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Subject: BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS (2022) MODULE - 1 Sub Code: BBOK407

INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
The Cell: the basic unit of life, Structure and functions of a cell. The Plant Cell and animal cell, Prokaryotic
and Eukaryotic cell, Stem cells and their Biomolecules: Properties and functions of Carbohydrates, Nucleic
acids, proteins, lipids. Importance of special biomolecules; Enzymes (Classification (with one example
each), Properties and functions), vitamins and hormones.

THE CELL: The basic unit of life

Cell is defined as the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living organisms. A
cell is capable of carrying out all life processes, such as nutrition, excretion, respiration, etc. Hence
it is called as the functional unit of life. The cell is the smallest unit of life and all the living beings
are made up of cells. Hence a cell is called the structural unit of life.

Cell Theory:

Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists, Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, and
Rudolf Virchow. The cell theory states that:
 All living species on Earth are composed of cells.
 A cell is the basic unit of life.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
A modern version of the cell theory was eventually formulated, and it contains the following
postulates:
 Energy flows within the cells.
 Genetic information is passed on from one cell to the other.
 The chemical composition of all the cells is the same.
Cell theory states that cells are the basic structural unit of all living organisms. It is through cells
that other functional structures of the organism are formed. In higher-order organisms, cells that
share an origin are similar in structure and perform the same function. They group together to form
tissues. These tissues combine together to form an organ, such as the heart or the kidneys. The
organs group together form organ systems such as the excretory or digestive systems. Organ
systems function together to form an organism.

Functions of Cell:
A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of an organism. Important
functions of cell are as follows:
1. Provides Support and Structure: All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the
structural basis of all the organisms. The cell wall and the cell membrane are the main
components that function to provide support and structure to the organism.
2. Facilitate Growth Mitosis: In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the
daughter cells. Thus, the cells multiply and facilitate the growth in an organism.
3. Allows Transport of Substances: Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out
various chemical processes going on inside the cells. The waste produced by the chemical
processes is eliminated from the cells by active and passive transport.
4. Energy Production: Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This
energy is produced by the cells through a process called photosynthesis in plants and
respiration in animals.
5. Aids in Reproduction: A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and
meiosis.

Cell Structure:
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry out
life’s processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell
organelles.
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Cell Membrane:
 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances in
and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell membrane
is present in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such as
the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of selective
substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects the cellular
component from damage and leakage.
 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.
 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from external
factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.

Cell Wall
 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of
cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and other
cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and
injuries.
Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
 Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are
suspended in this cytoplasm.
Nucleus
 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest of
the cell.
 The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell structure.

CELL ORGANELLE:
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry out
life’s processes.
Nucleus and Nucleolus:
The nucleus, formed by a nuclear membrane around a fluid nucleoplasm, is the control center of
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the cell. Threads of chromatin in the nucleus contain deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the genetic
material of the cell. The nucleolus is a dense region of ribonucleic acid (RNA) in the nucleus and
is the site of ribosome formation. The nucleus determines how the cell will function, as well as the
basic structure of that cell.

Figure 1: Cell Nucleus Figure 2: Endoplasmic Reticulum

Figure 3: Golgi Apparatus Figure: Mitochondria

Figure 5: Chloroplast Figure 6: Ribosomes

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):

