Chapter One

Understanding Disabilities and Vulnerabilities

Disability is often taken as an effect of (impairment) the loss of an anatomical,
physiological, or psychological structure or function, which may result from a disease,
accident or other genetic or environmental agents; and as a restriction or lack of ability to
perform tasks in the manner or within the range considered normal for an individual of a
specified age and culture group
1.1. Definitions of Basic Terms
Impairment: means a lack/abnormality of an anatomic, physiological or psychological
structure or function or deviation on a person. It refers to any loss or abnormality of
physiological, psychological or anatomical structure or function. It is the absence of
particular body part or organ. It could also a condition in which the body exists but doesn’t
function. Some children, for instance, have impairments such as eyes that do not see well,
arms and legs that are deformed, or a brain not developing in a typical way etc.
Disability: The term disability is ambiguous as there is no single agreement on the concept
(Mitra, 2006). It is not synonymous with AKAL-GUDATENGA (የአካል ጉዳተኛ) meaning
impairment. The concept of disability is complex, dynamic, and multidimensional and
contested (WHO and World Bank, 2011).
Handicap: a disadvantage for a given individual, resulting from an impairment or disability
that limits and prevents the fulfillment of a role that is normal, depending on age, sex,
social and cultural factors, for that individual. The word handicap, in fact, is thought to
come from a time when disabled people had to beg in the streets, with cap in hand.
1.2. Models of Disabilities
1.2.2. The Medical Model /Approach of disability
Disability is pathology (physiological, biological and intellectual). Disability means
functional limitations due to physical, intellectual or psychic impairment, health or psychic
disorders on a person (WHO, 1996). The medical definition has given rise to the idea that
people are individual objects to be treated, changed" or improved" and made more normal.
The medical definition views the disabled person as needing to fit in rather than thinking
about how society itself should change. This medical definition does not adequately explain
the interaction between societal conditions or expectations and unique circumstances of an
individual.

1.2.3. The Social Model of disability

Disability is a highly varied and complex condition with a range of implications for social
identity and behavior. Thus, disability largely depends on the context and is a consequence
of discrimination, prejudice and exclusion. It also emphasizes the shortcomings in the
environment and in many organized activities in society, for example on information,
communication and education, which prevent persons with disabilities from participating
on equal terms.

Medical model: Social model:

Child is faulty Child is valued
Diagnosis and labeling Strengths and needs identified
Impairment is focus of attention Barriers identified and solutions
developed

Medical model: Social model:

Segregation and alternative services Resources made available

Re-entry if normal enough or permanent Diversity welcomed; child is welcomed

exclusion

Society remains unchanged Society evolves

1.3. Causes of disability

Disability can be caused by the following factors.

Genetic Causes
Abnormalities in genes and genetic inheritance can cause intellectual disability in children.
In some countries, Down syndrome is the most common genetic condition. Sometimes,
diseases, illnesses, and over-exposure to x-rays can cause a genetic disorder.
Environmental
Poverty and malnutrition in pregnant mothers can cause a deficiency in vital minerals and
result in deformation issues in the unborn child. After birth, poverty and malnutrition can
also cause poor development of vital organs in the child, which can eventually lead to
disability. The use of drugs, alcohol, tobacco, the exposure to certain toxic chemicals and
illnesses, toxoplasmosis, cytomegalovirus, rubella and syphilis by a pregnant mother can
cause intellectual disability to the child.
Childhood diseases such as a whooping cough, measles, and chicken pox may lead to
meningitis and encephalitis. This can cause damage to the brain of the child. Toxic material
such as lead and mercury can damage the brain too. Unfortunate life events such as
drowning, automobile accidents, falls and so on can result in people losing their sight,
hearing, limbs and other vital parts of their body and cause disability.
Inaccessible environments
Sometimes society makes it difficult for people with some impairment to function freely.
When society develops infrastructure such as houses, roads, parks and other public places
without consideration to people with impairment, the basically make it impossible for them
to take care of themselves. For example, if a school is built with a ramp in addition to stairs,
it makes it easy for people with wheelchairs to move about freely. This way, their
impairment is not made worse. Lack of education, support services, health and
opportunities for people with impairment can cause additional disability to people with
disabilities and even people with no disability.
Unknown Causes
The human body is a phenomenal thing. Scientists have still not figured out what and how
some things in the body, cells, brain, and genes come about. Humans have still not found
all the answers to all the defects in the human body.
1.4. Major type of disabilities/Person with Special Needs

1.Visual impairment
 Visual impairment in general designates two sub- classifications: low vision and
blindness.
a) Low vision: the term low vision is used for moderately impaired vision. People with low
vision may have a visual impairment that affects only central vision the area directly in
front of the eyes or peripheral vision the area to either side of and slightly behind the eyes.
b) Blindness: total or partial inability to see because of disease or disorder of the eye, optic
nerve, or brain. The term blindness typically refers to vision loss that is not correctable with
eyeglasses or contact lenses. Blindness may not mean a total absence of sight, however.
Some people who are considered blind may be able to perceive slowly moving lights or
colors.
2. Hearing Impairment
Different people define the term hearing impairment differently. The definitions given to
hearing impairment convey different meaning to different people. Different definitions and
terminologies may be used in different countries for different purpose.
Pasonella and Carat from legal point of view, define hearing impairment as a generic term
indicating a continuum of hearing loss from mild to profound, which includes the sub-
classifications of the hard of hearing and deaf.
a) Hard of Hearing: "a hearing impairment, whether permanent of fluctuating, which
adversely affects a child's educational performance but which is not included under the
definition of deaf"' (Whelan, 1988). This term can also be used to describe persons with
enough (usually with hearing aids) as a primary modality of acquisition of language and in
communication with others.
b) Deaf: Those who have difficulty understanding speech, even with hearing aids but can
successfully communicate in sign language. Cultural definitions of deafness, on the other
hand, emphasize an individual’s various abilities, use of sign language, and connections
with the culturally deaf community.

3.Specific learning disability/Difficulties

Specific Learning Disability means a disorder in one or more of the basic psychological
processes involved in understanding or in using language, spoken or written, that may
manifest itself in the imperfect ability to listen, think, speak, read, write, spell, or to do
mathematical calculations.

The term includes such conditions as perceptual disabilities, brain injury, minimal brain
dysfunction, dyslexia, and developmental aphasia. The term does not include learning
problems that are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor disabilities; of intellectual
disability; of emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cultural, or economic
disadvantage. Learning disabilities should not be confused with learning problems which
are primarily the result of visual, hearing, or motor handicaps; of intellectual disability; of
emotional disturbance; or of environmental, cultural or economic disadvantages.

Generally speaking, people with learning disabilities are of average or above average
intelligence. There often appears to be a gap between the individual’s potential and actual
achievement. This is why learning disabilities are referred to as hidden disabilities‖: the
person looks perfectly normal and seems to be a very bright and intelligent person, yet may
be unable to demonstrate the skill level expected from someone of a similar age. A learning
disability cannot be cured or fixed; it is a lifelong challenge. However, with appropriate
support and intervention, people with learning disabilities can achieve success in school, at
work, in relationships, and in the community.

Types of Specific Learning Disabilities

Auditory Processing Disorder (APD)

Also known as Central Auditory Processing Disorder, this is a condition that adversely
affects how sound that travels unimpeded through the ear is processed or interpreted by the
brain. Individuals with APD do not recognize subtle differences between sounds in words,
even when the sounds are loud and clear enough to be heard. They can also find it difficult
to tell where sounds are coming from, to make sense of the order of sounds, or to block out
competing background noises.

