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PYSICAL LAYERED MEDIA

SIGNALS
One of the major role of Physical layer is to transfer the data in form of
signals through a transmission medium. It doesn’t matter what data you are sending, it can
be text, audio, image, video etc. everything is transferred in form of signals.
This happens because a data cannot be send as it is over a transmission medium, it
must be converted to a form that is acceptable by the transmission media, signals are what
a transmission medium carry. In this guide, we will discuss data and signals.
To be transmitted, information must be transformed into electromagnetic signals.
 Digital Signals
Digital signals are discrete in nature and represent sequence of voltage pulses.
Digital signals are used within the circuitry of a computer system.
 Analog Signals
Analog signals are in continuous wave form in nature and represented by
continuous electromagnetic waves.
ANALOG AND DIGITAL
Both the data and the signal can be represented in form of analog and digital.
 Analog refers to something that is continuous-a set of specific points of data and all
possible points between.
 Digital refers to something that is discrete-a set of specific points of data with no
other points in between.
Analog and Digital Data:
Data can be analog or digital. An example of analog data is the human voice. When
somebody speaks, a continuous wave is created in the air. This can be captured by a
microphone and converted to an analog signal.
An Example of digital data is data stored in the memory of a computer in the form of 0s
and 1s. It is usually converted o a digital signal when it is transferred from one position to
another inside or outside the computer.
Analog and Digital Signals:
Similar to data, a signal can be analog or digital. An analog signal can have infinite number
of values in a given range, on the other hand a digital signal has limited number of values in
a given range. The following diagram shows analog and digital signals.
Comparison of analog and digital signals

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An Analog Signal is a continuous wave form that changes smoothly over time. As the wave
moves from value A to value B, it passes through and includes an infinite number of values
along its path.
A Digital Signal, on the other hand, is discrete. It can have only a limited number of defined
values, often as simple as 1 and 0. The transition of a digital signal from value to value is
instantaneous, like a light being switched ON and OFF.
Signals can be analog or digital. Analog signals can have any value in a range; digital signals
can have only a limited number of values.

PERIODIC AND APERIODIC SIGNALS

Both analog and digital signals can be of two forms: Periodic and Aperiodic (nonperiodic).
Periodic Signals:
A signal is a periodic signal if it completes a pattern within a measurable time frame called
a period, and repeats that pattern over identical subsequent periods The completion of one
full pattern is called a cycle. A period is defined as the amount of time required to complete
one full cycle. The duration of a period, represented by T, may be different for each signal,
but it is constant for any given periodic signal.
A Periodic Signal consists of a continuously repeated pattern. The period of a signal (T) is
expressed in seconds.
Examples of Periodic Signals:

Aperiodic Signals:
An aperiodic, or nonperiodic signal changes constantly without exhibiting a pattern or
cycle that repeats over time.
An aperiodic or nonperiodic signal has no repetitive pattern.
Examples of aperiodic signals:

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It has been proved, however, by a technique called a Fourier transform, that any aperiodic
signal can be decomposed into an infinite number of periodic signals. Understanding the
characteristics of periodic signals, therefore, provides insight into aperiodic signals as well.
An aperiodic signal can be decomposed ino an infinite number of periodic signals. A sine wave
in the simplest periodic signal.
ANALOG SIGNALS
Analog signals can be classified as simple or composite. A simple analog signal, or a sine
wave, cannot be decomposed into simpler signals. A composite analog signal is composed
of multiple sine waves.
Simple Analog Signals
The sine wave is the most fundamental form of a periodic analog signal. Visualized as a
simple oscillating curve, its change over the course of a cycle is smooth and consistent, a
continuous, rolling flow.

A sine wave
The above figure shows a sine wave. Each cycle consists of a single arc above the time axis
followed by a single arc below it. Sine Waves can be fully described by three
characteristics:
 Amplitude
 Period or Frequency
 Phase
 Amplitude:
On a graph, the amplitude of a signal is the value of the signal at any point on the wave. It is
equal to the vertical distance from a given point on the wave form to the horizontal axis.
The maximum amplitude of a sine wave is equal to the highest value it reaches on the
vertical axis.

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Amplitude is measured in either volts, amperes, or watts, depending on the type of singal.
Volts refer to voltage; amperes refer to current; and watts refer to power.
Peak amplitude: Absolute value of highest intensity of sine wave.
Amplitude refers to the height of the signal. The unit for amplitude depends on the type of the
signal. For electrical signals, the unit is normally volts, amperes, or watts.
 Period and Frequency:
Period refers to the amount of time, in seconds, a signal needs to complete one cycle.
Frequency refers to the number of periods in one second. The frequency of a signal is its
number of cycles per second.
Period and Frequency

Unit of Period: Period is expressed in seconds. The communication industry uses five units
to measure period:

Period is the amount of time it takes a signal to complete one cycle, frequency is the
number of cycles per second. Frequency and period are inverses of each other: f=1/T and
T=1/ f .
Frequency is rate of change with respect to time. Change in a short span of time means high
frequency. Change in a long span of time means low frequency.
If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero. If a signal changes instantaneously,
its frequency is infinity.
 Phase:
The term phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero. If we think of
the wave as something that can be shifted backward or forward along the time axis, phase
describes the amount of that shift. It indicates the status of the first cycle.

