CHAPTER 5- LEARNING

NATURE OF LEARNING

Learning- Any relatively permanent change in behaviour or behavioural potential produced

by experience. Changes due to practice and experience, which are relatively permanent, are

illustrative of learning.

Features of Learning

1. Learning always involves some kind of experience. This means that learning cannot

happen in a vacuum. It requires the learner to have some kind of interaction with the

environment, whether it be physical, social, or cognitive. For example, a child learns

to walk by repeatedly experiencing the sensation of moving their legs and the feeling

of balance. They also learn from the reactions of their parents and other caregivers,

who provide positive reinforcement when the child takes a step.

Repeated experience of satisfaction after doing something in a specified manner leads

to the formation of habit. This is known as the law of effect. It states that behaviours

that are followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated, while

behaviours that are followed by negative consequences are less likely to be repeated.

For example, a child who is praised for making their bed is more likely to make their

bed in the future. However, a child who is punished for making their bed is less likely

to make their bed in the future.

2. Behavioural changes that occur due to learning are relatively permanent. This means

that the changes in behaviour are not temporary. They are likely to last for a long

time, or even for a lifetime. For example, the child who learns to walk will not forget

how to walk. They will be able to walk for as long as they live.
 3. Learning is an inferred process and is different from performance. This means that we

cannot directly observe learning. We can only infer that learning has taken place by

observing changes in behaviour. For example, we cannot see a child's brain changing

as they learn to walk. However, we can see the child taking steps, which is a change

in behaviour that indicates that learning has taken place.

a. Performance, on the other hand, is the observable behaviour of a learner. It is

what we see the learner doing. For example, the child who is taking steps is

performing the behaviour of walking. Performance is not the same as learning.

A learner can perform a behaviour without having learned it. For example, a

child may be able to walk even if they have not learned how to walk. This is

because they may have been carried by their parents or caregivers for most of

their life.

Paradigms of Learning

Learning takes place in many ways, with some methods used in the acquisition of simple

responses while others are used in the acquisition of complex reactions:

1. Simple responses: These are responses that are relatively easy to learn and do not

require a lot of thought or effort. For example, a child may learn to associate the

sound of a bell with the presentation of food. This is a simple response because it can

be learned through classical conditioning, which is a type of learning that does not

require the learner to be aware of the connection between the stimulus and the

response.

2. Complex reactions: These are responses that are more difficult to learn and require a

lot of thought or effort. For example, a child may learn how to ride a bike. This is a
 complex reaction because it requires the child to coordinate a number of different

movements and to learn how to balance.

- The methods that are used to acquire simple responses are not always effective for

acquiring complex reactions.

a. bFor example, classical conditioning is not very effective for teaching a child how

to ride a bike. This is because classical conditioning is a type of learning that is

based on associations, and it is difficult to associate a number of different

movements with a single stimulus. There are a number of different methods that

can be used to acquire complex reactions. Some of the most common methods

include:

b. Operant conditioning: This is a type of learning in which a behaviour is followed

by a consequence. If the consequence is positive, the behaviour is more likely to

occur in the future. If the consequence is negative, the behaviour is less likely to

occur in the future. For example, a child may be more likely to ride their bike if

they are praised for doing so.

c. Observational learning: This is a type of learning in which an individual learns by

observing the behaviour of others. The individual does not need to be directly

rewarded or punished for their own behaviour in order to learn. For example, a

child may learn how to ride a bike by watching their parents ride their bikes.

d. Cognitive learning: This is a type of learning that involves mental processes such

as attention, memory, and thinking. Cognitive learners believe that learning is an

active process in which the learner constructs their own knowledge. For example,

a child may learn how to ride a bike by reading about it in a book, discussing it

with their classmates, and watching a documentary about bike riding.

 e. Verbal learning is the acquisition of new information through the use of language.