It is a network or reticulum of tiny tubular structures scattered in the cytoplasm that is called the
endoplasmic reticulum (ER). The ER often shows ribosomes attached to their outer surface. The
endoplasmic reticulun bearing ribosomes on their surface is called rough endoplasmic reticulum
(RER). In the absence of ribosomes they appear smooth and are called smooth endoplasmic
reticulum (SER). RER is frequently observed in the cells actively involved in protein synthesis and
secretion. They are extensive and continuous with the outer membrane of the nucleus. The smooth
endoplasmic reticulum is the major site for synthesis of lipid. In animal cells lipid-like steroidal
hormones are synthesized in
SER.
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Golgi apparatus:
They consist of many flat, disc-shaped sacs or cisternae of 0.5µm to 1.0µm diameter. These are
stacked parallel to each other. The golgi apparatus principally performs the function of packaging
materials, to be delivered either to the intra-cellular targets or secreted outside the cell. Materials to
be packaged in the form of vesicles from the ER fuse with the cis face of the golgi apparatus and
move towards the maturing face. This explains, why the golgi apparatus remains in close association
with the endoplasmic reticulum. A number of proteins synthesised by ribosomes on the endoplasmic
reticulum are modified in the cisternae of the golgi apparatus before they are released from its trans
face. Golgi apparatus is the important site of formation of glycoproteins and glycolipids.
Lysosomes:
These are membrane bound vesicular structures formed by the process of packaging in the golgi
apparatus. The isolated lysosomal vesicles have been found to be very rich in almost all types of
hydrolytic enzymes (hydrolases – lipases, proteases, carbohydrases) optimally active at the acidic
pH. These enzymes are capable of digesting carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids.
Vacuoles:
The vacuole is the membrane-bound space found in the cytoplasm. It contains water, sap, excretory
product and other materials not useful for the cell. The vacuole is bound by a single membrane
called tonoplast. In plant cells the vacuoles can occupy up to 90 per cent of the volume of the cell.
In plants, the tonoplast facilitates the transport of a number of ions and other materials against
concentration gradients into the vacuole, hence their concentration is significantly higher in the
vacuole than in the cytoplasm.
Mitochondria
Each mitochondrion is a double membrane-bound structure with the outer membrane and the inner
membrane dividing its lumen distinctly into two aqueous compartments, i.e., the outer compartment
and the inner compartment. The inner compartment is filled with a dense homogeneous substance
called the matrix. The outer membrane forms the continuous limiting boundary of the organelle.
The inner membrane forms a number of infoldings called the cristae (sing.: crista) towards the
matrix. The cristae increase the surface area. The two membranes have their own specific enzymes
associated with the mitochondrial function. Mitochondria are the sites of aerobic respiration. They
produce cellular energy in the form of ATP, hence they are called ‘power houses’ of the cell. The
matrix also possesses single circular DNA molecule, a few RNA molecules, ribosomes (70S) and
the components required for the synthesis of proteins. The mitochondria divide by fission.
Chloroplasts:
The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments which are responsible for trapping
light energy essential for photosynthesis.Tthe chloroplasts are also double membrane bound. The
space limited by the inner membrane of the chloroplast is called the stroma. A number of organised
flattened membranous sacs called the thylakoids, are present in the stroma. Thylakoids are arranged
in stacks like the piles of coins called grana (singular: granum) or the intergranal thylakoids. In
addition, there are flat membranous tubules called the stroma lamellae connecting the thylakoids of
the different grana. The membrane of the thylakoids enclose a space called a lumen. The stroma of
the chloroplast contains enzymes required for the synthesis of carbohydrates and proteins.
Chlorophyll pigments are present in the thylakoids.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are the granular structures composed of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and proteins and are
not surrounded by any membrane. The eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S while the prokaryotic
ribosomes are 70S. Each ribosome has two subunits, larger and smaller subunits. The two subunits
of 80S ribosomes are 60S and 40S while that of 70S ribosomes are 50S and 30S. Here ‘S’
(Svedberg’s Unit) stands for the sedimentation coefficient; it is indirectly a measure of density and
size. Both 70S and 80S ribosomes are composed of two subunits.
Cytoskeleton:
An elaborate network of filamentous proteinaceous structures consisting of microtubules,
microfilaments and intermediate filaments present in the cytoplasm is collectively referred to as the
cytoskeleton. The cytoskeleton in a cell are involved in many functions such as mechanical support,
motility, maintenance of the shape of the cell.
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Cilia and Flagella :

Cilia (sing.: cilium) and flagella (sing.: flagellum) are hair-like outgrowths of the cell membrane.
Cilia are small structures which work like oars, causing the movement of either the cell or the
surrounding fluid. Flagella are comparatively longer and responsible for cell movement. The
prokaryotic bacteria also possess flagella but these are structurally different from that of the
eukaryotic flagella.
Centrosome and Centrioles:
Centrosome is an organelle usually containing two cylindrical structures called centrioles. The
centrioles form the basal body of cilia or flagella, and spindle fibres that give rise to spindle
apparatus during cell division in animal cells.

CLASSIFICATION OF CELLS:- The cells are basically of two types based on their
organisation, a) prokaryotic cells and b) eukaryotic cells.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Sl.No Prokaryotic cell Eukaryotic cell
1. A true nucleus is absent. A true nucleus is present.
2. Nuclear membrane is absent. Nuclear membrane is present.
3. Nucleolus is absent. Nucleolus is present.
4. Chromosome is single, circular. Chromosomes are many and linear.
5. Chromosome present freely in the Chromosomes are enclosed inside the
cytoplasm. nuclear membrane.
6. Histone proteins are absent in the Chromosomes are well organised with
organisation of chromosome. histone protein.
7. In photosynthetic cells, chlorophyll In photosynthetic cells, the chlorophyll
pigments are present in cell membrane. pigments are present in the plastids –
chloroplasts.
8. Ribosomes are 70s type. Ribosomes are 80s type.
9. Cell organelles are absent. Cell organelles are present.
10. Amoeboid movement of cytoplasm Amoeboid movement of cytoplasm is
absent. present.
11. Flagella if present do not have typical 9 Flagella shows typical 9+2 arrangement.
+2 arrangement.
12. Enzymes (for respiration) present in Enzymes necessary for respiration are
plasma membrane. present in mitochondria.
13. Cell division by the process of amitosis Cell division by the process of mitosis and
i,e., mitosis and meiosis is absent. meiosis.
14. m RNA will not have 5’ methyl cap m RNA having 5’ methyl cap and 3’ poly
and 3’ poly A tail. A tail.
15. Transcription and translation are Transcription and translation are not
combined process both takes place in combined process. Transcription takes
cytoplasm. place in nucleus, while translation occurs
in cytoplasm.
16. In genes non-coding regions are absent. In genes non-coding regions are present.
17. After transcription there is no post After transcription, post transcriptional
transcriptional modification in mRNA modifications occur in mRNA.
18. Poly cistronic mRNA. Mono cistronic mRNA.
19. The cell wall contains amino sugars When cell wall present, it does not contain
and muramic acid. amino sugar and muramic acid.
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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

