B.Tech.

II Year II Sem
KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS LAB

DEPARTMENT OF
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MALLA REDDY ENGINEERING

COLLEGE AND MANAGEMENT
SCIENCES
KISTAPUR, MEDCHAL, MEDCHAL DIST. -501401
 TORSIONAL VIBRATION APPARATUS
Experiment -1

OBJECT: - To Study the torsional vibration.

To determine the frequency of torsional vibration apparatus

THEROEM:-

When the particles of the shaft or disc move in a circle or half circle about the axis of
the shaft, then the vibration is known as torsional Vibration. In this Case Shaft is
Twisted and untwisted alternately and the torsional shear stresses are induced in the
shaft.

Torsional vibration is angular vibration of an object—commonly a shaft along its

axis of rotation. Torsional vibration is often a concern in power transmission systems
using rotating shafts or couplings where it can cause failures if not controlled.In ideal
power transmission systems using rotating parts the torques applied or reacted are
"smooth" leading to constant speeds. In reality this is not the case. The torques
generated may not be smooth (e.g., internal combustion engines) or the component
being driven may not react to the torque smoothly (e.g., reciprocating compressors).
Also, the components transmitting the torque can generate non-smooth or alternating
torques (e.g., worn gears, misaligned shafts). Because the components in power
transmission systems are not infinitely stiff these alternating torques cause vibration
about the axis of rotation.

Consider a shaft of negligible mass whole one end is fixed & other end carrying a
disc.

θ = Angular displacement of shaft from mean position.

m = mass of disc.
I = moment of inertia of disc (kg – m2) = mk2
K= radius of gyration
σ = Torsional stiffness of shaft in N.m
We can calculate the restoring force by taking equation σ.θ
d2 θ
I×
& accelerating force. dt 2
By solving the above equations,
We will get
d2 θ σ
× ×θ=0
dt 2 I
But the fundamental equation of simple harmonic motion is
d2 θ
2
+ w2 x =0
dt

Comparing these equations, We will get

 w=
√ σ
I

So, time period

NATURAL FREQUENCY
t P=
2π
w
=2 π
√ I
σ

F n=
1
=
1
tP 2 π √ σ
I
The value of torsional stiffness σ ay be obtained from the equation.
T C.θ
=
J L
T C.J
⇒ =
θ L

Where,
C .J
σ=
So, L
Where,
C= modulus of rigidity for shaft material
π 4
= d
J= polar moment of inertia 32
d = diameter of shaft
L= length of shaft

DESCRIPTION:
The setup consists of a heavy C.I disc mounted on a Vertical shaft. All the
arrangement has been fitted in a sturdy frame to conduct the Experiment freely.

UTILITIES REQUIRED:
Scale
Stop watch.

PROCEDURE:-
1. Fix the shaft provided with the vibration apparatus.
2. Note down the length of shaft from the point of fixation.
3. Give some twist to the shaft at clockwise direction.
4. Note down the time period for a particular number of oscillation, with the
help of stop watch.
OBSERVATION :
Mass of disc = 5.9 kg
Radius of disc = 0.26m
Diameter of shaft d = 0.003175m
Length of shaft L = ------ m
Modulus of rigidity C = 80 x 109 N/m2
Radius of Gyration K = 0.125

CALCULATION
Polar moment of inertia
π 4 4
J= d ,m
32
C .J
σ=
Torsional stiffness L
Moment of inertia (I)
I =m . K 2 (where k is radius of gyration )
Theoretical Time period

t P=
Actual Time Period
2π
w
=2 π
√ I
σ

1
t a=
Frequency
Frequency
n
= t
Where, n = No of Oscillation
t = Time Period for n Oscillation

CALCULATIONS:

PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

 1. Always tightened the chucks very carefully.
2. Keep all the assembly undisturbed.

UNIVERSAL GOVERNOR APPARATUS

Experiment -2
OBJECT : To study the effect of varying the initial spring compression in Hartnell
governor.

THEROEM:-

Generally, the friction of governor is to regulate the speed of engines. When there is
variation in the load on engines. It is necessary to increase the supply of working fluid. It
is necessary to increase the supply of working fluid. On the other hand when the load on
the engine decrease it’s speed increases & less fluid is required. The governor
automatically controls the supply of working fluid to the engine with the varying load
conditions. & keeps the mean speed within certain limit. The governors may broadly
classified as centrifugal governors & inertia governors.
The centrifugal governors are based on the balancing of centrifugal
force on the rotating balls, by an equal & opposite radial force, known as controlling
force. It consists of two balls of equal mass which are attached to the arms of governor.
The balls revolve with a spindle, which is driven by the engine through bevel gears. The
upper ends of the arm are pivoted to the spindle, so, the balls may rise up & fall down as
they revolve about the vertical axis. The arms are connected by the links to a sleeve,
which is keyed to the spindle. This Sleeve revolves with the spindle but can slide up &
down. The balls & sleeve rises, when the spindle speed increase & falls down when the
speed decreases. In order to limit the travel of the sleeve upward & downward direction,
two stoppers are provided on the spindle. The speed at which the governor balls, arms etc
are in complete equilibrium & the sleeve does not tend to move upward & downward
direction. I.e. called the equilibrium speed. Generally the centrifugal governors can be
classified at two types, one is pendulum type which included watt governor & other is
loaded type which includes porter governors, Proell governors & Hartnell governor.