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Phase describes the position of the waveform relative to time zero.
Phase is measured in degrees or radians (360 degrees is 2π radians). A phase shift of 360
degrees corresponds of a shift of a complete period; a phase shift or 180 degrees
corresponds to a shift of half a period; and a phase shift of 90 degrees corresponds to a
shift of a quarter of a period.
Relationship between different phases

Example:
A sine wave is offset 1/6 of a cycle with respect to time zero. What is its phase?
Solution
We know that one complete cycle is 360 degrees. Therefore, 1/6 of a cycle is
1/6 x 360 = 60 degrees
A visual comparison of amplitude, frequency, and phase provides a reference useful for
understanding their functions. Changes in all three attributes can be introduced into a
signal and controlled electronically. Such control provides the basis for all
telecommunications.

 Amplitude Change

 Frequency Change
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 Phase Change

TIME AND FREQUENCY DOMAINS

A sine wave is comprehensive defined by its amplitude, frequency, and phase. We have
been showing a sine wave using what is called a time-domain plot. The time domain plot
shows changes in signal amplitude with respect ot time. Phase and frequency are not
explicitly measured on a time-domain plot.
To show the relationship between amplitude and frequency, we can use what is called a
frequency-domain plot.
Time and Frequency Domains

It compares the time domain(instantaneous amplitude with respect to time) and the
frequency domain (maximum amplitude with respect to frequency).
Time and frequency domains for different signals

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A low-frequency signal in the frequency domain corresponds to a signal with a long period
in the time domain and vice versa. A signal that changes rapidly in the time domain
corresponds to high frequencies in the frequency domain.
COMPOSITE SIGNALS
Unlike sine wave which is smooth and consistent, composite analog signals or waves
are not smooth and consistent, which means an arc above the time axis doesn’t necessarily
followed by arc below the time axis. You can imagine them as a group of sine waves with
different frequency, amplitude and period.
Bandwidth: The range of frequencies in a composite signal is called bandwidth. For
example if a composite signal contains waves with the frequencies ranging from 2000 to
4000 then you can say that the bandwidth of this composite signal is 4000-2000 = 2000Hz.
Bandwidth is measured in Hz.
To decompose a composite signal into its components. Fourier analysis is needed.

A Signal with a DC Component

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A periodic signal decomposed into two sine waves. The first sine wave(middle plot) has a
frequency of 6 while the second sine wave has a frequency of 0. Adding these two point by
point results in the top graph. Notice that the original signal looks like a sine wave that has
had its time axis shifted downward. The average amplitude of this signal is nonzero. This
factor indicates the presence of a zero-frequency component, a direct current(DC)
component. This DC component is responsible for the 10-unit upward shift of the sine
wave.
Composite Waveform

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A Composite signal decomposed into four components. This signal is close to a digital
signal. For an exact digital signal, we need an infinite number of odd harmonic signals(f, 3f,
5f, 7f, 9f,…), each with a different amplitude. The frequency domain graph also shown.
Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth
Two terms need mentioning here: Spectrum and Bandwidth. The frequency Spectrum of a
signal is the collection of all the component frequencies it contains and is shown using a
frequency-domain graph. The bandwidth of a signal is the width of the frequency spectrum.
In other words, bandwidth refers to the range of component frequencies, and frequency
spectrum refers to the elements within that range. To calculate the bandwidth, subtract the
lowest frequency from the highest frequency of the range.
Bandwidth

The frequency spectrum of a signal is the combination of all sine wave signals that make up
that signal.
DIGITAL SIGNALS
Similar to analog signals, data can be transmitted in form of digital signals. For example a
data that is converted it into a machine language (combination of 0s and 1s) such as 1001
can be represented in form digital signals. 1 represents high voltage and 0 represents low
voltage. Bit Rate: A bit rate is measured as bits per second, it represents the number of 1s
send in 1 second. Bit Length: A bit length is the distance a bit occupies on the transmission
medium.
Bit Interval and Bit Rate:

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Decomposition of a Digital Signal:
A digital Signal can be decomposed into an infinite number of simple sine waves called
harmonics, each with a different amplitude, frequency, and phase.

When we send a digital signal along a transmission medium, we are sending an infinite
number of simple signals. To receive an exact replica of the digital signal, all of the
frequency components must be faithfully transferred through the transmission medium. If
some of the components are not passed through the medium, corruption of the signal at the
receiver is the result. Since no practical medium(such as cable) is capable of transferring
the entire range of frequencies, we always have corruption.
Exact and Significant Spectrums

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Although the frequency spectrum of a digital signal contains an infinite number of

frequencies with different amplitudes. If we send only those components whose
amplitudes are significant, we can still recreate the digital signal with reasonable accuracy
at the receiver.
DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
Data can be represented either in analog or digital form. The computers used the digital
form to store the information. Therefore, the data needs to be converted in digital form so
that it can be used by a computer.
DIGITAL-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
Digital-to-digital encoding is the representation of digital information by a digital signal.
When binary 1s and 0s generated by the computer are translated into a sequence of voltage
pulses that can be propagated over a wire, this process is known as digital-to-digital
encoding.

Digital-to-digital encoding is divided into three categories:

o Unipolar Encoding
o Polar Encoding
o Bipolar Encoding

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 UNIPOLAR
o Digital transmission system sends the voltage pulses over the medium link such as
wire or cable.
o In most types of encoding, one voltage level represents 0, and another voltage level
represents 1.
o The polarity of each pulse determines whether it is positive or negative.
o This type of encoding is known as Unipolar encoding as it uses only one polarity.
o In Unipolar encoding, the polarity is assigned to the 1 binary state.
o In this, 1s are represented as a positive value and 0s are represented as a zero value.
o In Unipolar Encoding, '1' is considered as a high voltage and '0' is considered as a
zero voltage.
o Unipolar encoding is simpler and inexpensive to implement.

