Do’s :-

Cite every figure and graph in theory and in (calculated

table conclusion) respectively.

Experiment-1 (Motorised Gyroscope)

Aim of Experiment:-
Determination of gyroscopic couple using gyroscopic couple using
gyroscopic test rig .

Apparatus Required:-
*motorised gyroscopic test rig

* tachometer

* stop watch
Theory :-
Let a disc of polar moment of inertia ‘I’ in (fig-I) rotate about an axis ox, at
an angular speed of ωrad/sec . The angular momentum of the disc(I*ω) is
represented by the vector. The direction of the Vector is decided by right
hand screw rule. If we apply a couple about the axis, the applying
Newton’s law.

Gyroscopic couple(c)=I*ω*ωp Where ωp=angular velocity of precession

The direction of the angular velocity ωp can be obtained . Gyroscopic

couple causes gyroscopic acceleration. This acceleration is responsible for
change in direction of the angular velocity keeping it magnitude constant.

The axis of spin, axis of precession and the angle of applied couple are
mutually perpendicular.

When the angular momentum or spin Vector Iω is made to process in

the given direction . A reaction couple acts on the spinning disc in the
direction which has a magnitude of (I*ω*ω p).

The gyroscopic rection couple is thus equal in magnitude and opposite in

direction to that of the gyroscopic applied couple in the previous case
usually the gyroscopic reactive couple is absorbed in the bearing reaction.
If the spin vector is free to rotate about the couple axis , then it rotates
about the axis . This movement is called as fixed precession .

The direction of the precession is obtained by rotation of the spin vector

by 90o that it aligns to the gyroscopic couple vector and then the right
hand thumb rule is applied. The gyroscopic reactive couple is equal in
magnitude but in the opposite direction.

Effect of gyroscopic couple:-

* Gyroscopic motion arises whenever the axis of the rotating body is

caused to change direction.

Example- wheels of a vehicle turning round a bend

*Rotors of grinding mills rotating about the vertical axis.

*Rotating parts in the vehicles running around a bend

*Disc rotating in bearing which is inclined to the axis of rotation.

*Propeller shafts in airplanes while taking turns during fig-

*Rotor of a turbine that is pitching along with the ship

Procedure:-
Part 1- (fig-2)

The spinning body exerts a torque or a couple in such a direction which

tends to make the axis of spin, coincides with that of the precession. To
Study the phenomenon of fixed precession , following procedure is
adopted:-

1. The initial horizontal position of rotor was balanced

2. The motor was started and voltage was adjusted to get the constant
speed.
3. The yoke frame was pressed about the vertical axis by applying the
necessary force by hand in the clockwise direction (viewed from the
top)
4. It was observed that rotor frame swings about the horizontal axis so
that the motor side moves upward.
5. Rotating the yoke axis in the opposite direction causes the rotor
frame to move.
6. The spinning body moves in such a way that to make the axis of
spin to coincide with that of the applied couple.

Part 2-

1)The spinning body processes in such a way that to make the axis of
to coincide with that of the applied couple .

2)The direction is verified using the apparatus as well as the relation

for the magnitude of couple.

3)weight was applied on the opposite side of the motor.

4)the yoke started precession

5)the direction was verified

6)the velocity of precession was measured

7) the reaction C=I*ω*ωP was verified

Observation:-
Direction of spin axis= clockwise (cw)

Direction of force precession= cw

Direction of couple acting on the frame=cw

Mass of rotor (m)=2.1kg

 Thickness of motor = 10mm

Moment arm(r’)=210mm

Radius of disc(r)=0.1025m

Sl no. Mass(kg) Spin Angle Time(s) Direction

speed turned(θ) of rotation

1 0.5 6478 90o 18.75 Cw

2 0.75 6060 90o 7.10 Cw

3 1 6300 180o 14.04 Cw

4 1.25 6300 180o 10.6514.0 Cw

4

5 1.5 6300 180o 8.77 Cw

6 1.75 6300 180o 7.42 cw

(values for reference)

Calculations:-

Radius=

MOI=

W=(2π*spinspeed)/60

Result table :-

Sl no. Spin velocity Precissional Gyroscopic Applied

velocity(rad/ couple(N.m) torque(N.m)
s)

