in a time series is known as autocorrelation. In other words, the
time series data are correlated with one another. Stationarity denotes the absence of a trend, a constant
variance, a constant autocorrelation pattern, and no seasonal variation in a time series.
10. What is the difference between autocorrelation and power spectral density?
Energy spectral density measures signal energy distribution across frequency.
Autocorrelation function of an energy signal measures signal self-similarity versus delay:
can be used for synchronization.
11. What is autocorrelation and PSD?
Autocorrelation. The autocorrelation of a real, stationary signal x(t) is defined to by Rx(τ)
= E[x(t)x(t+τ)]. The Fourier transform of Rx(τ) is called the Power Spectral. Density
(PSD) Sx(f).
12. What is called autocorrelation?
Autocorrelation refers to the degree of correlation of the same variables between two
successive time intervals. It measures how the lagged version of the value of a variable is
related to the original version of it in a time series. Autocorrelation, as a statistical
concept, is also known as serial correlation.
13. What is the Rician distribution?
In probability theory, the Rice distribution or Rician distribution (or, less commonly,
Ricean distribution) is the probability distribution of the magnitude of a circularly-
symmetric bivariate normal random variable, possibly with non-zero mean (noncentral). It
was named after Stephen O. Rice (1907–1986).
14. What is the difference between Rayleigh and Rician distribution?
When a signal in one path has a higher amplitude than the others then the amplitude of the
signal has a Rician distribution. Rayleigh distribution occurs when there is no single
dominant signal path.
15. What is the equation for the Rician distribution?
If x has a Rician distribution with parameters s and σ, then (x/σ) 2 has a noncentral chi-
square distribution with two degrees of freedom and noncentrality parameter (s/σ)2

16. What is the Rayleigh distribution method?

In probability theory and statistics, the Rayleigh distribution is a continuous probability
distribution for nonnegative-valued random variables. Up to rescaling, it coincides with
the chi distribution with two degrees of freedom. The distribution is named after Lord
Rayleigh
PART B &PART C
1. For the discrete probability density function given as p(x) = 1 / 3 [δ(x) + δ(x − 1) + δ(x −
2)] (a) What is the moment generating function F(s) (b) Calculate the first two moments
using (c) Calculate the first two moments using the moment generating function
2. For the Gaussian probability density function with x0 = 0 and σ = 2, calculate the
probability that x will exist over the range 0 ≤ x ≤ 4.
3. Using the exponential density with σ = 2, calculate the prob ability that 2 ≤ x ≤ 4 and find
the first two moments using the moment generating function.
 TAGORE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Deviyakurichi-636112, Thalaivasal(TK), Salem (DT). Website: www.tagoreiet.ac.in
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Accredited by NAAC
4. For the uniform distribution where a = −2, and b = 2, use the moment generating function 5
to find the first three moments.
5. For the Rayleigh probability density function with σ = 2, calculate the probability that x
will exist over the range 0 ≤ x ≤ 4.
6. For the Rician distribution with σ = 2 and A = 2, what is the probability that x ≥ 5?For the
uniform density with a = 0, b = 5 (a) Find the first two moments (b) Find the first two
moments
UNIT III
PART-A

1. How do you calculate angle of arrival?

The AoA can be calculated by measuring the time difference of arrival (TDOA) between individual
elements of the array.
2. What is the AoA measurement?
Angle of arrival (AoA) measurement is a method for determining the direction of propagation of a
radio-frequency wave incident on an antenna array
3. What is the DOA sensor used for?
DOA estimation using sensor arrays refers to measuring the angles of the incoming source signals via
colocated sensors
4. What is angle of arrival principle?
The principle of AoA is to estimate an angle between two intersecting lines, constructed with a
minimum of three locations.