Unipolar encoding has two problems that make this scheme less desirable:
o DC Component

The average amplitude of a unipolar encoded signal is nonzero. This creates what is
called a direct current(DC) component (a component with zero frequency). When a
signal contains a DC component, it cannot travel through media that cannot handle
DC components.
o Synchronization
A Synchronization problem in unipolar encoding can occur whenever the data
stream includes a long uninterrupted series of 1s or 0s. digital encoding schemes
use changes in voltage level to indicate changes in bit type. A signal change also
indicates that one bit has ended and a new bit has begun.
Unipolar encoding uses only one level of value.

 POLAR
 Polar encoding is an encoding scheme that uses two voltage levels: one is positive,
and another is negative.
 By using two voltage levels, an average voltage level is reduced, and the DC
component problem of unipolar encoding scheme is alleviated.

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 In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding each bit consists of both
positive and negative voltages, so the DC component is totally eliminated.
Polar encoding uses two levels (positive and negative) of amplitude.
Types of Polar encoding:

1.Non-return zero(NRZ)
o NRZ stands for Non-return zero.
o In NRZ encoding, the level of the signal can be represented either positive or
negative.
The two most common methods used in NRZ are:

a) NRZ-L:

In NRZ-L encoding, the level of the signal depends on the type of the bit that it represents. If
a bit is 0 or 1, then their voltages will be positive and negative respectively. Therefore, we
can say that the level of the signal is dependent on the state of the bit.

In NRZ-L the level of the signal is dependent upon the state of the bit.

A problem can arise when there is a long stream of 0s or 1s in the data. The receiver
receives a continuous voltage and should determine how many bits are sent by relying on
its clock, which may not be synchronized with the sender clock.

b) NRZ-I:

NRZ-I is an inversion of the voltage level that represents 1 bit. In the NRZ-I encoding
scheme, a transition occurs between the positive and negative voltage that represents 1 bit.
In this scheme, 0 bit represents no change and 1 bit represents a change in voltage level.

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In NRZ-I the signal is inverted if a 1 is encountered.
NRZ-L and NRZ-I encoding

The above figure shows the NRZ-L and NRZ-I representations of the same series of bits. In
the NRZ-L sequence, positive and negative voltages have specific meanings; positive for 0
and negative for 1. In the NRZ-I sequence, the voltages per sequence are meaningless.
Instead the receiver looks for changes from one level to another as its basis for recognition
of 1s.

2.Return to zero (RZ)

o RZ stands for Return to zero.
o There must be a signal change for each bit to achieve synchronization. However, to
change with every bit, we need to have three values: positive, negative and zero.
o RZ is an encoding scheme that provides three values, positive voltage represents 1,
the negative voltage represents 0, and zero voltage represents none.
o In the RZ scheme, halfway through each interval, the signal returns to zero.
o In RZ scheme, 1 bit is represented by positive-to-zero and 0 bit is represented by
negative-to-zero.
A good encoded digital signal must contain a provision for synchronization

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RZ encoding

Disadvantage of RZ:
It performs two signal changes to encode one bit that acquires more bandwidth.
3.Biphase
o Biphase is an encoding scheme in which signal changes at the middle of the bit
interval but does not return to zero.
Biphase encoding is implemented in two different ways:
Manchester
o It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval but does not return to zero for
synchronization.
o In Manchester encoding, a negative-to-positive transition represents binary 1, and
positive-to-negative transition represents 0.
o Manchester has the same level of synchronization as RZ scheme except that it has
two levels of amplitude.
In Manchester encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is used for both
synchronization and bit representation.
Differential Manchester
o It changes the signal at the middle of the bit interval for synchronization, but the
presence or absence of the transition at the beginning of the interval determines the
bit. A transition means binary 0 and no transition means binary 1.
o In Manchester Encoding scheme, two signal changes represent 0 and one signal
change represent 1.

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In Differential Manchester Encoding, the transition at the middle of the bit is used only
for synchronization. The bit representation is shown by the inversion or non-inversion at
the beginning of the bit.
Manchester and differential Manchester encoding

 Bipolar
o Bipolar encoding scheme represents three voltage levels: positive, negative, and
zero.
o In Bipolar encoding scheme, zero level represents binary 0, and binary 1 is
represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
o If the first 1 bit is represented by positive amplitude, then the second 1 bit is
represented by negative voltage, third 1 bit is represented by the positive amplitude
and so on. This alternation can also occur even when the 1bits are not consecutive.
In bipolar encoding, we use three levels: Positive, Zero, and Negative.
Bipolar can be classified as:
Three types of bipolar encoding are in popular use by the data communications
industry:
 AMI,
 B8ZD, and
 HDB3.