Conclusion:-
Experiment-2
AIM:-
To determine the radius of gyration (k) of a compound
pendulum

Apparatus Required:-
1)compound pendulum(steel bar)
2) stop watch

1. The compound pendulum consists of a steel bar. The bar is

supported by the knife edge . As shown in fig(1)(a).
2. It is possible to change the length of the steel-
bar(compound pendulum) by supporting the bar in
different holes.
Theory:-
1. This radius of gyration (k) of a body about an axis of
rotation is defined as the radial distance of a point from
the axis of rotation at which the whole mass of the body is
assumed to be concentrated , so that the moment of
Inertia(MI) about the axis remains constant.
2. Theoretically, K=l/ (√ mghI )
3. Any swinging/hanging rigid body free to rotate about a
fixed horizontal axis is called a compound pendulum.
4. The time-period(T) of compound pendulum is given by
 T=2 π (√ mghI ) ----- (1) from fig(1)(b)
Using parallel axis theorem
I=Ig +Mh2 -----------(2)
Where
Ig -> moment of Inertia about centre of gravity
i.e Ig = MK2 -------(3)
putting (3) in (2)
I = MK 2 +Mh2 ----(4)
Putting this value in eqn (1) :-

------(5)

Where , I=moment of Inertia of the body about the axis of

suspension.
M=Mass of the pendulum
h= distance between centre of mass &point of
suspension
we know the time period of the simple pendulum:-

√
t=2π ( l ) ------(6)
g

Period of compound pendulum = period the simple pendulum

Procedure:-
1. The rod was supported in any one of the holes.
2. The length of the suspended pendulum was determined &
noted & OG was determined.
3. The bar was allowed to oscillate & ‘T’ was determined by
knowing the time for 10 oscillation .
4. The experiment was repeated for different length of
suspensions.
5. The table was done with help of the observed data.

Observation Table:-
SL L(length in OG No.of Time for ‘N’ Time
NO cm) oscillation( no. of period
(in cm
. N) oscillations(
(h)) T=t/N
in sec)

Calculations:-
Ktheorectical =(l/√ 12) = (80/√ 12¿=23.094 cm
For Kexperimental,

% error in :- ((Ktheoretical -Kexperimental)/Ktheorectical ) × 100

Kexp(avg)=
Ktheo (avg) =
Net % error =
Result table :-
Sl Kexp(in cm) Ktheo(in cm) Kdiff(in cm) % error
no
.

Conclusion:-

Experiment-3
Aim of Experiment:-
To draw the performance characteristics curve for porter
governor
1. Centrifugal force(F) VS Radius of rotation(r)
2. Sleeve displacement(x) vs spindle speed (N)

Apparatus Required:-
1. Universal governor apparatus(watt & porter governor)
2. Tachometer

Specification of Apparatus:-
1.DC motor = ____HP
2. speed (N)= 1500rpm
3. Dimmerstat of amp DC types for speed variation
Theory:-
Governors in general , are most useful means of controlling on
regulating the speed of an engine based on varying levels of
load at output. They are used in regulating the mean speed of
the engine , which takes to the fact that the fuel ejected is
based variations seen along the shafts Porter Governor (fig-1)
is a dead weight type of gravity controlled centrifugal governor
which is a modification of a watt’s governor with central load
attached to sleeve . In porter governor , fly balls are attached
at the junctions of the sleeve. The load moves up and down the
central spindle . This additional downward force increases the
speed of the revolution .required to enable the balls to rise to
any pre-determined level.

Dimensions:-
1. Length of each link(l)= 125mm=0.12m
2. Initial height of governor = (ho) = 96mm = 0.096m
3. Initial radius of rotation (ro) = 130mm =0.13m
4. Weight of the fly ball = 0.514kg

Procedure:-
(i) Porter governor was setup; which was done by
removing the upper sleeve in the vertical spindle of the
governor & using the proper linkages provided.
(ii) Rotating weights were inserted on the Vertical spindle.
(iii) Power was supplied to the motor through the control
unit . The speed control unit was switched on, and the
speed control unit slowly increased the governor’s
speed until the centre sleeve was raised off the lower
stop and aligned with the divison on the graduated
scale.
(iv) Sleeve displacement on the provided scale was noted
down, and the speed of the governor was recorded by a
tachometer.
Formula:-
From (fig-2)
Angular velocity W=(2ΠN)/60
1) ω=(2πN)/60 ; N = speed is rpm, W= angular velocity
2) h=ho –(x/2); x= sleeve displacement, ho = initial height of
governor,
height of governor during rotation.