This type of learning can involve memorizing words, phrases, or concepts. For

example, learning a new vocabulary word or a new mathematical formula is a

form of verbal learning.

f. Concept learning is the ability to group objects or events together based on their

shared characteristics. This type of learning involves the processes of abstraction

and generalization. For example, learning the concept of "fruit" involves

recognizing that apples, oranges, and bananas all have certain shared

characteristics, such as being edible and coming from a plant.

g. Skill learning is the acquisition of a new physical ability. This type of learning

involves the development of motor coordination and memory. For example,

learning how to ride a bike or play a musical instrument is a form of skill learning.

3. The best way to choose a method for acquiring a complex reaction is to consider the

specific needs of the learner and the learning environment. Some methods may be

more appropriate for certain learners than others. For example, a cognitive approach

to learning might be more appropriate for a learner who is motivated to learn, while a

behaviourist approach to learning might be more appropriate for a learner who is

struggling with attention problems.

4. Ultimately, the goal of any method for acquiring a complex reaction is to help the

learner achieve their goal. In the case of learning how to ride a bike, the goal is to help

the child learn how to ride a bike safely and independently.

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING

Classical conditioning is a type of learning in which a neutral stimulus is paired with a

biologically potent stimulus until the neutral stimulus comes to elicit a similar response as the
original stimulus. This type of learning was first studied by Ivan Pavlov, a Russian

physiologist, in his experiments with dogs.

In Pavlov's experiments, he would ring a bell before giving the dogs food. The dogs would

naturally salivate when they saw the food, but after a few repetitions of ringing the bell and

then giving the food, the dogs would start to salivate at the sound of the bell alone. This is

because the dogs had learned to associate the sound of the bell with the food.

The terms used in classical conditioning are as follows:

1. Unconditioned stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally elicits a reflex response. In

Pavlov's experiments, the food was the unconditioned stimulus.

2. Unconditioned response (UR): The natural reflex response to the unconditioned

stimulus. In Pavlov's experiments, the salivation was the unconditioned response.

3. Neutral stimulus (NS): A stimulus that initially does not elicit a response. In Pavlov's

experiments, the bell was the neutral stimulus.

4. Conditioned stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus that, after being paired with an

unconditioned stimulus, comes to elicit a similar response as the unconditioned

stimulus. In Pavlov's experiments, the bell became a conditioned stimulus after it was

paired with the food.

5. Conditioned response (CR): The response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus.

In Pavlov's experiments, the salivation that was elicited by the bell was the

conditioned response.

Classical conditioning can be used to explain a variety of behaviors in humans and animals.

For example, it can be used to explain why people become afraid of certain things, such as

spiders or heights. In these cases, the neutral stimulus (e.g., a spider) is paired with a negative
unconditioned stimulus (e.g., a painful bite), and eventually the neutral stimulus comes to

elicit a fear response (e.g., anxiety).

Classical conditioning can also be used to explain why people develop preferences for certain

things. For example, if a child is given a delicious cookie every time they hear a certain song,

they will eventually come to associate the song with the cookie and develop a preference for

that song.

Relationship of stages of conditioning and operations

Stages of conditioning Nature of stimulus Nature of response

Food (US) Salivation (UR)

Before
Sound of the bell Alertness (No specific response)
Sound of the bell (CS)
During Salivation (UR)
Food (US)

After Sound of the bell (CS) Salivation (CR)

Determinants of Classical Conditioning

Some of the major factors influencing learning a conditioned response are described below:

1. Time Relations between Stimuli:

Time Relation Description Effectiveness Example

Most common and For example, a researcher might ring a bell and then
Simultaneous The CS and US are presented effective type of immediately give a dog a treat. After a few repetitions
conditioning at the same time. conditioning but requires of this, the dog will start to salivate at the sound of the
more trials than delayed. bell, even though the treat is not present.
For example, a researcher might ring a bell for 5
The CS is presented before the
seconds and then give a dog a treat. After a few
Delayed US, but the two stimuli
Effective. repetitions of this, the dog will start to salivate at the
conditioning overlap in time. The CS ends
sound of the bell, even though the treat is not present
before the US ends.
until after the bell stops ringing.
For example, a researcher might ring a bell for 5
The CS is presented before the
Less effective than seconds and then wait 10 seconds before giving a dog a
Trace US, but there is a gap in time
delayed conditioning and treat. After a few repetitions of this, the dog will start to
conditioning between the two stimuli. The
requires more trials. salivate at the sound of the bell, even though the treat is
CS ends before the US begins.
not present until after the 10-second time gap.
For example, a researcher might give a dog a treat and
then ring a bell. This type of conditioning is very rare,
Backward The US is presented before the Rare and difficult to
and it is not clear if it is possible to acquire a
conditioning CS. achieve.
conditioned response under backward conditioning
conditions.
 2. Type of unconditioned stimuli:

Appetitive US Aversive US

An appetitive US is a stimulus that is naturally An aversive US is a stimulus that is naturally

rewarding or pleasurable. Examples of appetitive punishing or unpleasant. Examples of aversive

USs include food, water, and affection. When an USs include pain, shock, loud noises, and

appetitive US is presented, it elicits a natural, disgust. When an aversive US is presented, it

reflexive response called the unconditioned elicits a natural, reflexive response called the

response (UR). The UR is typically a positive unconditioned response (UR). The UR is

response, such as salivation, relaxation, or typically a negative response, such as fear, pain,

pleasure. or nausea.

3. The intensity of the conditioned stimulus:

The intensity of the (CS) is another factor that can influence the strength of the conditioned

response (CR). In general, more intense CSs are more effective in accelerating the acquisition

of CRs. This means that the more intense the CS, the fewer are the number of acquisition

trials needed for conditioning.

For example, a study by Carter (1941) found that dogs were more likely to salivate to a loud

bell than to a soft bell. This suggests that the louder bell was a more effective CS, and that the

dogs needed fewer acquisition trials to learn the association between the bell and food.

Another study by Durkovic (1975) found that rats were more likely to develop a fear

response to a loud noise than to a soft noise. This suggests that the louder noise was a more
effective CS, and that the rats needed fewer acquisition trials to learn the association between

the noise and shock.

OPERANT/INSTRUMENTAL CONDITIONING

Operants: Operants are those behaviours or responses, which are emitted by animals and

human beings voluntarily and are under their control. The term operant is used because the

organism operates on the environment.

Operant Conditioning: Conditioning of operant behaviour.

Skinner’s Box: A Skinner box is a laboratory apparatus used to study animal behavior. It was

created by B. F. Skinner, a behavioral psychologist, in the 1930s. The Skinner box is a small,

enclosed chamber with a lever or key inside. An animal, such as a rat or pigeon, is placed in

the chamber and allowed to explore. If the animal presses the lever or key, it is rewarded with

food or water. Over time, the animal will learn to press the lever or key more often in order to

get the reward.

The Skinner box is a simple device, but it has been used to study a wide range of animal

behaviors, including learning, motivation, and problem-solving. It has also been used to

develop new techniques for animal training.

The Skinner box has been criticized by some for being too simplistic and for not taking into

account the animal's emotions and cognitive abilities. However, the Skinner box remains an

important tool for studying animal behavior, and it has helped to advance our understanding

of how learning takes place.

Here is an example of how a Skinner box can be used to study operant conditioning:

 A rat is placed in a Skinner box with a lever inside.

  The rat explores the box and eventually presses the lever.

 When the rat presses the lever, it receives a food pellet.

 The rat learns that pressing the lever is a way to get food.

 Over time, the rat will press the lever more and more often in order to get food.

This is an example of positive reinforcement. The rat is rewarded for a behavior (pressing the

lever) with a desirable outcome (food). This increases the likelihood that the rat will repeat

the behavior in the future.

Skinner boxes can also be used to study other concepts of operant conditioning, such as

punishment, extinction, and schedules of reinforcement.

The Skinner box is a powerful tool for studying animal behavior. It has helped us to

understand how learning takes place and how we can change behavior. The Skinner box is

also a controversial device, but it remains an important tool for research.