5. What is the difference between DoA and AoA?

In most cases they are the same thing expressed in different coordinate systems: AoA is in spherical
coordinates, DoA is in Cartesian coordinates.
6. What is angle of arrival vs departure?
An AoA system features the antenna array on the receiver side, so that by measuring the phase-shift
of the incoming signal, the receiver can determine the direction of the incoming signal. AoD , as the
name implies, uses the antenna array to direct the transmitted signal in a given angle.
7. What is maximum likelihood angle of arrival estimation?
Maximum likelihood method is an adaptive beam-forming approach for estimating the angle of
arrival of the target.
8. What is steering vector?
The steering vector represents the set of phase-delays for an incoming wave at each sensor element.
9. What is the time difference of arrival algorithm?
TDoA is a positioning methodology that determines the difference between the time-of-arrival (ToA)
of radio signals.
10. What are the applications of DOA estimation?
Radar, radio astronomy, sonar, navigation, remote sensing, wireless communications.
11. What is the performance of music algorithm for DOA estimation?
 TAGORE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Deviyakurichi-636112, Thalaivasal(TK), Salem (DT). Website: www.tagoreiet.ac.in
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Accredited by NAAC
The MUSIC algorithm performs well if the signals are incoherent but if the signal has coherent 6
nature the performance of MUSIC algorithm degrades.
12.What is the music algorithm?
MUltiple SIgnal Classification (MUSIC) is a high-resolution direction- finding algorithm based on
the eigenvalue decomposition of the sensor covariance matrix observed at an array
13. What are the limitations of music algorithm?
The shortcomings of the traditional MUSIC algorithm primarily include (1) the DOA estimation of
the coherent signal cannot be obtained accurately; (2) the number of received signals is limited by the
number of array elements, and needs to be smaller than the number of array elements; (3) as the
jamming-to-noise ratio.
14. What is the difference between MUSIC and root-MUSIC?
Unlike MUSIC which involves plotting the pseudo spectrum against the angles and searching for the
peaks, ROOT-MUSIC involves finding the roots of a polynomial
15.What is the difference between MUSIC and ESPRIT?
Unlike MUSIC which exploits the noise subspace, ESPRIT method uses the signal subspace. It
estimates the signal subspace S from the estimate of the signal correlation matrix R (same
correlation matrix that was used to estimate noise subspace in MUSIC algorithm).

PART B &PART C
1. Explain AoA Estimation methods.

UNIT IV
SMART ANTENNAS: FIXED BEAMFORMING

1. What is smart beamforming?

Beamforming is the most commonly used method by a new generation of smart antennas. In this
method, an array of antennas is used to “steer” or transmit radio signals in a specific direction, rather
than simply broadcasting energy/signals in all directions inside the sector. 10.
2. What are the applications of beamforming?
Beamforming can be used for radio or sound waves. It has found numerous applications in radar,
sonar, seismology, wireless communications, radio astronomy, acoustics and biomedicine.
3. How does beamforming improve?
Beamforming can improve the signal quality, reduce the interference, and extend the range of
wireless communication
4. What is beamforming approach for noise reduction?
Beamforming with microphone arrays allows the signals to direct sound to a specific location in a
room to enhance the speech while suppressing noise arriving from other directions.
5. What is signal to noise ratio in RF?
SNR (Signal to Noise Radio) is actrually not a ratio but a decibel (dB) value measures the difference
between the signal strength and the background noise. For instance, the signal strength is -56 dBm,
noise is -86 dBm, the SNR is 30dB. SNR is also an vital factor to be considered during deployment.
6. How can signal-to-noise ratio be reduced?
 TAGORE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Deviyakurichi-636112, Thalaivasal(TK), Salem (DT). Website: www.tagoreiet.ac.in
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Accredited by NAAC
Reducing Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) The SNR can be improved by either increasing the overall 7
amplitude of the signal before the noise is introduced into it, or by reducing the amplitude of the
noise.
7. What is maximum likelihood signal detection?
Maximum-Likelihood (ML) detection is a fundamental problem in digital communications. Under the
mild assumption of equiprobable transmitted signals ML Detector achieves the best Bit-Error-Rate
(BER).
8. What is minimum mean-squared error?
If the signal power is known, then a minimum mean-squared error (MMSE) beamformer can be
designed. The resulting beamformer can be expressed as a power-dependent constant which
multiplies a fixed weight vector that is optimal in an SINR sense.
9. What are the assumptions of maximum likelihood?
Assumptions state that: Data must be independently distributed. Data must be identically distributed.