HARTNELL GOVERNOR:

STANDARD DATA:

1. Length of arm (a) = 75 mm

2. Length of arm (b) = 120 mm
3. Initial radius of rotation (R’) = 182.6 mm
4. Weight of each ball (w) = 0.1 kg
5. Acceleration due to gravity (g) = 9.81 m / s2
6. Weight of Cast Iron sleeve (W1) = 1.8 kg
7. Dead weight applied on sleeve (W2) = 0.7 Kg
 8. Total dead weight on sleeve (W) = (W1 + W2)
9. Initial reading of pointer on scale, X’’ = mm
10. Reading of pointer on scale at N rpm = X’ mm

OBSERVATIONS & CALCULATION:

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Initial reading of pointer on scale, X’’ = --------- mm
Selected ball weight, w = 0.2 kg

S. No. Sleeve displacement, X’ (mm) Speed, Nact (RPM)

1.
2.
3.

FORMUALE:
 1. Initial reading of pointer on scale, X’’ = ------- mm

2. Height gained by sleeve, ( X'' −X' ) = -------mm

a
R' +X*
3. Radius of rotation, R = b = -------mm
2πN
4. Angular velocity,  = 60 = --------rad/sec

w * ω2 * R
5. Centrifugal force, Fc = g * 1000 = --------Kg

6. Force exerted by spring, S =

(2∗F ∗ ab )−w
c

()( )
a 2 Fc
2∗ ∗
7. Stiffness of spring, s = b R−R '
= --------Kg/mm

Calculations:

CAM ANALYSIS APPARATUS

 Experiment -3
OBJECTIVE: -
 1. To Study the motion of follower with the given profile of the cam.
 2. To plot the n-q (Follower displacement Vs Angle of rotation) curves for
 different cam follower pairs

THEROY:-
Cams precede the development of modern Mechatronics but still have their
uses in a variety of devices. They convert the rotation of a shaft into a specified linear
motion of a follower. A typical example is the overhead cam shaft in an internal
combustion engine. Many applications have been replaced by computer controlled
machines using hydraulic, pneumatic and electric actuators. The motion of the follower
depends on the shape of the cam. The most basic motion might be a simple quick stroke
(e.g. to knock something off a conveyer belt. A cam as shown in the diagram would be
suitable. A key part of your work is to understand how to produce the cam shape that
produces the required. motion. You should already know the relationship between
displacement, velocity and acceleration. For a displacement x, the velocity is v = dx/dt =
gradient of the displacement - time graph. This is clearly zero at any time where the profile
is circular. We must consider the inertia force produced by the sudden movement which
produces acceleration and deceleration of the follower. The acceleration is a = dv/dt = the
gradient of the velocity – time graph. It is normal to round the corners to avoid excessive
wear.
DISPLACEMENT, VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION OF FOLLOWER
Consider a simple cam with a pointed follower. The centre lines of the follower and cam
are the same. The follower is restrained to move along the centre line by the guides. The
displacement of the follower is x and a typical displacement – angle graph is shown