Sl. Characteristics Plant Cell Animal Cell
No
1 Cell size Large Smaller than plant cells.
2 Cell shape Rectangular Circular
A single centrally located There are a number of small vacuoles
vacuole. It takes up 90% of spread throughout the cytoplasm that
3 Vacuoles the cell volume. It stores stores water, ions and waste materials.
water and maintain turgidity
of the cell.
A rigid cell wall (made of Cell wall is absent. This allows
cellulose) is present around a animal cells to adopt different shapes.
4 Cell wall plant cell that helps it
maintain its shape.
Present.Chlorophyll pigment Absent. As animals lack this pigment,
(chloroplasts) traps sun’s they cannot make their own food.
5 Chloroplasts energy which is utilized by
plants to make food through
photosynthesis.
Cell division takes place by Animal cells divide with the formation
the formation of cell plate in of cleavage furrow. This is formed as
6 Cell division the center of the dividing cell. the chromosomes move to the ends of
This becomes the cell wall the microtubule spindle formed by the
between the two centrioles.
daughter cells.
Present only in lower forms. Present. Centrioles help in division of
Plants instead have animal cells by creating microtubule
7 Centrioles microtubule organizing spindles that pull
centers (MTOC) that chromosomes to opposite ends for cell
produce microtubules. division occur.
8 Centrosome Absent. Instead two small Present.
clear areas called polar caps
are present.

Absent. Present. Lysosomes are vesicles that

9 Lysosomes contain enzymes that destroy dead
cell organelles and other cell debris.
In place of golgi bodies, its Complex golgi bodies are present
10 Golgi Bodies sub-units known as close to the nucleus.
dictyosomes are present.
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Cell Differentiation: Basics, significance and application of cell differentiation in growth and
development of organism.
Differentiation is the biological process whereby an unspecialized cell acquires the properties of a
specialized cell. It defines the specific structures and functions of a cell.
 The fertilized egg or zygote has the ability to give rise to every type of cell in the adult body
and hence referred as “totipotent”.
 The zygotic cells are regarded to be totipotent as they hold the ability to generate whole
organism.
 Differential gene expression for differentiation process for protein products through genomes
of cells will arise throughout the life cycle.
 The cells at blastula stage are then referred to as ‘pluripotent’ as they can generate all the
cell types except trophoectoderm.
 Further on division pluripotent cells become more restricted and give rise to multipotent stem
cells like hematopoietic stem cell that can generate different blood cells.
 Differentiation is irreversible in certain types of cells like mammalian RBC. It loses during
development and become specialized for oxygen uptake and transportation.
 Genomic equivalence:- No information is lost from the nucleus of cells as they pass through
the early stages of embryonic developments.
 Zygote undergoes development which differentiates three primary cell layers namely
ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. The development of the dorsal nerve cord is called
“neurulation”.
 The neural tube later differentiates into spinal cord and brain. The dorsal lip of the
blastopore induces the formation of a notochord.
 The mesoderm in the head region does not separate into discrete somites but remains
connected as somitomeres and form the striated muscles of the face, jaws, and throat.
 Some body organs, including the kidneys, adrenal glands and gonads develop within another
strip of mesoderm that runs alongside the somites.
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STEM CELLS & THEIR APPLICATION:

Stem cells are unspecialized or undifferentiated cells that have the potential to develop
into any kind of cells types that make the human body. Stem cells are central to development,
repair adult tissue and cancer proceses in an organism. Stem cells with unique property have the
potential to generate replacements for various body tissues and organs like heart, pancreas and
nervous system. Research and clinical applications of cultured stem cells:-This includes the type
of stem cells used, their characteristics and the use of stem cells in studying biological processes,
drug developmental and stem cell therapy heart disease, diabetes and Parkinson’s diseases.
Types of Stem Cells:- Various types of stem cells are listed below.
a) Embryonic Stem Cell b) Adult Stem Cells c) Foetal Stem Cells

d) Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells e) Induced Pluripotent f) Umbllical Cord