3) r=ro+ lsinα ; r= radius duringrotation of governor

4) F=Mω2r ; F= centrifugal force

Tabulation:-
Observation table
Sl Speed of governor (in rpm) Sleeve
no. displacement (x)
Calculation:-
Calculated table
Sl Angular Height Angle Radius Centrifug
no. velocity(ω) during b/w link during al
(rad/sec) rotation( &shaft(α rotation( force(F)
h) in (m) ) in r) in (m) in N
degrees

Graph-1
Graph-2
(cite the graphs while writing conclusion)

Conclusion:-
Experiment – 4
Aim of experiment:-
To draw the performance characteristics curve for proell
governor
1.centrifugal force(F) V/S Radius of rotation(r)
2. sleeve displacement(x) v/s spindle speed(N)

Apparatus Required:-
1. universal governor apparatus (proell governor)
2. tachometer

Specification:-
1)Dc motor – _____HP
2) speed (N)=1500 rpm
3)dimmenstat of amp dc types for speed variation
Theory:-
Governor in general are most useful means of controlling on
regulating the speed of an engine based on variable levels of
the load at the output. They are used in regulating the mean
speed of the engine, which takes to the fact that the fuel
ejected is based on the speed variations seen along the shaft.
Proell governor(fig-1) is a type of gravity controlled centrifugal
governor. It works on the principle of centrifugal force, which
gets applicable on the rotating balls, known as fly balls, which
are attached to the spindle through links. The balls,rotate with
a spindle which is rotated by the engine through a gear. The
upper ends of the arms are pivoted to the spindle, so that the
balls may rise up or fall down as they revolve about the vertical
axis. The arms are connected by the links to a sleeve, which is
keyed to the spindle.
This sleeve resolves with the spindle, but can slide up and
down. The balls and the sleeve rises when the spindlespeed
increases, and falls when the speed increases , and falls when
the speed decreases. This controls the throttle value thus ,
regulating the fuel intake of the engine , hence controlling the
speed. In proell governor, fly balls are attached to the upward
extension of the link and central load attached to the sleeve. It
is considered to be a sensitive governor, for a small change
large sleeve displacement is observed.

Dimensions:-
1)Length of each link(l)=125mm
2)initial height of governor(ho)=96mm
3)final radians of governor (ro)=130mm
4) mass of fly ball(m)=0.5 – 1.4kg
5) extension of length = 75mm

Procedure:-
1) Proell governor was setup. Which done by removing the
upper sleeve in the vertical spindle of the governor & using the
proper linkage provided.
2) Rotating weights were inserted on the vertical spindle.
3) Power was supplied to the motor through the control unit.
The speed control unit was switched on, and the speed control
unit slowly increased the governor’s speed until the centre
sleeve was raised off the lower stop and aligned with the
divison on the graduated scale.
4)sleeve displacement on the provided scale was noted down,
and the speed of the governor was recorder by a tachometer.

Formula:-
1)h=ho – (x/2) ; x= sleeve displacement, (fig-2)
2) α = cos-1(h/l) ; α = angle between link & shaft
3)α’= cos-1(ho/l) ; α’ = Angle between arm &shaft
4) ω= (2πN/60) ; N= speed in rpm , ω = angular velocity
5) r= ro+lsinα+75sinα’ ; r= radius during
6)F= mω2r ; F= centrifugal force

Observation
RPM Sleeve displacement(x)m

Calculation
Graph-1
Graph-2
conclusion
Experiment-5
Aim of experiment:-
To determine the strength of a mild steel specimen and to find
out the percentage elongation of length and also the
percentage reduction in area of same specimen .
1. ultimate stress
2. failure stress
1. engineering stress
2. true stress