Dyscalculia: Dyscalculia is a specific learning disability that affects a person’s ability to

understand numbers and learn math.
Individuals with this type of LD may also have poor comprehension of math symbols, may
struggle with memorizing and organizing numbers, have difficulty telling time, or have
trouble with counting.
Dysgraphia: Dyscalculia is a specific learning disability that affects a person’s handwriting
ability and fine motor skills. Problems may include illegible handwriting, inconsistent
spacing, poor spatial planning on paper, poor spelling, and difficulty composition writing as
well as thinking and writing at the same time.
Dyslexia: Dyslexia is a specific learning disability that affects reading and related
language-based processing skills. The severity can differ in each individual but can affect
reading fluency; decoding, reading comprehension, recall, writing, spelling, and sometimes
speech and can exist along with other related disorders. Dyslexia is sometimes referred to
as a Language Based Learning Disability (LBPD).
Language Processing Disorder: Language Processing Disorder is a specific type of
Auditory Processing Disorder (APD) in which there is difficulty attaching meaning to
sound groups that form words, sentences and stories. While an APD affects the
interpretation of all sounds coming into the brain, a Language Processing Disorder (LPD)
relates only to the processing of language. LPD can affect expressive language and/or
receptive language.
Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities: Non-Verbal Learning Disabilities is a disorder which
is usually characterized by a significant discrepancy between higher verbal skills and
weaker motor, visual-spatial and social skills. Typically, an individual with NLD (or
NVLD) has trouble interpreting nonverbal cues like facial expressions or body language,
and may have poor coordination.
Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit: Visual Perceptual/Visual Motor Deficit is a
disorder that affects the understanding of information that a person sees, or the ability to
draw or copy.
A characteristic seen in people with learning disabilities such as Dysgraphia or Non-verbal
LD, it can result in missing subtle differences in shapes or printed letters, losing place
frequently, struggles with cutting, holding pencil too tightly, or poor eye/hand coordination.
4. Communication Disorder (Speech and Language Impairments)
Speech and language impairment means a communication disorder such as stuttering,
impaired articulation, language impairment, or a voice impairment that adversely affects a
child’s educational performance. It is disorder that adversely affects the child's ability to
talk, understand, read, and write. This disability category can be divided into two groups:
speech impairments and language impairments.
Speech Impairments
There are three basic types of speech impairments: articulation disorders, fluency
disorders, and voice disorders.
Articulation disorders: errors in the production of speech sounds that may be related to
anatomical or physiological limitations in the skeletal, muscular, or neuromuscular support
for speech production. These disorders include:
• Omissions: (bo for boat)

• Substitutions: (wabbit for rabbit)

• Distortions: (shlip for sip)

Fluency disorders: difficulties with the rhythm and timing of speech characterized by
hesitations, repetitions, or prolongations of sounds, syllables, words, or phrases. Common
fluency disorders include:
 Stuttering: rapid-fire repetitions of consonant or vowel sounds especially at the
beginning of words, prolongations, hesitations, interjections, and complete verbal
blocks
 Cluttering: excessively fast and jerky speech
Voice disorders: problems with the quality or use of one's voice resulting from disorders in
the larynx. Voice disorders are characterized by abnormal production and/or absences of
vocal quality, pitch, loudness, resonance, and/or duration.
Language Impairments
There are five basic areas of language impairments: phonological disorders, morphological
disorders, semantic disorders, syntactical deficits, and pragmatic difficulties.
 Phonological disorders: the abnormal organization of the phonological system, or a
significant deficit in speech production or perception.
 A child with a phonological disorder may be described as hard to understand or as
not saying the sounds correctly. Apraxia of speech is a specific phonological disorder
where the student may want to speak but has difficulty planning what to say and the
motor movements to use.
 Morphological disorders: difficulties with morphological inflections (Inflections on
nouns, verbs, and adjectives that signal different kinds of meanings).
 Semantic disorders: characterized by poor vocabulary development, inappropriate
use of word meanings, and/or inability to comprehend word meanings. These
students will demonstrate restrictions in word meanings, difficulty with multiple
word meanings, excessive use of nonspecific terms (e.g., thing and stuff), and
indefinite references (e.g., that and there).
 Syntactic deficits: characterized by difficulty in acquiring the rules that govern word
order and others aspects of grammar such as subject-verb agreement. Typically, these
students produce shorter and less elaborate sentences with fewer cohesive
conjunctions than their peers.
 Pragmatic difficulties: characterized as problems in understanding and using
language in different social contexts. These students may lack an understanding of
the rules for making eye contact, respecting personal space, requesting information,
and introducing topics.

5.Autism
Autism means a developmental disability significantly affecting verbal and nonverbal
communication and social interaction, generally evident before age three that adversely
affects a child’s educational performance. Other characteristics often associated with
autism are engaging in repetitive activities and stereotyped movements, resistance to
environmental change or change in daily routines, and unusual responses to sensory
experiences. The term autism does not apply if the child’s educational performance is
adversely affected primarily because the child has an emotional disturbance. A child who
shows the characteristics of autism after age 3 could be diagnosed as having autism if the
criteria above are satisfied.
Autism is a neurodevelopment disorder defined by impairments in social and
communication development, accompanied by stereotyped patterns of behavior and interest
(Landa, 2007). Autism is pervasive developmental disorder characterized by lack of normal
sociability, impaired communication and repetitive obsessive behavior such as politeness,
turn-taking (Young & Nettlebeck , 2005).
Linked to Profound Learning Disability (PLDs) are further impairments in the production
of speech. Among these are (i) personal pronouns reversal for instance the use of I instead
of you and vice-versa, (ii) the misuse of such prepositions as in, on, under, next to (...), and
(iii) the prevalence, in speech, of echolalia formal repetition of other’s utterances (Arron
and Gittens, 1999).
Children with autism vary literally in their use of words, (Rutter, 1966). Communication
deficiencies may leave a lasting mark of social retardation on the child. The link, between
social skills and language is made evident by the often-spontaneous appearance of
affectionate and dependent behavior in these children after they have been trained to speak
(Churchill, 1966 & Hewett, 1965).
6. Emotional and Behavioral Disorders
According to Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), the term Emotional and
Behavioral Disorders means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following
characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects
educational performance
 1) An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory, or health
factors;

2) An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers

and teachers;
3) Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances;

4) A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or

5) A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school
problems.

Classification of behavioral and emotional disorders

An individual having behavioral or emotional disorders can exhibit widely varied types of
behavior. Therefore, different classification systems of behavioral and emotional disorders
can be used for special education. Different professionals have developed a classification
system, which shows some promise for educational practice. These include:
Conduct disorder: individuals may seek attention, are disruptive and act out. The disorder
is classified by type: overt (with violence or tantrums) versus covert (with lying, stealing,
and/or drug use).
Socialized aggression: it is marked by truancy, gang membership, and feeling of pride in
belonging to delinquent subculture. Early symptoms include stealing, running away from
home, habitual lying, cruelty to animals, and fire setting.
Attention problems: These individuals may have attention deficit, are easily destructible
and have poor concentration. They are frequently impulsive and may not think the
consequence of their actions.
Anxiety/Withdrawn: These individuals are self-conscious, reserved, and unsure of
themselves. They typically have low self-esteem and withdraw from immediate activities.
They are also anxious and frequently depressed.
Psychotic behavior: These individuals show more bizarre behavior. They may hallucinate,
deal in a fantasy world and may even talk in gibberish
Motor excess: These students are hyperactive. They cannot sit nor listen to others nor keep
their attention focused
Kauffman (1993) conclude that emotion or behavioral disorders fall into two broad
classifications:
Externalizing Behavior: also called under controlled disorder, include such problems
disobedience, disruptiveness, fighting, tempers tantrums, irresponsibility, jealous, anger,
attention seeking etc…
Internalizing Behavior: also known as over controlled disorders, include such problems
anxiety, immaturity, shyness, social withdrawal, feeling of inadequacy (inferiority), guilt,
depression and worries a great deal
Causes of behavioral and emotional disorders
Behavioral and emotion disorders result from many causes, these includes the following.