Types of bipolar encoding

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1. Bipolar Alternate Mark Inversion (AMI)

o AMI stands for alternate mark inversion where mark work comes from telegraphy
which means 1. So, it can be redefined as alternate 1 inversion.
o In Bipolar AMI encoding scheme, 0 bit is represented by zero level and 1 bit is
represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
o A neutral, zero voltage represents binary 0.
o Binary 1s are represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
Bipolar AMI encoding

A variation of bipolar AMI is called pseudoternary, in which binary 0 alternates between

positive and negative voltages.
Two variations of bipolar AMI have been developed to solve the problem of synchronizing
sequential 0s, especially for long-distance transmission. The first, used in North America, is
called bipolar 8-zero substitution (B8ZS). The second, used in Europe and Japan, is called
high-density bipolar 3(HDB3).
Advantage:
o DC component is zero.
o Sequence of 1s bits are synchronized.

Disadvantage:
o This encoding scheme does not ensure the synchronization of a long string of 0s
bits.
2.Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution (B8ZS)
o B8ZS stands for Bipolar 8-Zero Substitution.

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o This technique is adopted in North America to provide synchronization of a long
sequence of 0s bits.
o In most of the cases, the functionality of B8ZS is similar to the bipolar AMI, but the
only difference is that it provides the synchronization when a long sequence of 0s
bits occur.
o B8ZS ensures synchronization of a long string of 0s by providing force artificial
signal changes called violations, within 0 string pattern.
o When eight 0 occurs, then B8ZS implements some changes in 0s string pattern
based on the polarity of the previous 1 bit.
o If the polarity of the previous 1 bit is positive, the eight 0s will be encoded as zero,
zero, zero, positive, negative, zero, negative, positive.
B8ZS encoding

o If the polarity of previous 1 bit is negative, then the eight 0s will be encoded as zero,
zero, zero, negative, positive, zero, positive, negative.
In B8ZS if eight 0s come one after another, we change the pattern in one of two ways based
on the polarity of the previous 1.

3.High-Density Bipolar 3(HDB3)

o HDB3 stands for High-Density Bipolar 3.
o HDB3 technique was first adopted in Europe and Japan.
o HDB3 technique is designed to provide the synchronization of a long sequence of 0s
bits.
o In the HDB3 technique, the pattern of violation is based on the polarity of the
previous bit.
o When four 0s occur, HDB3 looks at the number of 1s bits occurred since the last
substitution.

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o If the number of 1s bits is odd, then the violation is made on the fourth consecutive
of 0. If the polarity of the previous bit is positive, then the violation is positive. If the
polarity of the previous bit is negative, then the violation is negative.
If the number of 1s bits since the last substitution is odd.

If the number of 1s bits is even, then the violation is made on the place of the first and
fourth consecutive 0s. If the polarity of the previous bit is positive, then violations are
negative, and if the polarity of the previous bit is negative, then violations are positive.
If the number of 1s bits since the last substitution is even.

In HDB3 if four 0s come one after another, we change the pattern in one of four ways based
on the polarity of the previous 1 and the number of 1s since the last substitution.
ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION
o When an analog signal is digitalized, this is called an analog-to-digital conversion.
o Suppose human sends a voice in the form of an analog signal, we need to digitalize
the analog signal which is less prone to noise. It requires a reduction in the number
of values in an analog message so that they can be represented in the digital stream.
o In analog-to-digital conversion, the information contained in a continuous wave
form is converted in digital pulses.

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Analog-to-digital Conversion

TECHNIQUES FOR ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

1. Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM)
o PAM stands for pulse amplitude modulation.
o PAM is a technique used in analog-to-digital conversion.
o PAM technique takes an analog signal, samples it, and generates a series of digital
pulses based on the result of sampling where sampling means measuring the
amplitude of a signal at equal intervals.
o PAM technique is not useful in data communication as it translates the original wave
form into pulses, but these pulses are not digital. To make them digital, PAM
technique is modified to PCM technique.

Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) has some applications, but it is not used by itself in data
communication. However, it is the first step in another very popular conversion method
called pulse code modulation (PCM).
2.Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
o PCM stands for Pulse Code Modulation.
o PCM technique is used to modify the pulses created by PAM to form a digital signal.
To achieve this, PCM quantizes PAM pulses. Quantization is a process of assigning
integral values in a specific range to sampled instances.

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o PCM is made of four separate processes: PAM, quantization, binary encoding, and
digital-to-digital encoding.

Quantization is a method of assigning integral values in a specific range to sampled

instances. The result of quantization is presented in the above figure.
PCM

The Binary digits are then transformed into a digital signal using one of the digital-to-
digital encoding techniques. The result of the pulse code modulation of the original signal
encoded finally into a unipolar signal. Only the first three sampled values are shown.
PCM is actually made up of four separate processes:
 PAM,
 quantization,
 binary encoding, and
 digital-to-digital encoding.

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From Analog signal to PCM digital Code

The entire process in graphic form. PCM is the sampling method used to digitize voice in T-
line transmission in the North American telecommunication system.
Sampling Rate:
According to the Nyquist theorem, the sampling rate must be at least two times the highest
frequency.
How Nyquist Sampling Theorem Works?
The Nyquist Sampling Theorem explains the relationship between the sample rate and
the frequency of the measured signal. It is used to suggest that the sampling rate must be
twice the highest frequency in the signal. It is used to reconstruct any signal from
samples. A sample is basically the number of times an analog signal is measured per
value of time (typically seconds).