Requirement :- fig-(1)
1)mild steel rod having dimension 420mm(length) and 16
mm (diameter)
2) steel rate
3) outside calliper
4) marker
5) Universal Testing machine (SR NO.-2007/119; Maximum
Capacity- 400FN model no.UTV40)
Theory:-
Strength:- The maximum load carrying capacity of a material is
known as its strength .
Stress:- The resisting force per unit area of the surface is known
as intensity of stress or simply stress.
Engineering stress= load applied/initial cross sectional area
True stress = load applied/Instantenous cross sectional area
Percentage increase in length= (Lf – Li / Li )*100
Where Lf = Final length of rod effective final length
Li = effective initial length of rod
Percentage reduction in area = (Ai-Af /Ai) *100
Where Ai = Initial cross sectional area of rod= (π/4)*ai2
Af= Final cross sectional area of rod = (π/4)*a f2
UTM: Universal Testing Machine:-
1. a universal testing machine (utm)(fig-2) is used to test the
mechanical properties (tension, compression, etc )of a
given test specimen by exerting tensile compression or
transverse stresses.
2. The term ‘universal’ means it is versatile enough that it
can be used in all applications that include modification to
fit the unique testing needs and requirements of material.
Functions of UTM:-
A universal testing machine(UTM) is a versatile piece of
equipment used to perform a variety of mechanical tests
on materials . some of its functional include :-
1. Tensile testing : This measures the tensile strength of a
material by applying a pulling a pulling force until it
breaks. It helps to determine the materials ability to
withstand attaching or pulling forces.
2. Compression testing:- This assesses a material ability to
withstand compressive forces until it deforms/
fractures(mainly for concrete metals).
3. Flexual Testing:- (Bending testing) This assesses a
materials ability to withstand bending force. It is useful for
evaluating stiffness and strength of materials.
4. Shear Testing:- Measurea a material shear strength by
subjecting it to forces that cause one part of the material
to slide on shift relative to another.
5. Peel Testing:- Evaluates the strength of adhesive bonds by
measuring the force required to peel apart boroled
materials.
6. Tear testing:- Measures the resistance of a material to
tearing forces (textiles and films).

Parts and components of UTM:-

1. LOADING UNIT:-
1. The loading unit controls how the test specimen is setup
and how much force is applied. Control unit is the right
component with a load indicator whereas, the table and
crosshead on the left unit make up the loading unit.
The following components make up a UTM’s loading
unit:-
(i) Load fame:- It is the main structure of UTM, designed to
support and apply forces to test specimen. It houses
components such as drive system, grips and fixtures.
(ii) Cross- head(upper, middle and lower:-
The crosshead is a movable part of the load
frame that applies the force to test specimen .
 The test specimen is clamped at one end using
the top crosshead.
The middle crosshead is the movable one, and
its screws can be loosened and tightened to change
the crosshead’s height.
A tapered slit runs through the middle of each
crosshead.
(iii) Elongation scale:-
The elongation scale that is included with the
loading unit measures the relative motive of the
upper and bottom tables.
(iv) Control Unit:-
It provides the adjustments in application of load
and the associated text result

Hydraulic power unit :-

This component consorts of an oil pump that feeds steady oil
into the load unit main cylinder.
The specimen is loaded more easily . An electric motor and
sump operate the oil pump in a hydraulic power unit.
Load Measuring unit:-
The pendulum dynamometer in this device travels with the flow
of non-pulsating oil in tiny cylinder.
Depending on the load placed on the sample, the pivot lever
will flex/deflect.
Thus deflection is converted to the load pointer and displays as
the load on the dial.
Control Devices :-
The control devices can be either electric/hydraulic.
Electrical control devices make use of switches to move the
crosshead and switch on/off the unit.
A hydraulic control device consists device consists of 2 valves:-
1)Right control valve:- used to apply load on specimen.
2)Left control valve:- Used to release the load application.

Working Principle of UTM:-

1)Mounting specimen:-
Securely mount the test specimen between grips or fixtures
attached to the UTM’s Load frame.
2) Applying force :-
Utilize the UTM’s derive system to apply controlled forces to
the P
3) Measuring Force:-
Employ a load cell within the UTM to measure the
magnitude of the force exerted on the specimen during testing.
4) Recording deformation :-
The deformation/ strains are measured with devices known
as extensometers.
5) Data Analysis:-
Analyze the collected data to determine mechanical
properties
6) Evaluation:-
 Use the analyzed data to evaluate the quality, performance
and suitable of the material for specific applications.