(iPSCs) Stem Cells Blood Cells

 Embryonic Stem Cells:-Development begins when the zygote undergoes several

successive cell divisions, results in doubling the cell number and a reduction in the cell
size. 32-64 cell stage each cell called “blastomere”. Blastomere stick together to form a
tight ball of cells called ‘morula’. Each of these cells totipotential the next stage is
“blastocyst” consists of a hollow ball of cell.
 The adult stem cells are multipotent that have been able to manipulate effectively in the
bone marrow past 30 years. These are largely tissue-specific in their location.
 Foetal Stem Cells:- The embryo is referred to as a foetus after the eighth week of
development. The foetus contains stem cells which are pluripotent and develop into the
different body tissues in the foetus.
 Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are a powerful method for creating patient and
disease-specific cell lines for research. iPSCs are valuable aid in the study of disease
development and drug treatment.
 Blood from the umblical card contains stem cells that are genetically identical to the
new born. Like stem cells in adult bone marrow, cord blood stem cells are tissue- specific.
Hence cord blood is often banked, for future use in stem cell therapy.

Stem Cells Applications in Bioitechnology:-

i) Treatment promising:- Modern medical research believe that stem cell therapy has
potential to change the treatment of diseases including cancer, Parkinson’ disease, spinal
cord injuries, multiple sclerosis, muscle damage and other impairments and conditions.
ii) Toxicity screening:- Stem cell-derived heaptocyte-like cells are capable of detecting
toxicity early in the drug development process. This technology put check for market
withdrawal and focuses on different screening assays.
iii) Cancer:- Researchers at Harward Medical School transplanted human neural stem cells
into the brain of rodents that received intracranial tumours. Gene therapy promised the
successful treatment of intracranial tumours.
iv) Haematopoiesis (blood cell formation):- Hematopoietic Stem Cells (HSCs) are used as
precursor material in ex-vivo technique to generate red blood cells (RBC). The entire
method that mimics the condition of natural bone marrow where RBC growth registered.
v) Diabetes:- Human embryonic stem cells may be grown in cell culture which stimulated
to form insulin producing beta cells. Then these cells can be transplanted into diabetic
patient.
vi) Wound healing:- Stem cells can be used to stimulate the growth of human tissues. So
the disorganized collagen structure, loss of hair, follicles and wounded foetal tissue,
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wounded tissue is replaced through the activity of stem cells.

vii) Stem cells can be used to study development:- Stem cells help in understanding a
complex organism development from a fertilised egg. It also helps in identifying signal
and mechanism that determine a stem cell to differentiate into a specialized cell type in
controlled normal development process.
Ethical Disputes / Issues:- The source of human embryo stem cells is usually procured fromthe
following methods:
 Embryonic tissue from abortion.
 Left over IVF donated by couple who suffer from infertility.
 IVF method make embryo with the donated gamete.
 Cloning embryos by the technology required body cell transplantation.

BIOMOLECULES: Properties and Functions

1. CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are macronutrients and are one of the three main ways by which our body obtains
its energy. They are called carbohydrates as they comprise carbon, hydrogen and oxygen at their
chemical level. Carbohydrates are essential nutrients which include sugars, fibers and starches. They
are found in grains, vegetables, fruits and in milk and other dairy products. They are the basic food
groups which play an important role in a healthy life.
The food containing carbohydrates are converted into glucose or blood sugar during the process of
digestion by the digestive system.
Our body utilizes this sugar as a source of energy for the cells, organs and tissues. The extra amount
of energy or sugar is stored in our muscles and liver for further requirement. The general formula of
this class of organic compounds is Cn(H2O)n.

Classification of Carbohydrates
The carbohydrates are further classified into simple and complex which is mainly based on their
chemical structure and degree of polymerization.

1. Simple Carbohydrates (Monosaccharides, Disaccharides and Oligosaccharides)

Simple carbohydrates have one or two sugar molecules. In simple carbohydrates, molecules are
digested and converted quickly resulting in a rise in the blood sugar levels. They are abundantly found
in milk products, beer, fruits, refined sugars, candies, etc. These carbohydrates are called empty
calories, as they do not possess fiber, vitamins and minerals.
Plants, being producers, synthesize glucose (C6H12O6) using raw materials like carbon dioxide and
water in the presence of sunlight. This process of photosynthesis converts solar energy to chemical
energy. Consumers feed on plants and harvest energy stored in the bonds of the compounds
synthesized by plants.
1. Monosaccharides
Glucose is an example of a carbohydrate monomer or monosaccharide. Other examples of
monosaccharides include mannose, galactose, fructose, etc. The structural organization of
monosaccharides is as follows:
2. Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides combine to form a disaccharide. Examples of carbohydrates having two
monomers include- Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose, etc.
3. Oligosaccharides
Carbohydrates formed by the condensation of 2-9 monomers are called oligosaccharides. By this
convention, trioses, pentoses, hexoses are all oligosaccharides.
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2. Complex Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)