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Nyquist Sampling Theorem

 Relationship Between Sampling Rate and Signal Frequency: T he Theorem States
that Sampling rate(fs) should be greater than or equal to the twice the highest
frequency component(fm) in the signal.
 Preventing Aliasing: When the Sampling rate is double the highest frequency of the
signal, Aliasing can be avoided. Aliasing occurs when the high frequency parts of the
signal occurs in the lower frequency, causing distortion.
 Reconstruction of Signals: The Nyquist theorem tells us that if we sample a signal
at a rate higher than twice its highest frequency, we can reconstruct the original
analog signal from these samples. This is done using methods like interpolation and
reconstruction algorithms, ensuring we don’t lose important information from the
original signal.
 Concept of Sampling: Sampling is simply capturing the strength of an analog signal
at specific moments in time. These captured strengths, or samples, create a digital
version of the original signal. So, by taking enough samples, we can accurately
represent the analog signal in digital form.
DELTA MODULATION
The sampling rate of a signal should be higher than the Nyquist rate, to achieve better
sampling. If this sampling interval in Differential PCM is reduced considerably, the
sampleto-sample amplitude difference is very small, as if the difference is 1-bit
quantization, then the step-size will be very small i.e., Δ delta.
Delta Modulation:
The type of modulation, where the sampling rate is much higher and in which the stepsize
after quantization is of a smaller value Δ, such a modulation is termed as delta
modulation.
Features of Delta Modulation:
Following are some of the features of delta modulation.
 An over-sampled input is taken to make full use of the signal correlation.
 The quantization design is simple.
 The input sequence is much higher than the Nyquist rate.
 The quality is moderate.
 The design of the modulator and the demodulator is simple.

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 The stair-case approximation of output waveform.
 The step-size is very small, i.e., Δ delta
 The bit rate can be decided by the user.
 This involves simpler implementation.
Delta Modulation is a simplified form of DPCM technique, also viewed as 1-bit DPCM
scheme. As the sampling interval is reduced, the signal correlation will be higher.
Delta Modulator:
The Delta Modulator comprises of a 1-bit quantizer and a delay circuit along with two
summer circuits. Following is the block diagram of a delta modulator.

 As we can see the above figure consists of an LPF, a comparator, a product

modulator along with pulse generator and quantizer. Here, a feedback path is also
provided to the circuit, where the output of modulator acts as input to the
comparator.
 The message signal that is to be transmitted is fed to a low pass filter that passes the
low-frequency component and eliminates the high-frequency component. It is also
referred to as aliasing filter.
 The output of LPF is then given to a comparator unit, which compares the message
signal m(t) with an arbitrary signal m'(t) for the first time. The comparator after
comparing 2 signals generates the difference between the two.
 The difference can be of either positive polarity or negative polarity. This depends
on message and arbitrary signals that are getting subtracted.
 This difference signal now acts as input to the product modulator. Another input to
the modulator is a pulse signal generated by the pulse generator. These two signals
are multiplied in the modulator.
 The output of the modulator is a pulsed signal whose pulses will be of equal
magnitude having polarity either positive and negative.
 The polarity totally depends on the output of the comparator. The output of the
modulator is given to quantizer. The quantizer generates the output in the form of
steps.
 If positive magnitude pulse is provided to the quantizer as its input then quantizer
performs increment by 1 step size, Δ. It is very easy to understand that positive

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pulse at the output of the modulator shows that message signal is greater than the
arbitrary signal. Thus quantizer increases Δ by 1.
 Similarly, in the case of negative magnitude pulse, the step size gets decreased by 1.
This is so because m'(t) exceeds m(t), thereby generating a pulse of negative
polarity. Thus, quantizer decreases Δ by 1.
 The output of the modulator at the same time, through a feedback path, is provided
to the accumulator.
 An accumulator is nothing but a device that stores the signal for further operation.
The output of the accumulator now behaves like the second input of the comparator.
Thus, we say that the present sample value is compared with the previous
one for further operation.
 Hence the process repeats in such a manner.
 In the end, depending on the staircase signal if the step size is +Δ then binary 1 is
transmitted and if it is –Δ then binary 0 is transmitted.
Waveform Representation of Delta Modulation:
The figure below shows the delta modulation waveform:

Here, the analog input signal is m(t) and the quantized signal is denoted by u(t). The binary
sequence according to the step size that is actually transmitted is shown at the bottom of
the figure shown above.

Detection of delta modulated signal:

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The detection of a delta modulated signal is not a complex process and is somewhat
reverse of generation of a delta modulated signal.
The figure below shows the block diagram for the representation of detection of delta
modulated signal.

 The detection circuitry basically consists of an accumulator and an LPF. The binary
signal transmitted is provided to the accumulator section.
 The accumulator consists of a summation unit and a delay unit. The transmitted
signal along with the delayed signal is added at the summation unit.
 If here the input is binary 1 then after a delay the output of the accumulator shown
increased step size +Δ. However, in the case of binary 0 as input, a decrease in step
size is noticed. This generates the staircase signal equivalent to the message signal.
 The output of the accumulator is provided to the LPF that smoothens the staircase
signal in order to regenerate the original message signal.
Advantages of delta modulation:
 Due to transmission of 1 bit per sample, it permits low channel bandwidth as well as
signaling rate.
 ADC is not required. Thus permits easy generation and detection.
Disadvantages of delta modulation:
 Delta modulation leads to drawbacks such as slope overload distortion and granular
noise.
DIGITAL TO ANALOG CONVERTER (DAC)
Signals are mainly classified into two types i.e. Analog & Digital signal. The data or
information that we perceive in real world exists in analog form while the digital devices
such as cellphone, calculator & computer can only understand a data signal in digital
domain.
Analog to Digital (ADC) & Digital to analog converter (DAC) are the two types of
converters that we use in our daily life to convert the signals into each other.