Procedure:-
① A specimen of mild steel rod was taken whose
length and diameter were measured with a steel
rule and outside calliper respectively.
② The specimen was then fixed in between the
upper and middle crossheads using gripping
devices and it was ensured that the load was
applied axially in a tensile manner.
③ The proper (desired) range of loading was
selected.
④ Then, the UTM was switched on and the axial
tensile load was applied gradually. With the
increase in this load, the reading was noted.
⑤ With increment in load further, neck formation
was seen, which ultimately led to failure of the
specimen.
⑥ At this stage, the needle (black) in the UTM
which was rotating began to return, leaving the
dummy (red) needle at the point of ultimate load.
⑦ The black needle indicating the failure load
was then noted.
⑧ Then, soon after the noting of observations,
the UTM was switched off and the failed
specimen was removed and the type of fracture
was observed.
 ⑨ At last, the final length of specimen was
remeasured and the final diameter in the necking
region was measured and noted for further
calculations.

Tabulation:-
Observation table:-
Sl. Li(m) di(m) Load Lf (m) df(m)
No.
Ultimate Failure
Load(N) load(N)

Li= initial effective length of rod

Lf= Final effective length of rod
di = Initial diameter of rod
df = final diameter of rod

Calculation:-
Initial cross-sectional area = Ai = (π/4)( di )2
Final cross-sectional area = |(Af – Ai )/Ai| ×100
Percentage of elongation in length = |(Lf – Li)/Lf|×100
Ultimate stress/strength = (Ultimate load/Ai)
Engg. Failure stress = (failure load/Ai )
True failure stress = (failure load/Af)

Calculated Table :-
Sl Percentage Percentage Ultimate Failure stress(Mpa)
increase in reduction in
No Stress
length of the cross-
.
rod section area (Mpa)
of rod
engineeri true
ng

Conclusion:-
Experiment 6:-
Impact Strength

AIM OF THE EXPERIMENT: -

To measure the impact strength and the study the effect of impact load in
the given material by :

(a)Izod Impact

(b)Charpy Impact

REQUIREMENT: -

(i)Specimens-2:

Material: Mild Steel

Dimension (For Charpy test) (fig-1)

Length = 6.2cm

Breadth = 1cm
 Notch angle = 60°

Dimension (For Izod test) (fig-2)

Length = 6.1cm

Breadth = 1cm

Notch angle = 60°

(ii)Impact testing machine

(iii)Steel rule

(iv)Protractor

(v)Vernier Caliper

THEORY: -
Impact-Impact refers to the sudden physical force exerted on the body
due to collision or sudden contact with an object or surface.

Impact strength-It is the measure of a material ability to absorb energy

and resist failure under impact.

Impact Testing Machine

Impact testing machine (ITM) is designed to meet the essential
requirement for conducting Charpy and Izod test on both V notch and U
notch test specimen.

The maximum energy of the pendulum in 300 J for Charpy test and 170 J
for Izod Test and scale are calibrated to indicate directly the energy
absorbed inorbed in Joules.

Parts and Components of Impact Testing Machine

The impact testing machine consist of a heavy cast iron base on which is
bolted a vertical column.

On top of the column is mounted the bearing housing on the exerted shaft
which is mounted on the swinging pendulum.

The latching tube is freed on the bearing housing in two positions viz one
for Izod test and the other for Charpy test. An Allen key is provided for this
purpose.
The scale is mounted on a bracket with a spring loud to Induce fraction
just enough to hold the pointer at it’s maximum portion after the
pendulum swings.

A safety guard is provided to interlock the latching tube and pendulum

pipe while fixing the specimen of working near the testing piece wise.

The base has four foundation bolt holes and four tapped holes for levelling
bolts. So that the machine can be levelled while fixing to the foundation.

Setting Up an Impact Testing Machine

The machine was firmly bolted to a heavy concrete foundation at least
500mm thick and minimum 950mm X 600mm in length and breadth using
foundation bolts of 16mm.

The foundation should be raised from the ground level when by about
85mm and its surface should be perfectly levelled when checked in two
directions at right angles to me another.

Adequate working space was left around the installed machine.

The level of the machine is to be checked by placing the spirit level on

reference level plating of the machine fixed near the nice of the machine.
The plate factory is set up and shouldn’t be disturbed it’s level has to be
set with a precession level using in two directions and right angles.