Complex carbohydrates have two or more sugar molecules, hence they are referred to as starchy
foods. In complex carbohydrates, molecules are digested and converted slowly compared to simple
carbohydrates. They are abundantly found in lentils, beans, peanuts, potatoes, peas, corn, whole-grain
bread, cereals, etc.
Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates formed by the polymerization of a large number of
monomers. Examples of polysaccharides include starch, glycogen, cellulose, etc. which exhibit
extensive branching and are homopolymers – made up of only glucose units.

Functions of Carbohydrates
 The main function of carbohydrates is to provide energy and food to the body and to the
nervous system.
 Carbohydrates are known as one of the basic components of food, including sugars, starch,
and fibre which are abundantly found in grains, fruits and milk products.
 Carbohydrates are also known as starch, simple sugars, complex carbohydrates and so on.
 It is also involved in fat metabolism and prevents ketosis.
 Inhibits the breakdown of proteins for energy as they are the primary source of energy.
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 An enzyme by name amylase assists in the breakdown of starch into glucose, finally to
produce energy for metabolism.

2. PROTEINS
Proteins are another class of indispensable biomolecules, which make up around 50per cent of
the cellular dry weight. Proteins are polymers of amino acids arranged in the form of polypeptide
chains. The structure of proteins is classified as primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary in some
cases. These structures are based on the level of complexity of the folding of a polypeptide chain.
Proteins play both structural and dynamic roles.

Proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen atoms. Certain amino acids also
have sulphur atoms, phosphorous or other trace elements such as iron or copper. Amino acids have
an amino (-NH2) group, a carboxyl (-COOH) group, and a group of atoms called an –R group (R
stands for radical). The amino acids differ depending on the nature of –R group. Examples are
Alanine, valine, glutamic acid, tryptophan, tyrosine and histidine.

The removal of water molecules links amino acids to form a protein. The process is called
dehydration synthesis. The links forged between the amino acids are ‘peptide bonds’ and small
protein are often called “peptides”. Proteins are also found as supporting and strengthening
materials in tissue outside of cells. Bone, cartilage, tendons and ligaments are all composed of
protein.
Functions of Proteins:

1. Enzymes: Enzymes mostly carry out all numerous chemical reactions which take place
within a cell. They also help in regenerating and creating DNA molecules and carry out
complex processes.
2. Hormones: Proteins are involved in the creation of various types of hormones which help
in balancing the components of the body. For example hormones like insulin, which helps in
regulating blood sugar and secretin. It is also involved in the digestion process and
formation of digestive juices.
3. Antibody: Antibody also known as an immunoglobulin. It is a type of protein which is
majorly used by the immune system to repair and heal the body from foreign bacteria. They
often work together with other immune cells to identify and separate the antigens from
increasing until the white blood cells destroy them completely.
4. Energy: Proteins are the major source of energy that helps in the movements of our body. It
is important to have the right amount of protein in order to convert it into energy. Protein,
when consumed in excess amounts, gets used to create fat and becomes part of the fat cells.

3. NUCLEIC ACIDS

Nucleic acids refer to the genetic material found in the cell that carries all the hereditary
information from parents to progeny. There are two types of nucleic acids namely, deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). The main function of nucleic acid is the transfer of genetic
information and synthesis of proteins by processes known as translation and transcription. The
monomeric unit of nucleic acids is known as nucleotide and is composed of a nitrogenous base,
pentose sugar, and phosphate. The nucleotides are linked by a 3’ and 5’ phosphodiester bond. The
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nitrogen base attached to the pentose sugar makes the nucleotide distinct. There are 4 major
nitrogenous bases found in DNA: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine. In RNA, thymine is
replaced by uracil. The DNA structure is described as a double-helix or double-helical structure
which is formed by hydrogen bonding between the bases of two antiparallel polynucleotide chains.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid) RNA (Ribonucleic acid)

Definition

It is a long polymer. It has a deoxyribose and Is a polymer with a ribose and phosphate
phosphate backbone having four distinct bases: backbone with four varying bases: uracil,
thymine, adenine, cytosine and guanine. cytosine, adenine and guanine.

Location

It is located in the nucleus of a cell and in the It is found in the cytoplasm, nucleus and in the
mitochondria. ribosome.

Sugar portion

It has 2-deoxyribose. It has Ribose.

Function

The function of DNA is the transmission of genetic RNA is critical for the transmission of the
information. It acts as a medium for long-term genetic code that is necessary for protein
storage. creation from the nucleus to the ribosome.