Cam may be defined as a rotating and reciprocating element of a mechanism which

imparts a reciprocating or oscillating motion to another element called follower. The
cams are of the disc or cylindrical types and the follower are of knife edge, rollor or flat
faced. The usual motions for the follower are
S.H.M
Let S= lift of the follower
X= Displacement of the follower when crank has turned
Then X=S/2{1-cosθ)}
V= ωS / 2
Vmax =ΠωS / 2θ
A=ω2S Cosθ/2 during ascent
 Amax= Π2ω2S/2θ2 during decent
Uniform acceleration or deceleration
Then displacement
Y=1/2 at2
Vaverage =S/t
Vmax= 2S/t
=2ωS/θ0 during ascent
=Vω2S/θ2 during descent
The jump, phenomenon occurs in case of cam operating under the action of
compression spring load. This is a transient condition that occurs only with high speed,
highly flexible cam follower systems. With jump the cam and the follower separate owing to
excessively unbalanced forced exceeding the spring force during the period of negative
acceleration. This is indelible since the fundamental function of the cam-follower system; the
constraint and control of follower motion are not maintained. Also related at the short life of
the cam flank surface, high noise, and vibrations and poor action.A cam – follower retained
against the cam with a compression retaining spring will under certain conditions, jump or
bounce out of contact with the cam. This condition is most likely to occur with low values of
damping and with high-speed cams or quite flexible follower trains.
Crossover shock occurs in a positive drive cam mechanism when contact moves from
one side of the cam to the other. Clearance and backlash are taken up during the crossover,
and impact occurs. Crossover takes place on the rise or return motion when the acceleration
changes sign and when the velocity is at its peak. Preloading the system to remove backlash,
by designing for a low peak velocity, and by using rigid follower train can reduce the effect.
Roth art states that jump will not occur in high-speed system if at least two full cycles of
vibration occur during the positive acceleration time-interval of the motion. If a smaller
number of cycles exist during this period then, the states, the system should be investigated
mathematically to determine if jump exists. This condition can be expressed by the equation:
Bi k > 2.
Where Bi is the angle through which the cam rotates during positive acceleration period.
This figure can probably be reduced slightly for appreciable amount of damping.
As shown in fig. 1. Spring K2 loses compression when jump beings and is carried in motion
with the mass. The resulting motion now gets rather complicated because the mass too must
be redistributed. Probably a good first approximation could be obtained by concentrating a
portion of the mass at the bottom of spring and treating motion as a system of two degrees of
freedom. It must be noted, and then the system will vibrate at a new frequency after jump
being and analysis of the motion using the old frequency after jump being is not a true
description of the motion.
The cam & follower assemblies are:
a) Circular arc cam with mushroom follower.
b) Tangent cam with roller follower.
c) An eccentric cam with knife-edge follower.

DESCRIPTION:
Apparatus is a motorized unit consisting of a camshaft driven by a variable speed motor. The
shaft runs in a double bearing. The free end of the camshaft has a facility to mount the cam
easily.
 The follower is properly guided in gunmetal bushes and the type of follower can be changed
according to the cam under test. Graduated circular protractor is fitted co-axial with the shaft.
And a Dial Gauge fitted on the follower shaft is used to note the follower displacement for
the angle of cam rotation. A spring is used to provide controlling force to the follower
system. Weights on the follower shaft can be adjusted as per the requirement. An
arrangement is provided to regulate the speed. The apparatus is very useful for testing the
cam performance for jump phenomenon during operation. On this apparatus the effect of
change of inertia forces on jump action of cam-follower during operation can be observed. It
is useful for testing various cam & follower pairs. Three cams and three followers will be
supplied with the apparatus. Theses are already hardened to reduce the wear.

UTILITIES REQUIRED:
Electricity supply 230 VAC, single Phase
Stroboscope (Optional)
PROCEDURE:

1. Fix the required cam and follower to be tested.

2. Bring the cam and follower to zero position
3. Rotate the cam slowly and note down the angle of rotation of the cam at regular
interval and note the corresponding displacement of follower
4. Plot the graph between displacement of the follower and the angle of rotation of
cam
5. Adjust the speed of motor to a particular mark with the help of variac.
6. Measure the RPM and stroke of the cam and follower
OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No Angle of rotation(θ) Displacement of the

follower(mm)

CALCULATION:
Plot a graph between displacement of the follower and the angle of rotation of the
cam.

Calculations:

MOTORISED GYROSCOPE
EXPERIMENT - 4
OBJECT: - 1. To Study the gyroscope effect on a rotating disc.
2. To verify the equation τ =iωωp

THEROEM:-

When a body moves along a curved path with a uniform linear velocity, a force in the
direction of centripetal acceleration has to be applied externally over a body. so, that it
moves along a curved path. That external force is known as active force. When a body
itself, is moving with uniform linear velocity along a circular with, a centrifugal force is
acted towards outside. That is called reactive force.
Consider a disc, revolving or spinning about the axis ox (known as axis of spin) in
anticlockwise direction with an angular velocity ω in a plane at right angles. After a
short interval of time dt, let the disc be spinning about new axis of spin ox’ with an angle
dθ. & angular velocity (ω+dω). By using the vector diagram, we can find out the total
angular acceleration of disc
∂ω
= +ω. ω p
∂t
∂ω ∂θ
⇒ +ω .
∂t ∂t
⇒
∂θ
Where ∂t is the angular velocity of the axis of spin about a certain axis, with
perpendicular to the plane, in which the axis of spin is going to rotate. This angular
velocity is known as angular velocity of precession. & it is denoted by ω p. That axis is
called the axis of precession. Generally the motorized gyroscope consists of a rotor
which can free to rotate.
It own axis i.e. axis of spin
Axis of precession
Axis of gyroscopic couple.
Consider a disc spinning with an angular velocity is ω rad/sec about the axis of spin
ox, since the plane in which the disc is rotating is parallel to the plane YOZ, therefore
it is called plane of spinning. The plane XOZ is a horizontal plane & the axis of spin
rotates in a plane parallel to the horizontal plane about an axis OY. At that condition
the axis of spin is said to be rotating or processing about an axis OY, which is
perpendicular to both axes OX & OZ at an angular velocity ω P rad/sec. This
horizontal plane XOZ is called plane of precession & OY the axis of precession
Let I = mass moment of Inertia of disc about OX
ω= angular velocity of disc Angular momentum of disc = Iω