10. What is fixed beamforming?

Fixed beamforming is a technique used in array signal processing to create a specific directional
response pattern for an antenna array. It involves designing the array's weights to steer the
main beam in a predetermined direction while minimizing interference from other directions.
11. What is the main goal of fixed beamforming?
The main goal of fixed beamforming is to enhance the signal received from a specific direction (the
desired signal) while attenuating or nullifying signals from other directions (interference and noise).
12. What parameters are important in fixed beamforming?
Key parameters include the array geometry, the desired signal's direction of arrival, the
number of elements in the array, the spacing between elements, and the wavelengths of the signals of
interest.
13.How is the array factor used in fixed beamforming?
The array factor represents the array's response to signals arriving from different angles. In
fixed beamforming, the array factor is used to design the array weights, which determine the response
pattern, so that the main beam is steered in the desired direction.
14. What is the array pattern in fixed beamforming?
The array pattern is the directional response of the antenna array. It shows how the array responds to
signals arriving from different angles. Fixed beamforming aims to shape the array pattern to
maximize the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for the desired signal.
15.What are some common algorithms used for fixed beamforming?
Common algorithms for fixed beamforming include the Delay-and-Sum beamformer, Maximum
Signal-to- Interference-plus-Noise Ratio (MSINR) beamformer, Minimum Variance Distortionless
Response (MVDR) beamformer, and the Godara method, among others.
17. What is the trade-off in fixed beamforming between steering the main beam and
reducing interference?
There is a trade-off between steering the main beam towards the desired signal and reducing
interference. As the main beam is steered more towards the desired signal, the interference from other
directions may increase. Designing the weights carefully helps strike a balance.
18. How is fixed beamforming different from adaptive beamforming?
 TAGORE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Deviyakurichi-636112, Thalaivasal(TK), Salem (DT). Website: www.tagoreiet.ac.in
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Accredited by NAAC
Fixed beamforming uses predetermined weights to create a fixed response pattern. In contrast, 8
adaptive beamforming continuously updates the weights based on the received signal, adapting to
changing interference and noise conditions.
PART B &PART C
1. Explain how signal-to-noise ratio be reduced in fixed beam forming.
2. Explain minimum mean-squared error is achieved in fixed beam forming.
UNIT V SMART ANTENNAS: ADAPTIVE BEAMFORMING
PART-A
1. What is adaptive beamforming?
Adaptive beamforming is a signal processing technique that improves the signal strength in a
particular direction by combining sounds from an array of microphones with specific delays.
2. What is the difference between fixed and adaptive beamforming?
Fixed beamforming generally describes a conventional technique where the antenna array pattern is
obtained from fixed element weights that do not depend on the signal environment. Adaptive
beamforming element weights that do depend on —and can adapt to— the signal environment via
some feedback mechanism
3. List out the optimization techniques of adaptive beam forming.
LMS, SMI, recursive least squares (RLS), the constant modulus algorithm (CMA), conjugate
gradient, and waveform diverse algorithms.
4. What is underdamped case in LMS?
If the step-size is too large, the LMS algorithm will overshoot the optimum weights of interest. This
is called the under damped case.

5. What are the drawbacks of the LMS adaptive scheme?

The algorithm must go through many iterations before satisfactory convergence is achieved. If the
signal characteristics are rapidly changing, the LMS adaptive algorithm may not allow tracking of the
desired signal in a satisfactory manner
6.What is direct matrix inverstion or sample matrix?
The sample matiex is a time average estimate of the array correlation,using K time sample.if the
random process is ergodic in the correlation,the time average estimate will equal the actual
correlation matrix.
7.Write the riccati equation for the recursive least squares (RLS)method?
Recursive least squares (RLS) is an adaptive filter algorithm that recursively finds the coefficients
that minimize a weighted linear least squares cost function relating to the input signals.
8.What is a constant modulus signal ?
Constant modulus algorithms are based on exploiting the constant modulus of the desired signal.they
are used in a variety of areas in signal processing ranging from blind equalization and blind
beamforming to blind multiuser detection.
9.Define conjugate gradient method?
The convergence rate can be accelerated by use of the conjugate gradient method(CGM).the goal of
CGM is to iteratively search for the optimum solution by choosing conjugate (perpendicular) paths
for each new iteration.conjugacy in this context is intended to mean orthogonal.
 TAGORE INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
Deviyakurichi-636112, Thalaivasal(TK), Salem (DT). Website: www.tagoreiet.ac.in
Approved by AICTE, New Delhi and Affiliated to Anna University, Chennai
Accredited by NAAC
10.What are the benefits of adaptive beamforming? 9
Adaptive beamforming schemes this technique adapts the system parameters in order to maximize the
receive signal power,while minimizing noise(such as interference or jamming).
PART-B&C
1.Explain adaptive beamforming algorithms?
2.Description of the new SDMA receiver?