Predominant Structure

DNA is a double-stranded molecule that has a long RNA is a single-stranded molecule which has a
chain of nucleotides. shorter chain of nucleotides.

Propagation

RNA does not replicate on its own. It is

DNA replicates on its own, it is self-replicating.
synthesized from DNA when required.

Nitrogenous Bases and Pairing

The base pairing is as follows: GC (Guanine

The base pairing is as follows: GC (Guanine pairs
pairs with Cytosine) A-U (Adenine pairs with
with Cytosine) A-T (Adenine pairs with Thymine).
Uracil).
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4. LIPIDS
Lipids are organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms. The ratio
of hydrogen atoms to oxygen atoms is much higher in lipids than in carbohydrates. Lipids include
steroids (combination of many hormones), waxes and fats.
A glycerol molecule contains three (-OH) groups. A fatty acid is a long chain of carbon
atoms (4-24) with carboxyl (-COOH) group at one end. The fatty acids in a fat may be all alike
or may be different. They are bound to the glycerol molecule by a process that involves the
removal of water molecule.
Glycerol + 3 fatty acids fat + 3 water molecule
Certain fatty acids have one or more double bonds in molecules are called ‘unsaturated
fats’. Other fatty acids have no double bonds in molecules are called ‘saturated fat’.
Fats stored in cells usually in the form of oil droplets called ‘globules’ because fat do not
dissolve in water. Plant store fat in seeds, animals store fats in large clear globules in the cells
of adipose tissue. Adipose tissue contains much concentrated energy. The enzyme lipase breaks
down fats into fatty acids and glycerol in the human digestive system.

Properties of Lipids
Lipids are a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils. These molecules yield high
energy and are responsible for different functions within the human body. Listed below are some
important characteristics of Lipids.

1. Lipids are oily or greasy nonpolar molecules, stored in the adipose tissue of the body.
2. Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds, mainly composed of hydrocarbon chains.
3. Lipids are energy-rich organic molecules, which provide energy for different life processes.
4. Lipids are a class of compounds characterised by their solubility in nonpolar solvents and
insolubility in water.
5. Lipids are significant in biological systems as they form a mechanical barrier dividing a cell
from the external environment known as the cell membrane

IMPORTANCE OF SPECIAL BIOMOLECULES:-

ENZYMES:-Bioenergetics is the energy required to build or break chemical bonds of the
molecules in living organisms in order for the organism to store and utilize energy for growth,
development and metabolism. Biochemical reactions are critical for survival and reproduction
of the species. Many enzymes are proteins but ribosomes are non-proteinaceous enzyme.
Enzymes are biocatalysts which increases the rate of chemical reaction without changing enzyme
structure. All types of biochemical reactions in cell require enzymes.
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Significance Of Enzymes:-
i) Catalytic power (reaction rate):- Enzymes by virtue of property to bind selectively
with substrates are able to lower the activation energy requirement. Enzymes interact
with reactant molecules forcing them to take particular orientation which facilitates
‘transition’. Enzymes are able to accelerate the reaction rate by at least 106 times when
compared with the un-catalyzed reaction.
ii) Specificity of enzymes:- Cellular oxidation or respiration occurs with the help of
specific enzyme. Enzymes help in the polymerization of several molecules. During
replication, DNA molecule is affected by specific enzyme. Protease breaks down protein
into amino acids. Lipase breaks down fats into fatty acids.
iii) Thermodynamics of enzymatic reactions:- The products can also utilize the catalytic
power of the enzyme to surmount the activation barrier and form reactants. Thus enzyme
catalyzed reaction rate enhancement is valid for both directions in a reversible reaction.
Finally enzymes cannot alter the thermodynamically dictated feasibility and final
equilibrium established in biochemical reactions.
Classification Of Enzymes (with one example each):-
Most of the enzymes are named after their substrate they act on and have their names
ending with “ase”. For e.g., ‘urease’ catalyzes ‘the hydrolysis of urea’. Some enzymes have
their names based on either their broad functionality or the source of enzyme.
For e.g., ‘proteases’, ‘papain’ and ‘bromelia’ are named after their sour papaya (Carica papaya)
and pineapple (Bromeliaceae family) respectively. To prevent any ambiguities, the Enzyme
Commission (IUBMB- International Union of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) has
adopted a classification system. In this system, each enzyme is provided with a systematic
name a code number called Enzyme Commission number. Enzymes are divided into 6 classes.
The code numbers prefixed by EC, which contain four elements separated by points with the
following meaning:
The first number shows to which of the six main classes the enzyme belongs.
The second figure indicates sub-class
The third figure gives the sub-sub-classes
The fourth figure is the serial number of the enzyme in its sub-sub-class.
EC 1.1.1.1 refers to the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase (common name) Its
systematic name is alcohol: NAD+ oxidoreductase
It catlayses the oxidation of alcohol to an aldehyde or ketone.
Enzymes are also classified on the basis of the type of reactions that they catalyze:
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EC First digit Type of reaction

EC1 Oxidoreductase
EC2 Transferases
EC3 Hydrolases
EC4 Lyases
EC5 Ligases
EC6 Isomerases

1. Oxidoreductases:- Enzymes involved in oxidation-reduction reaction are called

‘Oxidoreductases’. Eg. Dehydrogenases, Oxidases, Oxygenases and peroxidises.