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Digital to analog converter is an electronic circuit that converts any digital signal (such as
binary signal) into an analog signal (voltage or current).
The digital signal such as the binary signal exist in the form of bits & it is the combination of
1’s & 0’s (or High & low voltage levels). The DAC converts these bits into an analog voltage
or current.
Types of Digital-to-Analog Modulation:
Digital / Analog Modulation

ASK FSK PSK

QAM

Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion:

 Bit Rate and Baud Rate:
Two terms used frequently in data communication are bit rate and baud rate. Bit rate is the
number of bits transmitted during one second. Baud rate refers to the number of signal
units per second that are required to represent those bits.
Bit rate is the number of bits per second. Baud rate is the number of signal units per
second. Baud rate is less than or equal to the bit rate.
 Carrier Signal
In analog transmission, the sending device produces a high-frequency signal that acts as a
basis for the information signal. This base signal is called the carrier signal or carrier
frequency. The receiving device is tuned to the frequency of the carrier signal that it
expects from the sender. Digital information is then modulated on the carrier signal by
modifying one or more of its characteristics(amplitude, frequency, phase).
1. Amplitude Shift Keying(ASK)
Amplitude Shift Keying is a technique in which carrier signal is analog and data to be
modulated is digital. The amplitude of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary
data. The binary signal when modulated gives a zero value when the binary data
represents 0 while gives the carrier output when data is 1. The frequency and phase of
the carrier signal remain constant.

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 The speed of transmission using ASK is limited by the physical characteristics of

the transmission medium.
 Unfortunately, ASK transmission is highly susceptible to noise interference.
 The term noise refers to unintentional voltages introduced onto a line by various
phenomena such as heat or electromagnetic induction created by other sources.
 These unintentional voltages combine with the signal to change the amplitude. A
0 can be changed to 1, and a 1 to 0.
 A popular ASK technique is called on-off-keying (OOK). In OK one of the bit
values is represented by no voltage.
Bandwidth For ASK

Advantages of amplitude shift Keying –

 It can be used to transmit digital data over optical fiber.
 The receiver and transmitter have a simple design which also makes it
comparatively inexpensive.

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 It uses lesser bandwidth as compared to FSK thus it offers high bandwidth efficiency.
Disadvantages of amplitude shift Keying –
 It is susceptible to noise interference and entire transmissions could be lost due to
this.
 It has lower power efficiency.
2. Frequency Shift keying (FSK)
 In this modulation the frequency of analog carrier signal is modified to reflect
binary data. The output of a frequency shift keying modulated wave is high in
frequency for a binary high input and is low in frequency for a binary low input.
The amplitude and phase of the carrier signal remain constant.

Bandwidth For FSK:

Advantages of frequency shift Keying –

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 Frequency shift keying modulated signal can help avoid the noise problems beset by
ASK.
 It has lower chances of an error.
 It provides high signal to noise ratio.
 The transmitter and receiver implementations are simple for low data rate
application.
Disadvantages of frequency shift Keying –
 It uses larger bandwidth as compared to ASK thus it offers less bandwidth efficiency.
 It has lower power efficiency.
3. Phase Shift keying (PSK)
In this modulation the phase of the analog carrier signal is modified to reflect binary
data.The amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal remains constant.
It is further categorized as follows:
1. Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK): BPSK also known as phase reversal keying or
2PSK is the simplest form of phase shift keying. The Phase of the carrier wave is
changed according to the two binary inputs. In Binary Phase shift keying, difference
of 180 phase shift is used between binary 1 and binary 0. This is regarded as the
most robust digital modulation technique and is used for long distance wireless
communication.
2. Quadrature phase shift keying: This technique is used to increase the bit rate i.e
we can code two bits onto one single element. It uses four phases to encode two bits
per symbol. QPSK uses phase shifts of multiples of 90 degrees. It has double data rate
carrying capacity compare to BPSK as two bits are mapped on each constellation
points.

 The above method is often called 2-PSK, or binary PSK, because two different phases
(0 and 180 degrees) are used.

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 A second diagram, called a constellation or phase-state diagram, shows the same
relationship by illustrating only the phases.
 The constellation diagram for the signal. A phase of 0 degrees now represents 00; 90
degrees represents 01; 180 degrees represents 10; and 270 degrees represents 11.
 This technique is called 4-PSK or Q-PSK. The pair of bits represented by each phase
is called a dibit.
 We can transmit data two times as fast using 4-PSK as we can using 2-PSK.
4-PSK

 The smaller variations in the signal can be detected reliably by the receiver.
 Therefore, instead of utilizing only two variations of a signal, each representing one
bit, we can use four variations and let each phase shift represent two bits.

4-PSK characteristics:
 We can extend this idea to 8-PSK. Instead of 90 degrees, we now vary the signal by
shifts of 45 degrees.
 With 8 different phases, each shift can represent three bits (one tribit) at a time. (As
you can see, the relationship of number of bits per shift to number of phases is a
power of two.
 When we have four possible phases, we can send two bits at a time---22 equals 4.
 When we have eight possible phases, we can send three bits at a time—23 equals 8).
Figure shows the relationships between the phase shifts and the tribits each one
represents. 8-PSK is three times faster than 2-PSK.