 Biological: includes genetic disorders, brain damage, and malnutrition, allergies,

temperament and damage to the central nervous system.

 Family factors: include family interactions, family influence, child abuse, neglect, and

poor disciplinary practices at home.

 Cultural factors: include some traditional and cultural negative practices, for example

watching violence and sexually oriented movies and TV programs.

 Environmental factors- include peer pressure, living in impoverished areas, and

schooling practices that are unresponsive to individual needs.

7. Intellectual Disability
Intellectual disability is a disability characterized by significant limitations in both
intellectual functioning and in adaptive behavior, which covers many everyday social and
practical skills. This disability originates before the age of 18. An individual is considered
to have an intellectual disability based on the following three criteria:
1. Sub average intellectual functioning: It refers to general mental capacity, such as
learning, reasoning, problem solving, and so on. One way to measure intellectual
 functioning is an IQ test. Generally, an IQ test score of around 70 or as high as 75
indicates a limitation in intellectual functioning.
2. Significant limitations exist in two or more adaptive skill areas: It is the collection of
conceptual, social, and practical skills that are learned and performed by people in their
everyday lives.
• Conceptual skills-language and literacy; money, time, and number concepts; and
self-direction.
• Social skills-interpersonal skills, social responsibility, self-esteem, gullibility,
innocence (i.e., suspicion), social problem solving, and the ability to follow
rules/obey laws and to avoid being victimized.
• Practical skills activities of daily living (personal care), occupational skills,
healthcare, travel/transportation, schedules/routines, safety, use of money, use of the
telephone.

3. Manifestation during developmental period: states that intellectual disability must

manifest before the age of 18. Thus, the disability must have arisen sometime between
conception and adulthood.
People with intellectual disabilities academic learning can be affected, as well as their
ability to adapt to home, school, and community environments are presented under the
following sub-headings:
General Cognition: People with intellectual disabilities vary physically and emotionally,
as well as by personality, disposition, and beliefs. Their apparent slowness in learning may
be related to the delayed rate of intellectual development (Wehman, 1997).
Learning and Memory: The learning and memory capabilities of people with intellectual
disabilities are significantly below average in comparison to peers without disabilities.
Children with intellectual disabilities may not spontaneously use appropriate learning or
memory retention strategies and may have difficulty in realizing the conditions or actions
that aid learning and memory. However, these strategies can be taught (Fletcher, Huffman,
& Bray, 2003; Hunt & Marshall, 2002; Werts, Wolery, Holocombe, & Gast, 1995; Wolery
& Schuster, 1997).
Attention: To acquire information, children must attend to the learning task for the
required length of time and control distractions. Children with intellectual disabilities may
have difficulty distinguishing and attending to relevant questions in both learning and social
situations (Saunders, 2001).
The problem is not that the student will not pay attention, but rather that the student does
not understand or does not filter the information to get to the salient features (Hunt &
Marshall, 2002; Meyen & Skrtic, 1988).
Adaptive Skills: The adaptive skills of people with intellectual disabilities are often not
comparable to those of their peers without disabilities. A child with intellectual disabilities
may have difficulty in both learning and applying skills for a number of reasons, including
a higher level of distractibility, inattentiveness, failure to read social cues, and impulsive
behavior (Hardman et al., 2008). The lack or underdevelopment of these skills notably
affects memory, rehearsal skills, organizational ability, and being in control of the process
of learning (Erez & Peled, 2001; Hunt & Marshall, 2002).
Speech and Language: People with intellectual disabilities may have delayed speech,
language comprehension and formulation difficulties. Language problems are generally
associated with delays in language development rather than with a bizarre use of language
(Beirne-Smith et al., 2006; Moore-Brown & Montgomery, 2006). People with intellectual
disabilities may show delayed functioning on pragmatic aspects of language, such as turn
taking, selecting acceptable topics for conversation, knowing when to speak knowing when
to be silent, and similar contextual skills (Haring, McCormick, & Haring, 1994; Yoder,
Retish, & Wade, 1996).
Motivation: People with intellectual disabilities are often described as lacking motivation,
or outer-directed behavior. Past experiences of failure and the anxiety generated by those
failures may make them appear to be fewer goals directed and lacking in motivation. The
result of failure is often learned helplessness. The history of failure is likely to lead to
dependence on external sources of reinforcement or reward rather than on internal sources
of reward. They are less likely to self-starters motivated by self-approval (Beirne-Smith et
al., 2002; Taylor et al., 2005).
Academic Achievement: The cognitive difficulties of children with mild to moderate
intellectual disabilities lead to persistent problems in academic achievement (Hughes et al.,
2002; Macmillan, Siperstein, & Gresham, 1996; Quenemoen, Thompson, & Thurlow,
2003; Turnbull et al., 2004), unless intensive and extensive supports are provided.
Physical characteristics: Children with intellectual disabilities with differing biological
etiologies, may exhibit coexisting problems, such as physical, motor, orthopedic, visual and
auditory impairments, and health problems (Hallahan & Kauffman, 2006).
A relationship exists between the severity of the intellectual disabilities and the extent of
physical differences for the individual (Drew & Hardman, 2007; Horvat, 2000).
The majority of children with severe and profound intellectual disabilities have multiple
disabilities that affect nearly every aspect of intellectual and physical development
(Westling & Fox, 2004).
Levels of support for individuals with intellectual disabilities
Levels of supports range from intermittent (just occasional or as needed for specific
activities) to pervasive (continuous in all realms of living
Levels and areas of support for intellectual disabilities
Level of Duration of Frequency of Setting of Amount of
support support support support professional assistance
Intermittent Only as Occasional or Usually only Occasional
needed infrequent one or two consultation or
(e.g. 1–2 monitoring by
classes or professional
activities)
 Limited As needed, Regular, but Several Occasional or regular
but frequency settings, but contact with
sometimes varies not usually all professionals
continuing
Extensive Usually Regular, but Several Regular contact with
continuing frequency settings, but professionals at least
varies not usually all once a
week
Pervasive May be Frequent Nearly all Continuous contact
lifelong or settings and monitoring by
continuous professionals
Source: American Association on Mental Retardation, 2002: Schalock & Luckassen,
2004.

8.Physical disability/Orthopedic Impairment and Health impairment

 Physical disability: a condition that interferes with the individual’s ability to use his
or her body. Many but not all, physical disabilities are orthopedic impairments. (The
term orthopedic impairment generally refers to conditions of muscular or skeletal
system and sometimes to physical disabling conditions of the nervous system).
 Health impairment: a condition that requires ongoing medical attention. It includes
asthma, heart defects, cancer, diabetes, hemophilia, HIV/AIDS, etc.