NAD+ NADH + H+
CH3-CH2-OH CH3-HC=O
Ethanol ADH acetaldehyde

2. Transferases:- The enzyme catalyse the transfer of a group between substrates is called
‘Transferases’. E.g transfer of acyl, alkyl, amino, phosphate and glycosyl.

3. Hydrolases:- The enzyme catalyse reactions that involve the process of hydrolysis.
(break single bong by adding water) is called ‘Hydrolases’. Some Hydrolases function
as digestive enzymes.

CH3-O-CO-R1 CH3-O-CO-R1
| lipase |
CH-O-CO-R2 CH-O-CO-R2 + R3-COOH
| |
CH2-O-CO-R3 CH2-OH
H—OH (water) Fatty acid
Triacylglycerol Diacyl glycerol
4. Lyases:- Enzymes that catalyze the breaking of chemical bond through means not
involving hydrolysis and forms a double bond or adds a group to a double bond is called
‘Lyases’. E.g., Fumerase.
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5. Isomerases:- Enzymes involved in all kinds of isomerisation reactions are called

‘Isomerases’. E.g., Triisopphosphate isomerase and phosphoglucose isomerase

6. Ligases:- Enzymes catalyzing the joining of two molecules with hydrolysis of ATP are
called ‘Ligases’. E.g., Pyruvate carboxylase

Properties Of Enzymes:- The most important properties of enzymes are listed as

Catalytic Property, Specificity, Reversibility, Sensitivity to heat and temperature and pH.
There is a level of specificity in the enzymes which are active in very small quantities.
There are different types of specificity in enzymes

Bond Group Substrate Optical Co-factor Geometric

specificity specificity specificity specificity specificity specificity
Peptidase is Pepsin Arginine L aminoacid The enzymes
a specific hydrolyses only works oxidase are not only Alcohol
bond or peptide on arginine; works only specific to dehydrogenase
peptide, bonds Carbonic for L-amino the substrate can convert
Lipase is between anhydrase acids, but also methanol and
related to the groups only works specific to its n-propanol
ester bond in of on carbonic not for D- co-factors. into
lipid. Amino acid. amino acids. aldehydes.
acids.

Reversibility:- Most of the enzymes in catalysed reactions are reversed. Reversal of response
depends on cell requirements. In some cases, there are different enzymes for reaction and
regression. Some enzyme-induced reactions are irreversible.
Sensitivity to heat and temperature and pH:- Enzymes are thermo labile. For utmost operation
the optimal temperature (20 -30°C) is considered as right temperature. At very high temperature
(>45°C) enzymes are denatured. At very low temperature enzymes would be inactive for
preserving food and vegetables in refrigerator. Pepsin, is active in the stomach, at the optimum
pH is 2. At different pH levels, the protonation and deprotonation of ionisable amino acids
affects the intermolecular interactions within the protein and its conformation will change.
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Applications Of Enzymes:-
Many scientists discovered enzymes and some of their functions are known. Many
enzymes have been using in industries. They are listed below.
1) Cellulase:- It hydrolyses cellulose. Cellulose is a polysaccharide found in cell walls of
plants, trees. It is the raw material used to make paper, cotton, and other textiles.
2) Hemicellulase:- This enzyme hydrolyses another plant cell wall polysaccharide called
hemicelluloses.
3) Xylanase:- This is an important industrial enzyme that breaks down Xylan, a leniar
polysaccharide present in the cell walls of plants. It finds application in the pulp and
paper industry.
4) Amylase:- This enzyme hydrolyzes starch to sugars and finds wide application in food
industry, especially in brewing industry.
5) Protese:- As explained earlier, this is a common name used to denote enzymes that
hydrolyze peptide bonds. It is widely used in food, brewing, detergent and leather
industries.
6) Lipases:- These classes of enzymes break down triglycerides to glycerol and fatty acids
and are used in food industries.

VITAMINS:
Vitamins are essential organic molecules to an organism in small quantities to perform
specific biological functions. The deficiency of vitamins can cause diseases. Most ofthe vitamins
can synthesise from plants. The bacteria of human gut can produce some vitamins. Different
vitamins belong to various chemical classes and it is difficult to define them on the basis of
structure. The term vitamin does not include the three other groups of essential nutrients:
minerals, essential fatty acids and essential amino acids.