Levelling bolts should be used for precise adjustment and place suitable
strips below the bolts.

When the machine is perfectly levelled and bolted to the foundation the
sticker fixed in the pendulum should just touch the test piece placed I it’s
fest position when resting in it’s free vertical position, i.e it should neither
exert any force on the specimen now should there be a clearance of the
move than 1mm between the stricker and the test piece of 10mm square
cross section.

Minute adjustment can be done swing levelling bolts taper wedges and
pasting plates should be used all around the machine base.

The cuts of the foundation bolts should be properly tightened using

washer under the nuts. The levelling bolts should then be removed and
the machine level checked again. Adjust if required.
Izod Test (fig-3)

In Izod test the sample is placed vertically in the apparatus and the notch
faces the direction of the pendulum swing.

Fix the latching tube for Izod test on the bearing housing and tightened
the Allen bolts fully with the pendulum of rest in it’s free vertical position
move the reading pointer with finger to touch the pointer carrier. So that
the reading of the scale corresponding to this position of the printer is the
maximum scale reading.

Adjust the pointer carrier if so desired. Now support the pendulum over
the latch and allow it to swing freely without any specimen in the vice and
note the pointer reading.

Again, the pendulum is latched without disturbing the pointer and is

allowed another free swing.

Charpy Test (fig-4)

In Charpy test the test sample is placed horizontally between two

supports and the notch is positioned away from the pendulum facing the
opposite side of impact.

Here the latch tube should be fixed in the upper position for charpy test
and allow force swing of the pendulum without specimen in position.
Without resisting the pointer swing the pendulum freely from the attached
position. The pointer should read zero or charpy scale.

Evaluation of Test
Calculation of Impact strength

Impact strength(I)=K/V

Were,

K=Impact energy absorbed by the specimen in I

V=Volume of specimen in m^3

Calculation of volume of specimen

Volume of Specimen= Volume of Job piece - Volume of material

removed

(Volume of rectangle bar) (Volume of

triangular prism)

VS = VJ – VR

Where VJ = Volume of Job piece

VR = Volume of removed material

VS = Volume of specimen

PROCEDURE: -
(A)Charpy Test
(i) For the Charpy test the latching tubes was fixed in upper incline
position.

(ii)It was then removed fixed for Charpy test taking care to tighter the
clamping bolts fully.

(iii)The test specimen was placed over it’s test position the notched face
being opposite to the direction of hammer strike.
(iv)It was properly centered using the setting gauge with conical pen
entering the V notch and tapered sides resting against the tapered face of
the specimen supports.

(v)The reading pointer was brought to the maximum on the scale.

(vi)The pendulum was then raised and attached with the pendulum over
the latch and allow it to swing freely without any specimen in the vice and
note the pointer reading. Again the pendulum is latched without
disturbing the pointer and is allowed another free swing the latching tube.

(vii)Then the hammer was released by pulling the release lever so that the
hammer stroke the test piece placed against the supports and was raised
to the other side after breaking it.

(viii)The reading pointer also rose proportionate to the hammer rise and
stayed at the maximum position.

(ix)The brake is applied during the second swing at the lowest position of
hammer.

(x)The reading form the scale was noted down as energy absorbed.

(B)Izod Test
(i)For Izod test the latching tube was fitted in horizontal position and fully
tightened in place.

(ii)With the help of wedge-shaped setting gauge the test piece was
positioned correctly and was tightened fully to clamp Allen bolt with the
test piece tightly.

(iii)The reading pointer was brought to maximum scale reading.

(iv)The hammer was latched in the raised position and it was allowed to
swing freely by pulling the release handle.

(v)The stricker stroke the specimen and rose on the left side carrying the
reading pointer.

(vi)After completion of the residual swing the pointer stayed at the

maximum position

(vii)During the second swing of the pendulum due to residual energy the
brake was applied to stop it till it reached near the vice/specimen support.

(viii)The reading was noted down as absorbed energy.

OBSERVATION: -
Sl.N Test Length(m) Breadth(m Thickness( Reading
o ) m)
(No of
Division)

1 division=2 Joules

CALCULATION: -

CALCULATED TABLE: -

Sl.No Test Volume of Impact

Specimen Strength

(m^3) (MPa)

CONCLUSION: -