Physical disability/Orthopedic Impairment

Classification and Characteristics
Based on the impact of physical disability on mobility and motor skills, it is divided into
three. These are:
Mild physical disability: these individuals are able to walk without aids and may make
normal developmental progress.
Moderate physical disability: individuals can walk with braces and crutches and may have
difficulty with fine-motor skills and speech production.
Severe physical disability: these are individuals who are wheel-chair dependent and may
need special help to achieve regular development.
The physical disability could be broadly classified in to two main groups:
I. The neurological system (the brain, spinal cord & nerve) related problems.
II. Musculo skeletal system (the muscles, bones and joints) are deficient due to various
causes.
A. Neurological system
with a neurological condition like cerebral palsy or a traumatic brain injury, the brain either
sends the wrong instructions or interprets feedback incorrectly. In both cases, the result is
poorly coordinated movement. With the spinal cord injury or deformity, the path ways
between the brain and the muscles are interrupted, so messages are transmitted but never
received. The result is muscle paralysis and loss of sensation beyond the point where the
spinal cord or the nerve is damaged. These individuals may have motor skill deficits that
can range from mild in coordination to paralysis of the entire body. The most severely
affected children are totally dependent on other people or sophisticated equipment to carry
out academic and self-care task
Additional problems that can be associated with cerebral palsy include learning disabilities,
mental retardation. Seizures, speech impairments, eating problems, sensory impairments,
and joint and bone deformities such as spinal curvatures and contractures (permanently
fixed, tight muscles and joints). Approximately 40 percent of those with cerebral palsy have
normal intelligence; the remainders have from mild to severe retardation. This is an
extremely heterogeneous group having unique abilities and needs.

Epilepsy: is disorder that occurs when the brain cells are not working properly and is often
called a seizure disorder. Some children and youth will epilepsy have only a momentary
loss of attention (petit mal seizures); others fall to the floor and then move uncontrollably.
Fortunately, once epilepsy is diagnosed, it can usually be controlled with medication and
does not interfere with performance in school. Most individuals with epilepsy have normal
intelligence.
Epilepsy is a condition that affects 1 to 2 percent of the population. It is characterized by
recurring seizures, which are spontaneous abnormal discharge of electrical impulses of the
brain.
Spinal bifida and spinal cord injury: damage to the spinal cord leads to paralysis and loss
of sensation in the affected areas of the body. The spinal bifida is a birth defect of the
backbone (spinal column). The cause is unknown but it usually occurs in the first twenty-
six days of pregnancy.
B. Musculoskeletal system:
it includes the muscles and their supporting framework and the skeleton.
1) Progressive muscle weakness (muscular dystrophy);
2) Inflammation of the joints (arthritis), or
3) Loss of various parts of the body (amputation)
The lists of the impairment associated with musculoskeletal malformation are the
following:
a) Muscular dystrophy: is an inherited condition accruing mainly in males, in which the
muscles weaken and deteriorate. The weakness usually appears around 3 to 4 years of age
and worsens progressively. By age 11 most victims can to longer walk. Death usually
comes between the ages of 25 and 35 from respiratory failure or cardiac arrest.
b) Arthritis: is an inflammation of the joints. Symptoms include swollen and stiff joints,
fever, and pain in the joints during acute periods. Prolonged inflammation can lead joint
deformities that can eventually affect mobility.
c) Amputation: a small number of children have missing limbs because of congenital
abnormalities or injury or disease (malignant bone tumors in the limbs). These children can
use customized prosthetic devices (artificial hands, arms, or legs) to replace limp functions
and increase independence in daily activities.
Marfan syndrome: is a genetic disorder in which the muscles are poorly developed and the
spine is curved. Individuals with marfan syndrome may have either long, thin limbs,
prominent shoulder blades, spinal curvature, flat feet, or long fingers & thumbs. The heart
and blood vessels are usually affected. The greatest danger is damage to aorta, which can
lead to heart failure. Individuals with marfan syndrome need to avoid heavy exercise and
lifting heavy objects.
Achondroplasis: is a genetic disorder that affects 1 in 10,000 births. Children with this
disorder usually develop a normal torso but have a straight upper back and a curved lower
back (sway back). These children are at risk of sudden death during sleep from
compression of the spinal cord interfering with their breathing. The disability may be
lessened through the use of the back braces or by surgery.
Polio: is a viral disease that invades the brain and cause severe paralysis of the total body
system. Its mild form results in partial paralysis. Post-polio muscles that were previously
damaged weaken, and in some persons, other muscles that were not previously affected
weaken as well.
Club foot: is a major orthopedic problem affecting about 9,000 infants each year. This term
is used to describe various ankle or foot deformities, i.e
 Twisting inward (equino varus), the most severe form Sharply angled at the heel
(calcanel vaigus), most common
 The front part of the foot turned inward.
These conditions can be treated with physical therapy, and a cast on the foot can solve the
problem in most instances. In more severe cases, surgery is necessary. With early
treatment, most children can wear regular shoes and take part in all school activities.
Cleft lip and cleft palate: are opening of the lip or roof of the mouth, respectively, that fail
to close before birth, the cause is unknown. Most cleft problems can be repaired through
surgery.
Health Impairments
Any disease that interferes with learning can make students eligible for special services.
This disease caused problems are as follow.
Heart disease: this is common among young people. It is caused by improper circulation of
blood by the heart some of the disorders are congenital) present at birth); others are the
product of inflammatory heart disease. Some students have heart value disorders; others
have disorders of the blood vessels. His time heart implantation helps children to get cured.
Cystic fibrosis: is a hereditary disease that affects the lungs and pancreas. It leads to
recurrent respiratory and digestive problems including abnormal amounts of thick mucus,
sweet and saliva. The disease is so progressive and few who have it survive beyond age 20.
Children with such disease often spend significant timeout of school.
Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS): is a very severe disease caused by
human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection and transmitted primarily through
exchange of bodily fluids in transfusions or unprotected sex, and by contaminated needles
in addictive drug use.
Hemophilia: is a hereditary disease in which the blood clots very slowly or not all. The
disorder is transmitted by sex-linked recessive gene and nearly always occurs in males.
Asthma: is a chronic respiratory condition characterized by repeated exposed of breathing
difficulties especially while exhaling.
Diabetes: Developmental or hereditary disorder characterized by inadequate secretion or
use of insulin
Nephrosis & Nephritis Kidney disorders or diseases caused by infections, poisoning, burns,
accidents or other diseases
Sickle-cell anemia: Hereditary and chronic blood disease (occurring primarily in African
Americans) characterized by red blood cells that are distorted and that do not circulate
properly
Leukemia: Disease characterized by excessive production of white blood Cells

Lead poisoning Disorder: caused by ingesting lead-based paint chips or other substances
containing lead
Rheumatic fever disease: characterized by painful swelling and inflammation of the joints
that can spread to the heat and central nervous system.
Tuberculosis: Infectious disease that commonly affects the lungs and may affect other
tissues of the body.
Cancer: Abnormal growth of cells that can affect any organ system
1.5. Vulnerability

Vulnerable means being at risk of being harmed. Everyone can be harmed, so being
vulnerable is part of being human. In principle, everyone is vulnerable to some adverse
event or circumstance, but some people are more vulnerable than others. For instance,
people with disabilities are more likely as a group to experience greater vulnerability. They
are also often more severely affected by the vulnerability they experience. Based on the
existing literature, vulnerability can be generally defined as a complex phenomenon that
refers to the following dimensions:
1. Economic difficulties/lack of financial resources: poverty, low living standards,

housing problems (e.g. too damp, too expensive, too cold or difficult to heat) etc.;
2. Social exclusion: limited access to facilities such as transportation, schools, libraries

or medical services;
3. Lack of social support from social networks: no assistance from family members,

friends, neighbors or colleagues (referring to practical help as well as emotional

support) like highly gifted individuals;
4. Stigmatization: being a victim of stereotypes, being devalued, confronted with

disgraceful behavior because of belonging to a particular social or ethnic group;

5. Health difficulties: disadvantages resulting from poor mental health, physical health

or disabilities;
6. Being a victim of crime: in family context especially of violence.