Since angular momentum is a vector quantity, by plotting the vector diagram we can
∂θ
=i . ω.
find out Rate of change of Angular momentum ∂t
Since the rate of change of angular momentum will result by the application, a couple
to the disc, therefore couple applied to the disc causing precession.
Torque τ = i.ω.ωp. Where τ = Nm
 i = Kg m2
The couple I.ω.ωp in the direction change in angular momentum is the active
gyroscope couple, which has to be applied on the disc, when the axis of spin is made
to rotate with angular velocity ω p about the axis of precession. When the axis of spin
itself moves with angular velocity ωp. The disc is subjected to reactive couple, whose
magnitude is same but opposite in direction to that of active couple. This reactive
couple to which the disc is subjected when the axis of spin rotates about the axis of
precession is known as reactive gyroscope couple. The gyroscopic couple is usually
applied through the bearings which support the shaft. The bearings will resist equal
opposite couple. The instruments which follow above principles are known as
gyroscope. The gyroscopes are installed in ships in order to minimize the rolling and
pitching effects of waves. It is also used in aeroplanes, rail cars etc.

DESCRIPTION:
The setup consists of a heavy stainless steel disc mounted on a horizontal shaft,
rotated by a variable speed motor. The rotor shaft is coupled to a motor mounted on a
trunion frame having bearing in a yoke frame, which is free to rotate about vertical
axis. A weight pan on other side of disc balances the weight of motor. Rotor disc can
be move about three axis. Torque can be applied by calculating the weight & distance
of weight from the center of rotor.

UTILITIES REQUIRED:
Electricity supply 230 VAC, single Phase Tachometer.

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the power supply & start the motor.

2. Adjust the speed of motor to a particular mark with the help of variac
3. Apply the weight on weight pan.
4. Measure the Angular distance covered by the rotor with the help of needle
provided at the bottom.
5. Repeat the experiment at different load on weight pan & RPM of motor

OBSERVATION:-
Weights W= 0.5,1 Kg
Distance from centre of disc=0.25 m
Mass of the disc = 6.3 Kg.
Radius of disc = 0.15 m

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No W dθ dt

CALCULATION:
 Theoretical toque
τ = i.ω. ωp
1
i= mr 2
Moment of inertia 2
Where m = mass of Disc
r = radius of disc
2 ΠN
ω= rad /sec
60 (Angular velocity of disc)
N=RPM of disc
∂θ Π
ω p= X
∂t 180 (Rate of change of angular momentum)
Actual Torque

τa = mgl

m = Applied mass
g = Acceleration due to gravity=9.81m/sec2
l = Distance between center of disc & point of applied weight.

CALCULATION PART:

PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Cam should be rotate slowly and continuously to take accurate reading

2. lubricate the cam and follower part to decrease friction
3. Never run the apparatus if the power supply is less than 180 volts and above 230
volts.
4. Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF
switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
 5. Keep all the assembly undisturbed.
6. Always apply the weight slowly.

STATIC & DYNAMIC BALANCING APPARATUS

EXPERIMENT- 5
OBJECT: - 1. To observe the effect of vibration in a rotating system.
2. To balance the masses statically & dynamically of a single rotating mass
system.

THEROEM:-

When a certain mass is attached to a rotating shaft, It exterts some centrifugal force,
whose effect is to bend the shaft & to produce vibration in it. In order prevent the effect
of centrifugal force; another mass is attached to the opposite side of the shaft, at such
position so as to balance the effect of centrifugal force of the first mass. This is done is
such a way that, the centrifugal force of both the masses are made to be equal & opposite.
The process providing the balancing mass, in order to inter act the effect of centrifugal
force of the first mass is called balancing of rotating mass. During balancing the net
dynamic force acting on the shaft is equal to zero. This requires that the line of action of
three centrifugal forces must be same. In other words the centre of the masses of the
system must lie on the axis of rotation. This is the condition for static balancing. This can
be observed by giving a small torque to the shaft by hand. For dynamic balancing the
algebric sum of the moments about any point in the plane must be zero. For this condition
we have to arrange the plane of disturbing mass between the planes of two balancing
masses.& the plane of disturbing mass may lie on the or right of the two planes
containing the balancing masses.
Consider any number of masses of magnitude m1, m2, m3, m4 at a distance r1, r2, r3, r4
from the axis of rotation shaft, let θ1, θ2, θ3, θ4 be the angle of the masses with
horizontal line (axis of shaft) & they are rotating with a constant velocity of ω rad/see.
The magnitude & position of the balancing mass may be find out analytically or
graphically by plotting the forced diagram.
1. Analytical method:
First of all find out the centrifugal force (i.e. the product of mass & It’s radius of
rotation) exterted by each mass on the rotating shaft.
2. Find out the sum of centrifugal forces horizontally & vertically.
Sum of horizontal components of the centrifugal force.
∑ H =m1 r1 cosθ 1+ m2 r2 cosθ2 +⋯⋯⋯mn rn cosθ n
Sum of vertical components of centrifugal force
∑ H =m1 r1 sin θ1+ m2 r2 sin θ 2+⋯⋯⋯mn rn sin θ n
3. Magnitude of resultant centrifugal force