Instrumental Conditioning: Operant conditioning and instrumental conditioning are two

terms that are often used interchangeably. They refer to the same learning process, in which

behaviors are modified through the association of stimuli with reinforcement or punishment.

The term "operant conditioning" was coined by B. F. Skinner, who believed that organisms

learn to control their environment through their own actions. He called these actions

"operants," and he argued that operants are learned through a process of trial and error.

The term "instrumental conditioning" was coined by Edward Thorndike, who believed that

organisms learn to associate certain behaviors with certain outcomes. He called this process

"the law of effect," and he argued that behaviors that lead to positive outcomes are more

likely to be repeated, while behaviors that lead to negative outcomes are less likely to be

repeated.
Today, the terms "operant conditioning" and "instrumental conditioning" are used

interchangeably. However, there is a subtle difference between the two terms. The term

"operant conditioning" emphasizes the role of the organism's actions in learning, while the

term "instrumental conditioning" emphasizes the role of the consequences of the organism's

actions in learning.

Determinants of Operant Conditioning

Here are some of the factors that influence operant conditioning, along with examples:

1. Types of reinforcement: Reinforcement can be either positive or negative.

- Positive reinforcement: This involves providing a pleasant stimulus after a behavior,

which increases the likelihood of the behavior occurring again. For example, a child

might be given a cookie for finishing their homework.

- Negative reinforcement: This involves removing an unpleasant stimulus after a

behavior, which also increases the likelihood of the behaviour occurring again. For

example, a student might be allowed to leave class early if they finish their work.

2. Number of reinforcements: The more often a behaviour is reinforced, the more likely

it is to be learned. For example, a child who is praised every time they share their toys

is more likely to share their toys in the future than a child who is only praised

occasionally.

3. Quality of reinforcement: The more valuable a reinforcement is to the individual, the

more likely they are to work for it. For example, a child who loves chocolate is more

likely to do their chores if they are promised a chocolate bar as a reward than if they

are promised a piece of fruit.

4. Schedules of reinforcement: The schedule of reinforcement refers to how often the

reinforcement is delivered. There are two main types of schedules of reinforcement:

continuous and intermittent.

- Continuous reinforcement: This is when the reinforcement is delivered every time the

desired behaviour occurs. This is the most effective schedule of reinforcement for

learning new behaviours. However, it is also the least resistant to extinction.

- Intermittent reinforcement: This is when the reinforcement is delivered only some of

the time. This is a more resistant to extinction than continuous reinforcement, but it

takes longer to learn new behaviours. There are many different types of intermittent

reinforcement schedules, each with its own effect on behaviour.

5. Delayed reinforcement: The delay between the behaviour and the reinforcement can

also affect learning. If the delay is too long, the reinforcement may not be effective.

For example, a child who is promised a toy for doing their chores, but the toy is not

delivered until a week later, is less likely to do their chores in the future.

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

In classical conditioning, the responses are under

the control of some stimulus because they are
reflexes, automatically elicited by the appropriate
In instrumental conditioning, responses are
stimuli. Such stimuli are selected as US and
under the control of the organism and are
responses elicited by them as UR. Thus,
voluntary responses or ‘operants’
Pavlovian conditioning, in which US elicits
responses, is often called respondent
conditioning.

In classical conditioning the CS and US are well- in operant conditioning CS is not defined. It can
defined be inferred but is not directly known

in operant conditioning the occurrence of the

In classical conditioning, the experimenter
reinforcer is under the control of the organism
controls the occurrence of US
that is learning.

for US in classical conditioning the organism in operant conditioning the subject has to be
remains passive active in order to be reinforced.

In the two forms of conditioning, the technical terms used to characterise the experimental
proceedings are different. Moreover, what is called reinforcer in operant conditioning is called US
in classical conditioning. An US has two functions. In the beginning it elicits the response and also
reinforces the response to be associated and elicited later on by the CS.