Causes of Vulnerability

Vulnerability may be causes by rapid population growth, poverty and hunger, poor health,
low levels of education, gender inequality, fragile and hazardous location, and lack of
access to resources and services, including knowledge and technological means,
disintegration of social patterns (social vulnerability). Other causes include; lack of access
to information and knowledge, lack of public awareness, limited access to political power
and representation (political vulnerability), (Aysan,1993). When people are socially
disadvantaged or lack political voice, their vulnerability is exacerbated further. The
economic vulnerability is related to a number of interacting elements, including its
importance in the overall national economy, trade and foreign-exchange earnings, aid and
investments, international prices of commodities and inputs, and production and
consumption patterns. Environmental vulnerability concerns land degradation, earthquake,
flood, hurricane, drought, storms (Monsoon rain, El Niño), water scarcity, deforestation,
and the other threats to biodiversity.

Characteristics of Vulnerable People

The following are thought to be characteristics of vulnerable people (with examples of

groups of potentially vulnerable people):
1. Less physically or mentally capable (infants, older adults, people with disabilities)

2. Fewer material and/or financial resources (low-income households, homeless)

3. Less knowledge or experience (children, illiterate, foreigners, tourists)

4. Restricted by society to grow and develop according to their needs and potentials

People who are helped by others (who are then restricted by commitments) are still
vulnerable people, which includes the following extracted from various researches (who are
vulnerable ?)
 Women: particularly women in developing nations and those who are living in rural
areas are vulnerable for many backward traditional practices. These women are
oppressed by the culture and do not get access to education and employment.
 Children: Significant number of children are vulnerable and at risk for development.
Children are vulnerable for psychological and physical abuse This include illegally
working children, children who are pregnant or become mothers, children born out of
marriage, children from a single-parent, delinquent children, homeless children, HIV
infected children, uneducated children, institutionalized children, married children,
 mentally ill children, migrant children, orphans, sexually exploited children, street
children, war-affected children…etc.
 Minorities: some people are vulnerable due to their minority background.
Particularly, ethnic (cultural and linguistic minority), religious minority. These
people are political and socially discriminated.
 Poverty: People are vulnerable for many undesirable phenomena due to poverty.
This may be resulted in, poor households and large households, inequality, absences
of access to health services, important resources for life, lack of access to education,
information, financial and natural resources and lack of social networks.
 Disabilities: People with disabilities very much vulnerable for many kinds of risks.
This includes abuses, poverty, illiteracy, health problems, psychological and social
problems.
 Age: Old people or very young children are vulnerable for all kinds evils
 Illiteracy and less education: People with high rates of illiteracy and lack quality
educational opportunities are vulnerable for absence all kinds of developments.
 Sickness: Uncured health problems for example people living with HIV/AIDS are
much vulnerable for psychosocial problems, poverty and health.
 Gifted and Talentedness: Gifted and talented children are vulnerable for
socioemotional developments. Due to lack of psychological support, they may feel
isolation as they are pulled from their regular classrooms and given instruction in
separate settings and due to myths and expectations of themselves and the public.
 Chapter Two
Inclusion
2.1. Definition of Inclusion
Inclusion in education/service refers to an ongoing process aimed at offering quality
education/services for all while respecting diversity and the different needs and abilities,
characteristics and learning expectations of the students and communities and eliminating all
forms of discrimination (UNESCO, 2008, as cited in EADSNE, 2010,). Inclusive services at
any level are quality provisions without discrimination or partiality and meeting the diverse
needs of people.
Inclusion is seen as a process of addressing and responding to the diversity of needs of all
persons through increasing participation in learning, employment, services, cultures and
communities, and reducing exclusion at all social contexts. It involves changes and
modifications in content, approaches, structures and strategies, with a common vision which
covers all people, a conviction that it is the responsibility of the social system to educate all
children (UNESCO 2005), employ and provide social services. Besides, inclusion is defined as
having a wide range of strategies, activities and processes that seek to make a reality of the
universal right to quality, relevant and appropriate education and services. It acknowledges that
learning begins at birth and continues throughout life, and includes learning in the home, the
community, and in formal, informal and non-formal situations. It seeks to enable communities,
systems and structures in all cultures and contexts to combat discrimination, celebrate diversity,
promote participation and overcome barriers to learning and participation for all people. It is
part of a wider strategy promoting inclusive development, with the goal of creating a world
where there is peace, tolerance, and sustainable use of resources, social justice, and where the
basic needs and rights of all are met. This definition has the following components:
1) Concepts about learners
 Education is a fundamental human right for all people
 Learning begins at birth and continues throughout life.
 All children have a right to education within their own community
 Everyone can learn, and any child can experience difficulties in learning
 All learners need their learning supported child-focused teaching benefits all children.
2) Concepts about the education system and schools
 It is broader than formal schooling
 It is flexible, responsive educational systems
 It creates enabling and welcoming educational environments
 It promotes school improvement – makes effective schools
 It involves whole school approach and collaboration between partners.
3) Concepts about diversity and discrimination
 It promotes combating discrimination and exclusionary pressures at any social sectors
  It enables responding to/embracing diversity as a resource not as a problem
 It prepares learners for an inclusive society that respects and values difference.
4) Concepts about processes to promote inclusion
 It helps to identifying and overcoming barriers to participation and exclusionary
pressures
 It increases real participation of all collaboration, partnership between all stakeholders
 It promotes participatory methodology, action research, collaborative enquiry and other
related activities.

5) Concepts about resources

• Promotes unlocking and fully using local resources redistributing existing resources
• It helps to perceive people (children, parents, teachers, members of marginalized groups,
etc) as key resources
• It helps to use appropriate resources and support within schools and at local levels for the
needs of different children, e.g. mother tongue tuition, Braille, assistive devices.
Some misconceptions/fallacies and facts in concept of inclusion:
McLeskey and Waldron (2000) have identified inclusion and non-inclusive
practices.
 Inclusion is about:
 Welcoming all students with disabilities and vulnerability attend their neighborhood
schools

 Each student is in an age-appropriate general education classroom

 Every student is accepted and regarded as a full and valued member of the
class and the school community.
 Special education supports are provided to each student with a disability
within the context of the general education classroom.
 All students receive an education that addresses their individual needs

 No student is excluded based on type or degree of disability.

 All members of the school (e.g., administration, staff, students, and parents)
promote cooperative/collaborative teaching arrangements
 There is school-based planning, problem-solving, and ownership of all
students and programs
 Employed according to their capacities without discriminations
 On the other hand, inclusion does not mean:
 Placing students with disabilities into general education classrooms without
careful planning and adequate support.
 Reducing services or funding for special education services.
 Placing all students who have disabilities or who are at risk in one or a few
designated classrooms.
 Teachers spending a disproportionate amount of time teaching or adapting
the curriculum for students with disabilities.
 Isolating students with disabilities socially, physically, or academically
within the general education school or classroom.
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  Endangering the achievement of general education students through slower
instruction or a less challenging curriculum.
 Relegating special education teachers to the role of assistants in the general
education classroom.
 Requiring general and special education teachers to team together without
careful planning and well-defined responsibilities.
2.2. Principles of Inclusion
The fundamental principle of inclusion is that all persons should learn, work and live
together wherever possible, regardless of any difficulties or differences they may have.
Inclusive education extends beyond special needs arising from disabilities, and includes
consideration of other sources of disadvantage and marginalization, such as gender,
poverty, language, ethnicity, and geographic isolation. The complex inter-relationships
that exist among these factors and their interactions with disability must also be a focus of
attention. Besides, inclusion begins with the premise that all persons have unique
characteristics, interests, abilities and particular learning needs and, further, that all
persons have equal access education, employment and services. Inclusion implies
transition from separate, segregated learning and working environments for persons with
disabilities to community-based systems. Moreover, effective transitions from segregated
services to inclusive system requires careful planning and structural changes to ensure that
persons with disabilities are provided with appropriate accommodation and supports that
ensure an inclusive learning and working environment. Furthermore, UNESCO (2005) has
provided four major inclusion principles that support inclusive practice. These include:
1. Inclusion is a process: it has to be seen as a never-ending search to find better
ways of responding to diversity. It is about learning how to live with difference
and learning how to learn from difference. Differences come to be seen more
positively as a stimulus for fostering learning amongst children and adults.
2. Inclusion is concerned with the identification and removal of barriers that
hinders the development of persons with disabilities. It involves collecting,
collating and evaluating information from a wide variety of sources in order to
plan for improvements in policy and practice. It is about using evidence of various
kinds to stimulate creativity and problem - solving.
3. Inclusion is about the presence, participation and achievement of all persons.
Presence is concerned with where persons are provided and how reliably and
punctually, they attend; participation ‘relates’ to the quality of their experiences
and must incorporate the views of learners/and or workers and achievement is