√
F c = ( ∑ H )2 +( ∑ V )2
4. Balancing angle
θ=tan
−1 ∑V
∑H
 5. The balancing force is then equal to the resultant force. But in opposite direction.
Now find out the magnitude of balancing mass

FC = m.r
m = Balancing mass
r= radius of rotation

Graphical method
1. Draw the space diagram with the position of several masses.
2. Then find out the centrifugal force exterts by each mass on the rotating shaft.
3. Now draw the vector diagram with the help of centrifugal force.
4. Now as per polygon law of force closing side will represent the resultant force in
magnitude & direction.
5. Find out the magnitude of balancing mass (m) at a given radius r such that
mw2r = resultant centrifugal force
mr = resultant of m1r1, m2r2-----mnrn

DESCRIPTION
 This equipment is designed for carry out the experiment for balancing a rotation mass
system. The apparatus consists of a stainless steel shaft fixed in a rectangular frame. A set
of four blocks with a clamping arrangement provided. For static balancing each block is
individually clamped on shaft & its balancing can check by giving a manually rotation.
For dynamic balancing a moment polygon is a drawn using relative weight, angular &
axial position of blocks. The blocks are clamped on shaft is rotated by a motor to check
dynamic balance of the system.

UTILITIES REQURIED
Electricity 0.5 Kw, 220 V, Single Phase

PROCEDURE:

1. First draw the space diagram by using the mass & radius of masses.
2. Now find out the centrifugal force exterted by each mass on the rotating shaft.
3. Now draw the vector diagram with the help of obtained centrifugal force, to a
suitable scale & find out resultant force by closing the polygon.
4. Then arrange the masses on shaft with the help of spirit level provided with the
equipment
5. Switch on the motor & slowly increase the speed of motor with the help of variac
& observe the balancing of mass on shaft by seeing the vibration of equipment.
OBSERVATION:-
m1 = ----gm
m2 = ---- gm
m3 = ---- gm
m4 = ------gm
r1, r2, r3, r4 = ------ mm

OBSERVATION TABLE:
S.NO PLANE MASS RADIUS CENTRIFUGAL DISTANCE COUPLE
(m) kg (r) meter FORCE(m.r) FROM (m.r.l)
Kg.m PLANE(l)m

1
2
3
4

To get the required balanced mass and its angle, solve it by both analytically and graphically
(force diagram),Then fix these masses to the shaft and check the vibration on shaft.

CALCULATION PART:
PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Never run the apparatus if the power supply is less than 180 volts and above 230
volts.
2. Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF
switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
3. Keep all the assembly undisturbed.
4. Always fix the masses very tightly.

TROUBLE SHOOTING:

1. If the electric panel is not showing the input on mains light, check the main
supply.
2. If the vibration is more on system, check the angle of masses by using the angular
scale and level indicator provided with this equipment.
 WHIRLING OF SHAFT APPARATUS
EXPERIMENTS - 6
OBJECT: - To observe the modes of vibration
To determine the critical speed of the given shaft with the given end
conditions.