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Fig. 8-PSK characteristics

Bandwidth for PSK
The minimum bandwidth required for PSK transmission is the same as that required for
ASK transmission---and for the same reasons. As we have seen, the maximum bit rate in
PSK transmission, however, is potentially much greater than that of ASK. So while the
maximum baud rates of ASK and PSK are the same for a given bandwidth, PSK bit rates
using the same bandwidth can be two or more times greater (see Figure 4.3-13).

Fig. 4.3-13 Bandwidth for PSK

Example
Find the bandwidth for a 4-PSK signal transmitting at 2000 bit/s. Transmission is in half-
duplex mode.
Solution
For 4-PSK the baud rate is half of the bit rate. The baud rate is therefore l000. A PSK signal
requires a bandwidth equal to its baud rate. Therefore, the bandwidth is l000 Hz.
Advantages of phase shift Keying –
 It is a more power efficient modulation technique as compared to ASK and FSK.
 It has lower chances of an error.

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 It allows data to be carried along a communication signal much more efficiently as
compared to FSK.
Disadvantages of phase shift Keying –
 It offers low bandwidth efficiency.
 The detection and recovery algorithms of binary data is very complex.
 It is a non coherent reference signal.
4.Quadrature Amplitude Modulation(QAM)
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) is a modulation technique that can be utilized
in Analog modulation concepts and digital modulation concepts. It is a combination of
ASK and PSK. So, in this article, we will discuss QAM, Analog QAM, Digital QAM, and
many more.
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation:
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) can be defined as a modulation technique that
can be used to combine two amplitude modulated waves into a single channel to
increase the channel bandwidth.
 Quadrature amplitude Modulation is a modulation technique that can be utilized in
Analog modulation concepts and digital modulation concepts.
 Depending upon the input signal form, it has two types: Analog and digital
modulation schemes.
 In QAM, we can modulate two individual signals and transmit them to the receiver
level and by using the two input signals, the channel bandwidth also increases.
 QAM is capable to transmit two message signals over the same channel.
 This QAM technique is also known as “Quadrature carrier multiplexing”.
PSK is limited by the ability of the equipment to differentiate the small differences in
phase. This factor limits its potential bit rate. Quadrature Amplitude Modulation is a
combination of ASK and PSK.

QAM designs link specific amplitudes with specific phases. This means that even with the
noise problem associated with amplitude shifting, the meaning of a shift can be recovered
from phase information. In general, therefore, a second advantage of QAM encoding over
ASK

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encoding is its lower susceptibility to noise. Amplitude

Fig. 4.3-15 Time domain for an 8-QAM signal

 3 amplitudes, 12 phases
 4 amplitudes, S phases
 2 amplitudes,
 8 phases
 16-QAM 16-QAM 16-QAM
16 QAM

Bandwidth for QAM:

ASK/PSK transmission and QAM transmission require the same minimum bandwidth.
QAM has the same advantages as PSK over ASK.
Bit Rate Baud Comparison:
Assuming that an FSK signal over voice-grade phone lines can send 1200 bits per second, it
has a bit rate of l200. Each frequency shift represents a single bit so it requires 1200 signal
elements to send 1200 bits. Its baud rate, therefore, is also 1200. Each signal variation in an
8-QAM system, however, represents three bits. So a bit rate of 1200, using 8-QAM, has a
baud rate of only 400. As Figure 4.3-17 shows, a dibit system has a baud rate of one-half the
bit rate. A tribit system has a baud rate of one-third the bit rate. And a quadbit system has a
baud rate of one-fourth the bit rate.

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Fig. 4.3-17 Bit and baud

Table 4.1 shows the comparative bit and baud rates for the various methods of digital-to-
analog encoding.
Table 4.1 Bit and baud rate comparison
Encoding Units Bits/Baud Baud rate Bit rate
ASK, FSK, 2PSK Bit 1 N N
4PSK, 4-QAM Dibit 2 N 2N
8-PSK, 8-QAM Tribit 3 N 3N
16- QAM Quadbit 4 N 4N
32- QAM Pentabit 5 N 5N
64- QAM Hexabit 6 N 6N
128- QAM Septabit 7 N 7N
256-QAM Octabit 8 N 8N
Example:
A constellation diagram consists of eight equally spaced points on a circle. If the bit rate is
4800 bit/s, what is the baud rate?
Solution
The constellation indicates 8-PSK encoding with the points 45 degrees apart. Since 23=8,
three bits are transmitted with each signal element. Therefore, the baud rate is
4800/3=1600 baud
Example:
Compute the bit rate for a 1000 baud 16-QAM signal.
Solution
A 16-QAM signal means that there are four bits per signal element since T=16. Thus,
Example:
Compute the baud rate for a 72,000 bit/s 64-QAM signal.
Solution
A 64-QAM signal means that there are six bits per signal element since 26=64. Thus,
72,000/6=12,000 baud

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DIGITAL DATA TRANSMISSION
 Data transmission is the process of data delivery between two or multiple digital
devices.
 The data is transmitted between digital systems using one of two
methods: Serial or Parallel Transmission.
 They have some commonalities and some differences. The main distinction between
these transmissions is that the data is transferred bit by bit in Serial Transmission.
 Still, in Parallel Transmission, the data is sent one byte (8 bits) or character at a
time.
 The main similarity between these transmissions is that both transmissions are
utilized to connect and interact with other devices.
 In addition, parallel transmission is time-sensitive, but serial transmission is not.
 The primary concern in the transmission of data from one device to another is the
wiring and how to send the data stream.
 Do we send 1 bit at a time or group bits into larger groups.
 The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either parallel
or serial mode.
 In parallel mode, multiple bits are sent with each clock tick. In serial mode, 1 bit is
sent with each clock tick.