26
 about the outcomes of learning across the curriculum, not just test and exam
results.
4. Inclusion invokes a particular emphasis on those who may be at risk of
marginalization, exclusion or underachievement. This indicates the moral
responsibility to ensure that those at risk are carefully monitored, and that steps are
taken to ensure their presence, participation and achievement.
2.3. Rationale for Inclusion
Implementation of inclusion has number of rationales. These are: educational, social,
legal, economic and inclusive society building foundations
Rationales for Inclusion and their Respective Descriptions
1. Educational Foundations
o Children do better academically, psychologically and socially in inclusive
settings.
o A more efficient use of education resources.
o Decreases dropouts and repetitions
o Teachers’ competency (knowledge, skills, collaboration, satisfaction

2. Social Foundation
o Segregation teaches individuals to be fearful, ignorant and breeds prejudice.
o All individuals need an education that will help them develop relationships and
prepare them for life in the wider community.
o Only inclusion has the potential to reduce fear and to build friendship, respect
and understanding.
3. Legal Foundations
o All individuals have the right to learn and live together.
o Human being shouldn’t be devalued or discriminated against by being
excluded or sent away because of their disability.
o There are no legitimate reasons to separate children for their education
4. Economic Foundation
o Inclusive education has economic benefit, both for individual and for society.
o Inclusive education is more cost-effective than the creation of special schools
across the country.
o Children with disabilities go to local schools
o Reduce wastage of repetition and dropout
o Children with disabilities live with their family use community infrastructure
o Better employment and job creation opportunities for people with disabilities
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 5. Foundations for Building Inclusive Society
o Formation of mutual understanding and appreciation of diversity
o Building up empathy, tolerance and cooperation
o Promotion of sustainable development
2.4. Factors that Influenced the Development of Inclusion
Inclusion originated from three major ideas. Inclusive education is a basic human right;
quality education results from inclusion of students with diverse needs and ability
differences, and there is no clear demarcation between the characteristics of students with
and without disabilities and vulnerabilities. Therefore, separate provisions for such
students cannot be justified. Moreover, inclusion has got the world’s attention because it
is supposed to solve the world’s major problems occurring in social, economic, religious,
educational and other areas of the world. For instance, it is supposed to: counteract-social,
political, economic and educational challenges that happen due to globalization impact;
enhance psychosocial, academic and other benefits to students with and without special
needs education; help all citizens exercise educational and human rights; enhance
quality education for all in regular class rooms through inclusion; create sustainable
environmental development that is suitable for all human beings; create democratic and
productive society that promote sustainable development; build an attitude of respecting
and valuing of differences in human beings; and ultimately build an inclusive society.
Inclusive education is facilitated by many influencing actors. Some of the major drivers
include:
1. Communities: community-based programs movement that favor inclusion of their
community members.
2. Activists and advocates: the combined voices of primary stakeholders’
representatives of groups of learners often excluded and marginalized from education
(e.g., disabled activists; parents advocating for their children; child rights advocates;
and those advocating for women/girls and minority ethnic groups).
3. The quality education and school improvement movement: in both North and
South, the issues of quality, access and inclusion are strongly linked, and contribute
to the understanding and practice of inclusive education as being the responsibility of
education systems and schools.
4. Special educational needs movement: the new thinking ‘of the special needs
education movement as demonstrated in the Salamanca Statement has been a positive
influence on inclusive education, enabling schools and systems to really respond to a
wide range of diversity.

28
 5. Involvement of International agencies: the UN is a major influence on the
development of inclusive education policy and practice. Major donors have formed a
partnership the Fast-Track Initiative to speed progress towards the EFA goals. E.g.
UNESCO, etc.
6. Involvement of NGOs movements, networks and campaigns: a wide range of civil
society initiatives, such as the Global Campaign for Education, seek to bring policy
and practice together and involve all stakeholders based on different situations
7. Other factors: the current world situation and practical experiences in education.
The current world situation presents challenges such as the spread of HIV/AIDS,
political instability, trends in resource distribution, diversity of population, and social
inclusion. This necessitates implementation of inclusion to solve the problems. On
the other hand, practical experiences in education offers lessons learned from failure
and success in mainstream, special and inclusive education. Moreover, practical
demonstrations of successful inclusive education in different cultures and contexts
are a strong influence on its development

2.5. Benefits of Inclusion

It is now understood that inclusion benefits communities, families, teachers, and students
by ensuring that children with disabilities attend school with their peers and providing
them with adequate support to succeed both academically and socially.
Benefits for Students with Disabilities/ Special Needs
In inclusive settings people will develop:
• Appropriate models of behavior. They can observe and imitate socially acceptable
behaviors of the students without special needs
• Improved friendships with the social environment
• Increased social initiations, interactions, relationships and networks
• Gain peer role models for academic, social and behavior skills
• Increased achievement of individualized educational program (IEP) goals
• Greater access to general curriculum
• Enhanced skill acquisition and generalization in their learning
• improved academic achievement which leads to quality education service s
• Attending inclusive schools increases the probability that students with SEN will
continue to participate in a variety of integrated settings throughout their lives
(increased inclusion in future environments that contribute building of inclusive
society).

29
 • Improved school staff collaboration to meet these students’ needs and ability
differences
• Increased parental participation to meet these students’ needs and ability
differences
• Enhanced family’s integration into the community

Benefits for persons without Disabilities/ Special Needs

Students without special educational needs (SEN) will:
• Have a variety of opportunities for interacting with their age peers who experience
SEN in inclusive school settings.
• serve as peer tutors during instructional activities

• Gain knowledge of a good deal about tolerance, individual difference, and human
exceptionality.
• Learn that students with SEN have many positive characteristics and abilities.
• Have chance to learn about many of the human service profession such as special
education, speech therapy, physical therapy, recreation therapy, and vocational
rehabilitation. For some, exposure to these areas may lead to career choices.
• Have increased appreciation, acceptance and respect of individual differences
among human beings that leads to increased understanding and acceptance of
diversity
• Get greater opportunities to master activities by practicing and teaching others
• Have increased academic outcomes
• have opportunity to learn to communicate, and deal effectively with a wide range
of individuals; this prepares them to fully participate in society when they are
adults that make them build an inclusive society

Benefits for Teachers and Parents/Family

Inclusive education has benefit to teachers. The benefit includes: developing their
knowledge and skills that meet diverse students ‘needs and ability differences to
enhancing their skills to work with their stakeholders; and gaining satisfaction in their
profession and other aspects.
Similarly, parents/family benefit from inclusive education. For example, parents benefit
from implementation of inclusive education in developing their positive attitude towards
their children’s education, positive feeling toward their participation, and appreciation to
differences among humankinds and so on. For detailed information, see the table below.
when they participate in inclusive education of their children.