THEORY:-

When any elastic body such as spring .beam & shaft are displaced by the application of
external forces & then released. They execute a vibratory motion. When the particles of
the shaft or any disc move approximately perpendicular to the axis of shaft. Then the
vibrations are known as transverse vibration. In this case, the shaft is straight & bends
alternately & bending stresses are induced in the shaft. When a shaft is fixed at both ends,
normally the centre of gravity will displace from the axis of rotation at a very lower
amount. As a result of this displacement, the centre of gravity is subjected to a centripetal
acceleration as soon as the shaft begins to rotate.
The inertia force acts radially outwards & bends the shaft. The bending of shaft is not
only depends upon the value of eccentricity. But also depends upon the speed at which
the shaft rotates. Consider a shaft AB of length L, carrying a load at any point of shaft.
When some amount deflection will be given to it then released, it will make transverse
vibration. The deflection of the shaft is proportional to load W & if the beam is deflected
beyond the static equilibrium position, then the load will vibrate with some harmonic
motion. If σ is the static deflection due to load W, then the natural frequency of free
transverse vibration is.
1
F n=
2π √ g
σ
=
0 . 4985
√σ
Then for simply supported beam with a uniformly distributed load of W per unit length, σ
can be find out by using formula
5 WL4
σ = 384 X
EI
Where, W = weight / unit length (Nm)
Then for fixed beam with a uniformly distributed load of W per unit length
σ can be find out by using following formula
WL4
σ=
384 EI
In actual practice, a rotating shaft carries different mountings & accessories in the from of
gears, pulleys etc. when the gears or pulleys are put on the shaft, the centre of gravity of
the pulley or gear does not coincide with the centre line of the bearing or with the axis of
the shaft, when the shaft is stationary. This means that the centre of gravity of the pulley
or gear is at a certain distance from the axis of rotation and due to this, the shaft is
subjected to centrifugal force. This force will bent the shaft, which will further increase
the distance of centre of gravity of the pulley or gear from the axis of rotation. This
correspondingly increases the value of centrifugal force, which further increase the
distance of centre of gravity from the axis of rotation. The bending of shaft is not only
depends upon the value of eccentricity but also depends upon the speed at which the shaft
rotates. The speed at which the shaft runs. So that the additional deflection of the shaft
from the axis of rotation becomes infinite, is known as critical or whirling speed.
If Nc is the critical or whirling speed in r.p.s.

Then

2 πN C = √ g
σ

N C=
1
2π √ g
σ
RPS
The critical or whirling speed is same as the natural frequency of transverse vibration, but
its unit will be revolutions per second. Dunker ley’s method is used to determine the
critical speed of a shaft, which may be subjected to uniformly distributed load, A shaft
supported with short bearings is assumed to be a simply supported shaft, while shaft
supported with long bearings (or journal bearings) assumed to have both end fixed.

When a shaft rotates, it will go in to transverse vibration .If the shaft is out of balance, the
resulting centrifugal force will induce the shaft to vibrate. When the shaft rotates at a
speed equal to the natural frequency of transverse oscillations, This vibration becomes
large and shows up as a whirling of the shaft. It also occurs at multiples of the resonant
speed. This can be very damaging to heavy rotary machines such as turbine generator sets
and the system must be carefully balanced to reduce this effect and designed to have a
natural frequency different to the speed of rotation. When starting or stopping such
machinery, the critical speeds must be avoided to prevent damage to the bearings and
must be avoided to prevent damage to the bearings and turbine blades.
Suppose a shaft rotates, centrifugal force will cause it to bend out. Let the deflection of
the shaft be r. The distance to the centre of gravity is then r + e.
The shaft rotates at ω rad/s. The transverse stiffness is kt N/m
The deflection force is hence F = Kt r
The centrifugal force is M ω2 (r + e)

Equating force we have

 mω2 ( r +e ) Mω2 r Mω 2 e
r= = +
kt=Mω2(r+e) from which
kt kt kt

Mω2 e
r=
Mω2
k t ( 1− )
kt
kt 2 ω2 e e
=ω n r= =

[ ]
M 2
ω ωn
ω 2 ( 1− ) −1
n ω 2 ω
It has already seen that n
From this we see that when ωn = ω r = e/o which is infinity. This means that no matter
how small the imbalance distance e is, the shaft will whirl at the natural frequency.
Balancing does help but can never be perfect so whirling is to be avoided on the best of
machines.
The frequencies at which whirling occurs are calculated by the same methods as for
transverse vibrations of beams

SIMPLY SUPPORTED – The ends are free to rotate normal to the axis (e.g. self
aligning bearings)
π
f = n2
2 √
gEI
WL 4 Where n is the mode (i.e. n=1, 2, 3, 4………….)

n=1

n=2
FIXED ENDS (i.e Fixed bearing or chucks)

The lowest critical speed is

f n =3. 562

The highest Critical Speed is

√ gEI
WL 4

[ ]√
2
π 1 gEI
f n = n+
2 2 WL 4 Where n=1, 2, 3, 4………………
 First Mode

Second mode

When Chuck at one end & free at the other

The lowest critical speed is

The highest Critical Speed is
f n =0 .565
√ gEI
WL 4

[ ]√
2
π 1 gEI
f n= n−
2 2 WL 4 Where n=1, 2, 3, 4……………… (Lowest speed corresponds to
n=1)

DESCRIPTION:
The setup consists of a sturdy m.s frame, variable speed motor bearing holders etc.
Different bearings can be fitted in bearing block to have different end conditions. I.e.
(i) Both end fixed
(ii)Both end free (simply supported),
(iii) One end free & other end fixed
A variable speed motor is provided to drive the shaft along with the speed control
unit. The setup is will designed to study the whirling of shaft.