The different transmission modes are as shown in the following figure.

1. Parallel Transmission:
 In Parallel Transmission, data consisting of 1s and 0s, may be organized into groups
of n bits each.
 Computers produce and consume data in groups of bits.
 By grouping, we can send data n bits at a time instead of 1bit. This is called parallel
transmission.

Parallel transmission

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 In parallel transmission we use n wires to send n bits at one time. That way each bit
has its own wire, and all n bits of one group can be transmitted with each clock tick
from one device to another.
 The following figure shows how parallel transmission works for n =8. Typically, the
eight wires are bundled in a cable with a connector at each end.
 The advantage of parallel transmission is speed. All else being equal, parallel
transmission can increase the transfer speed by a factor of n over serial
transmission. But the disadvantage is cost. Parallel transmission requires n
communication lines just to transmit the data stream. Because this is expensive,
parallel transmission is usually limited to short distances.
2. Serial Transmission
In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one communication channel
rather than n to transmit data between two communicating devices. The following figure
shows serial transmission.

The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only one communication
channel, serial transmission reduces the cost of transmission over parallel by roughly a
factor of n. Serial transmission occurs in one of three ways: asynchronous, synchronous,
and isochronous.

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a). Asynchronous Transmission:
 In Asynchronous transmission, the timing of a signal is unimportant. Instead,
information is received and translated by agreed upon patterns.
 As long as those patterns are followed, the receiving device can retrieve the
information without regard to the rhythm in which it is sent.
 Patterns are based on grouping the bit stream into bytes. Each group, usually 8 bits,
is sent along the link as a unit.
 The sending system handles each group independently, relaying it to the link
whenever ready, without regard to a timer.

Without synchronization, the receiver cannot use timing to predict when the next group
will arrive. To alert the receiver to the arrival of a new group, therefore, an extra bit is
added to the beginning of each byte. This bit, usually a 0, is called the start bit. To let the
receiver know that the byte is finished, 1 or more additional bits are appended to the end of
the byte. These bits, usually 1 s, are called stop bits.

By this method, each byte is increased in size to at least 10 bits, of which 8 bits is
information and 2 bits or more are signals to the receiver.

In addition, the transmission of each byte may then be followed by a gap of varying
duration. This gap can be represented either by an idle channel or by a stream of additional
stop bits. The start and stop bits and the gap alert the receiver to the beginning and end of
each byte and allow it to synchronize with the data stream.

This mechanism is called asynchronous because, at the byte level, the sender and receiver
do not have to be synchronized. But within each byte, the receiver must still be
synchronized with the incoming bit stream. That is, some synchronization is required, but
only for the duration of a single byte. The receiving device resynchronizes at the onset of
each new byte.

When the receiver detects a start bit, it sets a timer and begins counting bits as they come
in. After n bits, the receiver looks for a stop bit. As soon as it detects the stop bit, it waits
until it detects the next start bit.

The following figure is a schematic illustration of asynchronous transmission. In this

example, the start bits are as, the stop bits are 1s, and the gap is represented by an idle line
rather than by additional stop bits.

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The addition of stop and start bits and the insertion of gaps into the bit stream make
asynchronous transmission slower than forms of transmission that can operate without the
addition of control information.

b). Synchronous Transmission:

In synchronous transmission, the bit stream is combined into longer "frames," which may
contain multiple bytes. Each byte, however, is introduced onto the transmission link
without a gap between it and the next one. It is left to the receiver to separate the bit
stream into bytes for decoding purposes.

The following figure show illustration of synchronous transmission.

The sender puts its data onto the line as one long string. If the sender wishes to send data
in separate bursts, the gaps between bursts must be filled with a special sequence of 0s and
1s that means idle. The receiver counts the bits as they arrive and groups them in 8-bit
units.

Without gaps and start and stop bits, there is no built-in mechanism to help the receiving
device adjust its bit synchronization midstream. Timing becomes very important,
therefore, because the accuracy of the received information is completely dependent on the
ability of the receiving device to keep an accurate count of the bits as they come in.

The advantage of synchronous transmission is speed. With no extra bits or gaps to

introduce at the sending end and remove at the receiving end, and, by extension, with

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fewer bits to move across the link, synchronous transmission is faster than asynchronous
transmission. For this reason, it is more useful for high-speed applications such as the
transmission of data from one computer to another.

c). Isochronous:
 In real-time audio and video, in which uneven delays between frames are not
acceptable, synchronous transmission fails.
 For example, TV images are broadcast at the rate of 30 images per second; they
must be viewed at the same rate.
 If each image is sent by using one or more frames, there should be no delays
between frames.
 For this type of application, synchronization between characters is not enough; the
entire stream of bits must be synchronized.
 The isochronous transmission guarantees that the data arrive at a fixed rate.

 Synchronous Transmission 5.3.2.2. Isochronous Transmission A sequence of events

is isochronous if the events occur regularly, or at equal time intervals.
 The isochronous transmission guarantees that the data arrive at a fixed rate.
 In real-time audio and video, in which uneven delays between frames are not
acceptable, synchronous transmission fails.
 For example, TV images are broadcast at the rate of 30 images per second; they
must be viewed at the same rate.

--------------------- UNIT – 3 – COMPLETE NOTES -----------------------

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