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 Benefits of inclusion for Teachers and Parents/Family:

Benefits for Teachers Benefits for

Parents/Family
They • Learn more about how their children
o have more opportunities to learn new ways to are being educated in schools with
teach different kinds of students. their peers in an inclusive
o gain new knowledge, such as the different ways environment.
children learn and can be taught. • Become personally involved and feel
o develop more positive attitudes and approaches a greater sense of accomplishment in
towards different people with diverse needs. helping their children to learn.
o have greater opportunities to explore new ideas • Feel valued and consider themselves
by communicating more often with others from as equal partners in providing quality
within and outside their school, such as in learning opportunities for children.
school clusters or teacher networks, or with • Learn how to deal better with their
parents and community members. children at home by using techniques
o can encourage their students to be more that the teachers use in school.
interested, more creative and more attentive • Find out ways to interact with others
o can experience greater job satisfaction and a in the community, as well as to
higher sense of accomplishment when all understand and help solve each
children are succeeding in school to the best of other’s problems.
their abilities. • Know that their children and all
o get opportunities to exchange information about children are receiving a quality
education.
instructional activities and teaching Strategies,
• Experience positive attitude about
thus expanding the skills of both general and
themselves and their children by
special educators
seeing their children accepted by
o benefit from develop Developing teamwork and
others, successful in the inclusive
collaborative problem-solving skills to
setting, and belonging to the
creatively address challenges regarding student
community where they live
learning
o Develop positive attitude that help them
promoting the recognition and appreciation that
all students have strengths and are contributing
members of the school community as well as
the society
They:

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 Benefits for Society
Inclusion goes beyond education and should involve consideration of employment,
recreation, health and living conditions. It should therefore involve transformations
across all government and other agencies at all levels of society. When students with
special needs and without special needs are educated through quality inclusive
education, it not only benefits students, teachers and parents it also benefits the society.
Some of the major benefits may include: Introduction of students with disabilities and
vulnerabilities into mainstream schools bring in the students into local communities
and neighborhoods and helps break down barriers and prejudice that prevail in the
society towards persons with disability. Communities become more accepting of
difference, and everyone benefits from a friendlier, open environment that values and
appreciates differences in human beings.

Meaningful participation in the economic, social, political and cultural life of

communities own cost effective non-segregated schooling system that services both
students with and without special needs education.

Ultimate goal of inclusion

The goal of inclusive education is to create schools where everyone belongs. By
creating inclusive schools, we ensure that there’s a welcoming place in the community
for everyone after their school year’s end. Students educated together have a greater
understanding of difference and diversity. Students educated together have fewer fears
about difference and disability. An inclusive school culture creates better long-term
outcomes for all students. Typical students who are educated alongside peers with
developmental disabilities understand more about the ways that they’re all alike. These
are the students who will be our children’s peer group and friends. These students hold
the promise of creating inclusive communities in the future for all our children. These
students will be the teachers, principals, doctors, lawyers, and parents who build
communities where everyone belongs.

Inclusive society is a necessary precondition for inclusive growth is a society which

does not exclude or discriminate against its citizens on the basis of disability, caste,
race, gender, family or community, a society which levels the playing field for
investment and leaves no one behind. Thus, Inclusive growth which is equitable that

32
offers equality of opportunity to all as well as protection in market and employment
transitions results from inclusive society.

2.6. Features of Inclusive Environment

An inclusive environment is one in which members feel respected by and connected to
one another. An inclusive environment is an environment that welcomes all people,
regardless of their disability and other vulnerabilities. It recognizes and uses their skills
and strengthens their abilities. An inclusive service environment is respectful,
supportive, and equalizing. An inclusive environment reaches out to and includes
individuals with disabilities and vulnerabilities at all levels from first time participants
to board members.
It has the following major characteristics:
o it ensures the respect and dignity of individuals with disabilities
o it meets current accessibility standards to the greatest extent possible to all
people with special needs
o provides accommodations willingly and proactively
o Persons with disabilities are welcomed and are valued for their contributions as
individuals.

Inclusive Environments:
An inclusive environment is a place that is adjusted to individuals ‘needs and not vice
versa that individuals are adjusted to the environmental needs. It acknowledges that
individual differences among individuals are a source of richness and diversity, and not
a problem, and that various needs and the individual pace of learning and development
can be met successfully with a wide range of flexible approaches. Besides, the
environment should involve continuous process of changes directed towards
strengthening and encouraging different ways of participation of all members of the
community.
An inclusive environment is also directed towards developing culture, policy and
practice which meet pupils’ diversities, towards identifying and removing obstacles in
learning and participating, towards developing a suitable provision and supporting
individuals. Therefore, successful environment has the following characteristics:

33
 • It develops whole-school/environment processes that promote inclusiveness
and quality provisions and practice that are responsive to the individual needs
and diversities
• It recognizes and responds to the diverse needs of their individuals and
ensuring quality provisions for all through appropriate accommodations,
organizational arrangements, resource use and partnerships with their
community.
• It is committed to serve all individuals together regardless of differences. It is
also deeply committed to the belief that all persons can learn, work and be
productive.
• It involves restructuring environment, culture, policy, and practice.

• It promoting pro-social activities

• It makes provides services and facilities equally accessible to all people

• It involves mobilizing resources within the community

• It is alert to and uses a range of multi-skilled personnel to assist people in their

learning and working environment.
• It strives to create strong links with, clinicians, caregivers, and staff in local
schools, work place, disability services providers and relevant support
agencies within the wider community.
• It develops social relationships as an equal member of the class. It is also the
classroom responsive to the diversity of individuals’ academic, social and
personal learning needs.
2.7. Barriers to Inclusion
Though many countries seem committed to inclusion their rhetoric, and even in their
legislation and policies, practices often fall short. Reasons for the policy-practice gap
in inclusion are diverse. The major barriers include:
• Problems related with societal values and beliefs- particularly the community and
policy makers’ negative attitude towards students with disability and
vulnerabilities. Inclusion cannot flourish in a society that has prejudice and
negative attitude towards persons with disability.
• Economic factors- this is mainly related with poverty of family, community and
society at large

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 • Lack of taking measures to ensure conformity of implementation of inclusion
practice with policies
• Lack of stakeholders taking responsibility in their cooperation as well as
collaboration for inclusion
• Conservative traditions among the community members about inclusion
• Lack of knowledge and skills among teachers regarding inclusive education
• Rigid curricula, teaching method and examination systems that do not consider
students with dives needs and ability differences.
• Fragile democratic institutions that could not promote inclusion
• Inadequate resources and inaccessibility of social and physical environments
• Large class sizes that make teachers and stakeholders meet students’ diverse needs
• Globalization and free market policy that make students engage in fierce
completion, individualism and individuals’ excellence rather than teaching
through cooperation, collaboration and group excellence.
• Using inclusive models that may be imported from other countries
2.8. Promoting Inclusive Culture
As mentioned in previous section inclusion is a sense of belonging, connection and
community at work. And inclusive organizations help people feel welcomed,
known, valued and encouraged to bring their whole, unique selves to work.
Culture is ―the ideas, customs, and social behavior of a particular people or
society. An organization‘s culture is the culmination of the priorities, values and
behaviors, which support their employees in how they work singularly, in teams
and with clients. Culture plays a huge role in shifting the diversity needle and
forming truly inclusive environments.
Hence, an inclusive culture involves the full and successful integration of diverse
people into a workplace or industry. Additionally, inclusive cultures extend beyond
basic or token presence of workers who have disabilities. They encompass both
formal and informal policies and practices, and involve several core values:
Representation: The presence of people with disabilities across a range of employee
roles and leadership positions
•Receptivity: Respect for differences in working styles and flexibility in tailoring
positions to the strengths and abilities of employees and

35
 • Fairness: Equitable access to all resources, opportunities, networks and decision-
making processes.
Dimensions of Inclusive culture
There are three dimensions/elements of an inclusive culture:
1. Universal design

2. Recruitment, training and advancement opportunities

3. Workplace accommodations and accessibility (Policy & Practice)

Universal Design
One of the most heralded concepts in disability advocacy and cultures in the last
decade is the concept of “universal design”. Universal design refers to the
construction of structures, spaces, services, communications and resources that are
organically accessible to a range of people with and without disabilities, without
further need for modification or accommodation. While accommodations procedures
remain a needed function of most contemporary institutions and industries, forward-
thinking approaches to disability inclusion will frequently involve developing sites and
resources that require no accommodation to be fully usable and receptive to people
with disabilities.