UTILITIES REQUIRED:

Floor Area – 2 x 0.5 m2

Electricity supply 230 V Ac
Tachometer

PROCEDURE:

1. Fix the bearings & shaft to be tested

2. Switch on the power supply
3. Start the motor & increase the speed of motor, with the help of varriac
4. Observe the modes of vibration
5. Take the rpm of shaft with the help of tachometer.
6. Switch of the power supply & fix the other shafts accordingly and takes the
readings.
OBSERVATION:-

Data:
Elasticity of shaft = 189 x 109 N/m2
g = 9.81 m/sec 2
Mass of the shaft= -----Kg

When both ends are Simply Supported

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No Shaft Mode of Speed(RPM)

diameter(m vibration
)

When One End Fixed & Other End Supported

OBSERVATION TABLE:

S.No Shaft Mode of Speed(RPM)

diameter(m vibration
)

CALCULATION:
When Both end Supported

W= Weight / unit length

mg
= L , N/m
Moment of inertia (I)

π
I= X d 4 , m4
64

Frequency
 π
f n = n2
2 √
gEI
WL 4
Critical Speed
Where n is the mode (i.e. n=1, 2, 3, 4………….)

NC=fn x 60 RPM

When One End Fixed & Other End Supported

W= Weight / unit length

mg
= L , N/m
Moment of inertia (I)

π
I= X d 4 , m4
64
The Critical Frequency is

[ ]√
2
π 1 gEI
f n = n−
2 2 WL 4 Where n=1, 2, 3, 4……………… (Lowest speed corresponds to
n=1)]

Critical Speed
NC=fn x 60 RPM

CALCULATION PART:

UNIVERSAL VIBRATION APPARATUS

 EXPERIMENT – 7
OBJECT : Amplitude & frequency of un damped forced vibration of spring
mass system.
THEORY:-
Let a spring steels beam has clamped at one end in to a bracket which can be fixed to
one side of basic frame. The beam is free to pivot in ball bearing in bracket. The other
free end of beam has supported by a tension spring. With upper adjustable assembly.
Suppose a exitor unit is provided to make forced vibration Then,
Let m = mass of exitor assembly in kg.
L1 =- Distance of beam between the spring & pivot.
L2 = Distance of beam between pivot & exitor unit.
So equivalent mass can be calculated by using following formula

( )
L
M eq =m 2
L1
Where m= mass of exitor assembly
Theoretical time period

T the=2 π ( )
M eq
K
,sec
Where K= Stiffness of spring
Load w mg
K= = = , N /m
Deflection σ σ
Where m= mass added to spring in Kg
Natural frequency
1
η= , Hz
T the

DESCRIPTION:
Here a spring steel beam has clamped at one end of the bracket which can be fixed to
the side of the basic frame. The other end of the beam has supported by tension spring
with upper adjustable assembly. A pen can be fitted to the free end of the beam &
continuously trances the vibrations on to a motor. Driven drum recorder. Amplitude &
frequency measurement can be taken from the permanent trace.
PROCEDURE:

1. Place the exitor unit on beam & measure the distance.

2. Place graph roll and pen on chart recorder
3. Switch on the power supply & start the motor.
4. Adjust the speed of motor to a particular mark with the help of variac
5. Repeat the experiment on different RPM of motor

OBSERVATION
M = mass of exitor assembly =11.960 Kg
L1 = Length of beam between spring & pivot =-------m
L2 = length of beam between pivot & exitor unit. =-------m
Equivalent mass

( )
L
M eq =m 2
L1
Where m= mass of exitor assembly
Theoretical time period

T the=2 π ( )
M eq
K
,sec
Where K= Stiffness of spring=3270.00
Load w mg
K= = = , N /m
Deflection σ σ =3270.00 N / m
Where m= mass added to spring in Kg
Natural frequency
1
η= , Hz
T the
For actual frequency Study the graph & determine the no of oscillation at a particular
time.

No. of Oscillation = ---------

Time Period of Oscillation =---------sec
CALCULATION PART:

PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Never run the apparatus if the power supply is less than 180 volts and above 230
volts.
2. Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF
switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
3. Keep all the assembly undisturbed.
4. Always apply the weight slowly.
 JOURNAL BEARING APPARATUS
EXPERIMENT – 8
OBJECT: - To study the pressure profile of lubricating oil at various conditions of load and
speed on a journal bearing.