The term “vitamine” was coined from the word vita + amine since the earlier identified
compounds had amino groups. Later work showed that most of them did not contain amino
groups. So the letter ‘e’ was dropped and the term vitamin is now a days.
Vitamins are classified into two groups depending upon their solubility in water or fat.

a) Fat soluble vitamins:- Vitamins which are soluble in fat and oils but insoluble in water
are kept in this group. These are vitamins A, D, E, K. They are stored in liver and adipose
tissues.
b) Water soluble vitamins:- B group vitamins and vitamin C are soluble in water so they
are grouped together. Water soluble vitamins must be supplied regularly in diet because
they are readily excreted in urine and cannot be stored (except vitaminB12).
Some important vitamins, their sources and diseases caused by their deficiency are listed below.

Significance Of Vitmins:-
 Vitamin boosts immune system.
 Vitamins support normal growth and development.
 Vitamins help cells, tissues and organs do their job perfectly.
 Vitamins play a major role in repair and wound healing process.
 Vitamins maintain healthy bones and tissues and support biological functions.
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Sl. Name of the Sources Deficiency

No. vitamin diseases
1. Vitamin A Fish liver oil, carrots, Xerophthalmia (hardening of
butter and milk cornea of eye)
2. Vitamin B1 Yeast, milk, green Beri beri (loss of appetite,
(Thiamine) vegetables and cereals retarded growth)
3. Vitamin B2 Milk, egg white, liver, Chelosis (fissuring at corners
(Riboflavin) kidney of mouth and lips), digestive
disorders and burning
sensation of skin.
4. Vitamin B3 Fortified pacakaged food, Pellagra. (anaemia, headaches,
(Niacin) meat, red fish, tuna fish tiredness)
5. Vitamin B5 Animal sourced foods, Irritability, fatigue and apathy.
(Pantothenic acid) dairy foods and eggs. Numbness of hands and feet.
6. Vitamin B6 Yeast, milk egg yolk, Convulsions
(Pyridoxine) cereals and grams
7. Vitamin B9 Wheat flour, Maize flour Glossitis, diarrhea, depression,
(Folic acid) and rice, sunflower seeds, confusion, anaemia, gray hair,
Avocados, peanut butter foetal brain defects . swollen
tongue.
8. Vitamin B12 Meat, fish, egg and curd Pernicious anaemia (RBC
(Cyanacobalamin) deficient in haemoglobin)
9. Vitamin C Citrus fruits, amla and Scurvy (bleeding gums)
(Ascorbic acid) green leafy vegetables.
10. Vitamin D Exposure to sunlight, fish Rickets (bone deformities in
(Calciferol) and egg yolk. children)
Osteomalacia (soft bones and
joint pain in adults)
11. Vitamin E Vegetable oils like wheat Increased fragility of RBCs
(Tocoferol) germ oil, sunflower oil and muscular weakness.
etc.,
12. Vitamin K Green leafy vegetables. Increased blood clotting time.
(Phylloquinones)

HORMONES:-
Hormones are chemical substances that act like messenger molecules in the body. After being
made in one part of the body they travel to other parts of the body where they help, control how
cells and organs do their work. Hormones are produced by endocrine glands. Based on the
chemical structure, hormones are classified into four types: peptides, steroid hormones, amino
acid derivatives and fatty acid derivatives.
Significance Of Hormones:-
 Hormones like oxytocin and dopamine can drive feeling of happiness, contentment or
excitement.
 Hormones affect daily functions (critical milestones) everything from blood sugar to
blood pressure, growth and fertility, sex drive, metabolism and even sleep.
 Hormones have vast impact on mood and anxiety. Estrogen hormone is antidepressant
chemical in brain. If the thyroid is too high or too low he/she can have depression or
anxiety.
 Excessive testosterone may trigger aggression. Dips in testosterone may correlate with
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low mood.
 Hormones control sleep-wake cycle in human beings.
S.No Hormone Source Example
1. Steroid hormone Derived from cholesterol which belongs to a Sex hormones
chemical compounds known as ‘steroids’. Adrenal cortex hormone
2. Amine hormone Hormones derived from the modification of Melatonin hormone id
amino acids are referred as ‘amine derived from tryptophan.
hormones’. These are synthesised from Tyrosine derivatives
tryptophan or tyrosine amino acids. called as thyroid
hormones.
3. Peptide hormones These hormones are made up of few leniar Oxytocine
chained amino acids. Vasopressin
4. Protein hormones These hormones are building up from large Insulin, glucagon,
number of amino acid residues. somatotropins.
5. Eicosanoid Made of small fatty acid derivatives with a Prostaglandins.
hormones variety of arachidomic acid.