A few examples for the universal design practices may apply in the workplace include:
•Routinely providing manuals, materials and forms to all employees in a variety of
digital formats that are as readily accessible to people who use adaptive computer
technologies as to other employees,
•building workspaces accessible to people who use wheelchairs or other assistive
devices, as well as to all other employees and
•providing employees with a variety of flexible schedule and work options. This
allows employees who have energy or functionality limitations to organize their
time and strengths, and all employees are better able to manage time and life/work
balance.

36
Recruitment, Training, and Advancement Opportunities
Recruitment: effective recruitment of people with disabilities involves two
components:
1. Accessible outreach and hiring practices and
2. Targeted recruitment of workers with disabilities.
- Accessible outreach and hiring practices essentially entail making sure that
outreach materials, networking and recruitment sites, communications, and
application processes all include a range of accessible options, or are free of
barriers that might inhibit people with disabilities from participating. Wherever
possible, outreach and hiring resources generally should be equally accessible to
workers with and without disabilities. For example, making recruitment literature
and job applications readily available in digital and large-print formats, or holding
outreach events in spaces without stairs or other barriers and with accessible
communications technology, helps to ensure that people with disabilities will be
included in recruitment practices.
- Targeted recruitment: involves specific outreach to people with disabilities.
Although making general recruitment practices more accessible goes a long way
towards building an inclusive hiring structure, individual employers are not always
able to overcome existing barriers for instance, when recruiting via externally
sponsored job fairs that are not accessible. Therefore, targeted recruitment enables
employers to reach and interview qualified people with disabilities. In turn, having
accessible recruitment practices relative to hiring, materials and communications
helps to ensure that targeted recruitment will be successful not just in identifying
qualified candidates, but by making sure there are no barriers to effective outreach
and eventual employment.
Training: Training plays a dual role in the creation of inclusive workplace culture. The
first consideration involves the degree to which people with disabilities have equitable
access to training sites, events, and materials. The second concern relates to the training
of managers, particularly middle management, and human resources staff, to work
effectively with all people, including those with disabilities. The consequences of
inadequate training are substantial, in reducing job satisfaction, with corresponding
negative consequences for productivity and retention. In turn, companies favored by
employees with disabilities make a concerted effort to create equitable and accessible
training resources.
Advancement: Research demonstrates that in order to have equitable opportunities for
promotion and professional development, like most employees, workers with
disabilities typically require access to mentoring. As with recruitment, mentoring and
coaching involves a dual dynamic in which:

37
 - Existing mentoring programs are advertised, implemented and maintained with
attention to inclusion of workers with disabilities, and
- targeted mentoring and coaching programs specifically assist employees with
disabilities. These may include the creation of explicit disability affirmative action
policies related to promotion, targeted professional networking opportunities, and
the establishment of disability affinity networks and related supports to encourage
full integration into the workplace culture.

Workplace Accommodations and Accessibility: Policy & Practice

Policy plays a critical role in generating meaningful inclusion of people with
disabilities workplace accommodations and accessibility. In addition to recruitment,
training and advancement, workplace policies need to carefully plan for the provision
of reasonable accommodations.
When assessing the effectiveness of existing accommodations policies, employee
experiences can be described based on two measures of equity.
o The first indicator of an inclusive workplace culture involves the perception of
procedural justice, meaning that employees with disabilities perceive the
accommodations policy as fair, accessible and functional.
o The practice of negotiating and providing accommodations constitutes an
additional opportunity for generating an experience of interactional justice.
Interactional justice refers to the experience of feeling that the managers or
colleagues with whom one is interacting are behaving fairly, reasonably and
respectfully.
Experiential and Bottom-Line Outcomes: the benefits of Inclusive cultures are
specifically beneficial for employees with disabilities, but also have positive results for
all employees, as they include a number of elements of a healthy work environment.
Specific positive outcomes include:
 Reduced expenses corresponding to reduced employee turn-over
 Increases worker commitment to and identification with organizational success
 Improves employee health and well-being
 Improves productivity
 Increases employee investment in work performance
 Reduces perception of discrimination and inequity
 Improves cooperation and collaboration among co-workers, employees and
management
Creating an inclusive organizational culture is challenging but extremely
advantageous. Here's why and how, however, the business benefits and the outcomes
of an inclusive organization fairness and respect, value and belonging, safe and open,

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and empowerment and growth should be compelling enough to push forward. Some of
the benefits of an Inclusive organization that needs to be considered are
 Higher Job Satisfaction
 Lower Turnover.
 Higher Productivity
 Higher Employee Morale
 Improved Creativity and Innovation
 Improved Problem-Solving
 Increased Organizational Flexibility.

Building inclusive society

 Inclusive society: a society that can respect all its citizens, gives them
full access to resources, and promote equal treatment and opportunity.
 Engages all its citizens in decision-making processes that affect their
lives.
Respect and value diversity
An inclusive society aims at empowering and promoting the social, economic, and
political inclusion of all, irrespective of age, sex, disability, race, ethnicity, origin,
religion, economic, or other status. It is a society that leaves no one behind. We
work to ensure that societies are open and inclusive to all.
The importance of building an inclusive society

 Acts of exclusion and injustice based on group identity and other factors should
not be allowed to occur and/or continue.
 All people have the right to be part of decisions that affect their lives and the
groups they belong to and
 Diversity enriches our lives, so it is worth our while to value our community's
diversity. An inclusive society can be built at any time. The need to have an
inclusive society, however, is most obvious when there has been a decision or
an incident that caused harm to a particular group of people.
Characteristics of an Inclusive Society
Inclusive societies do have the following set of characteristics:

 Integrative and cooperative: inclusive communities bring people together and

are places where people and organizations work together.

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 Invested: inclusive communities are places where both the public and private
sectors commit resources for the social and economic health and well-being of
the whole community.
 Diverse: inclusive communities welcome and incorporate diverse people and
cultures into the structures, processes and functions of daily community life.
 Equitable: inclusive communities make sure that everyone has the means to
live in decent conditions (i.e. income supports, employment, good housing) and
the opportunity to develop one‘s capacities and to participate actively in
community life.
 Accessible and Sensitive: inclusive communities have an array of readily
available and accessible supports and services for the social, health, and
developmental needs of their populations and provide such supports in
culturally sensitive and appropriate ways /essential services identified include
good schools, recreation, childcare, libraries, public transit, affordable housing
and supportive housing, home care, crisis and emergency supports, well-
coordinated and comprehensive settlement supports/
 Participatory: inclusive communities encourage and support the involvement
of all their members in the planning and decision-making that affects
community conditions and development, including having an effective voice
with senior levels of government and
 Safe: inclusive communities ensure both individual and broad community
safety and security so that no one feels at risk in their homes or moving around
the neighborhood and city.

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