THEROEM:-

Generally rotating shafts are supported on bearings. If a long shaft is supported only at two
ends, it will deflect at its centre due to its own weight. So, to have a long shaft straight and its
running smooth, the shaft is supported at suitable intervals by bearings. A bearing should
permit free and smooth rotation of the shaft as well. To minimize the frictional resistance due
to rotation of shaft and also to reduce wear and prevent undue heating and seizing, an
adequate arrangement for lubricating the outside surface of the rotating shaft and the inside
surface of contact of the bearing must be made. Every shaft supported by a bearing should
have a running fit
According to the position of shafts and direction of load coming upon them, we can primarily
divide bearings in to three types. They are journal bearing, Pivot or footstep bearing and
Thrust or collar bearing.
In case of journal bearing the supporting pressure is perpendicular to the axis of shaft.
But in case of pivot or foot step bearing pressure is parallel to axis of shaft or vertically
upward. The end of shaft reset within the bearing body.
In thrust or collar bearing pressure is parallel to shaft axis and has end thrust. Shaft extends
through and beyond bearing.
Journal bearing
Journal is the part of the shaft in side of the bearing body. It can be classified in to two types
names solid and open journal bearing In case of solid journal bearing the cylindrical block is
extended at the base to permit bolting down. This portion is called sole. A hole, equal to
diameter of the shaft, is drilled through the cylindrical block making the shaft running
smoothly. The shaft is inserted in the hole its one end. An oil hole, leading up to inner hole, is
provided at the top centre of its body for lubrication. This bearing is made up of cast iron and
is used for the shafts, which rotates slowly or at infrequent intervals, carring light load only.
In this case there is no provision for adjustment wear. In case of open bearing the bearing is
open at the top and is used for very long zigzag shafts. To prevent the shaft from falling out,
at high speed, the sides of bearing are kept sufficiently high. The shape of brush is such that it
can’t rotate with the shaft. It rotates in a flanged brush.
When a shaft is running freely in a bearing which is properly lubricated, under the action of
friction, it will slow down and ultimately come to rest. The fall in speed can be
experimentally determined. Such experimental results will give a curve. It is obvious that
there is a fall in value of the coefficient of friction very gradually with decreasing speed from
higher to lower RPM.After a certain value of the speed the coefficient of friction starts
shooting up very fast. When a horizontal shaft of radius r rotates at N RPM.There is a sliding
friction in the bearing. If the load transmitted by the shaft to the bearing is W, the normal
reaction at the bearing will be R=W.The frictional resistance to sliding will be μw acting
tangentially at the line of contact between the shaft and the bases of the bearing. The
frictional couple will be μw.r units and the work absorbed by this couple for one revolution
of the shaft, being Couple x the angle turned through, is μw.r x 2Π units of work. If the shaft
rotates at N RPM the work absorbed by friction in bearing is μwr x 2ΠN units and the H.P
lost in friction will be
μ wr×2 πN
33000 , if the work units are ft-lbs
This loss of work by friction is converted in to heat energy.
DESCRIPTION

The apparatus consists of a plain steel shaft excavated in a bearing and directly driven
by a FHP Motor. The bearing is freely supported on the shaft and sealed at the motor end.
The speed of the motor is controlled accurately by the speed control unit and it can be
made run in both directions. Twelve equal-spaced pressures taping around the
circumference and four along the axis are provided and are connected to manometer by
PU Tubing so that the pressure head of oil in all tubes can be observed at a time. The
bearing can be loaded by attaching weights to the arm supported beneath it.

UTILITIES REQURIED
Electricity 0.5 Kw, 230 V, Single Phase
Tachometer (Optional)
Oil SAE: 40 3 ltrs
Bench Area: 1.5 x 1.5 x 4 m

TECHNICAL DETAILS:
Journal Diameter 50 mm
Bearing Diameter 55 mm
Weights 1 X 2 Kg.
Motor Variable speed FHP Motor
Control Panel for speed control of motor.
Manometer 14 Tubes.
Oil recommended SAE 40

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the power supply & start the motor.

2. Adjust the speed of motor to a particular mark with the help of variac.
3. Apply the weight on hanger.
4. Wait for steady state and note down the readings of pressure heads.
5. Plot the graph between height and distance.
6. Repeat the experiment at different RPM of motor
OBSERVATION:-
Journal diameter 50 mm
Bearing diameter 55 mm
Weight applied 2 kg
RPM = --------

OBSERVATION TABLE:
 Load Condition (2Kgs) Unload Condition
S.NO Height(mm) Height(mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16

Plot the graph between height Vs distance

CALCULATION PART:

PRECAUTIONS & MAINTENANCE INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Never run the apparatus if the power supply is less than 180 volts and above 230
volts.
2. Never switch ON mains power supply before ensuring that all the ON/OFF
switches given on the panel are at OFF position.
3. Keep all the assembly undisturbed.
4. Always fix the masses very gently.