Sessional -2 MWT

RFID

RFID stands for Radio Frequency Identification. It is a technology that uses electromagnetic
fields to automatically identify and track tags attached to objects. Unlike barcodes that require
a direct line of sight, RFID tags can be read remotely, which makes them incredibly useful in
scenarios where manual scanning would be ine icient or impractical.

There are many kinds of RFID, each with di erent properties, but perhaps the most fascinating
aspect of RFID technology is that most RFID tags have neither an electric plug nor a battery.
Instead, all of the energy needed to operate them is supplied in the form of radio waves by RFID
readers. This technology is called passive RFID to distinguish it from the(less common) active
RFID in which there is a power source on the tag.

 UHF RFID ( Ultra-High Frequency RFID ).

 HF RFID (High-Frequency RFID ).

 Passive RFID.

 Active RFID.

GPS

GPS stands for Global Positioning System. It is a radio navigation system used on
land, sea, and air to determine the exact location, time and velocity irrespective of
weather conditions. The US military first used it in the year 1960.

Components of a GPS system

GPS is a system and it is made up of three parts: satellites, ground
stations, and receivers.

Following are the functionalities of each of these parts:

 Satellites act like the stars in constellations, and we know where they are
because they invariably send out signals.
  The ground stations make use of the radar to make sure the satellites are
actually where we think they are.
 A receiver is a device that you might find in your phone or in your car and it
constantly seeks for the signals from the satellites. The receiver figures out how
far away they are from some of them. Once the receiver calculates its distance
from four or more satellites, it knows exactly where you are.

What Is Trilateration?

Trilateration is defined as the process of determining the location based on the

intersections of the spheres. The distance between the satellite and the receiver is
calculated by considering a 3-D sphere such that the satellite is located at the centre
of the sphere. Using the same method, the distance for all the 3 GPS satellites from
the receiver is calculated.
Following are the parameters that are calculated after trilateration:

 Time of sunrise and the sunset

 Speed
 Distance between the GPS receiver to the destination

CIVIL Applications
Varactor Diode

A varactor diode, also known as a Varicap or volt-cap, is a type of PN junction diode primarily
utilized in the reverse-biased mode. It is a device whose capacitance varies with the variation in
the applied reverse bias potential.
What is a Tunnel Diode?

A tunnel diode is a very heavily doped p-n junction diode. In a Tunnel diode electric current
decreases as the applied voltage increases, and at high voltage, it works as an ordinary p-n
junction diode. In the Tunnel Diode, electric current is due to the "Tunneling e ect". Due to its
fast switching ability, it is used in high-frequency oscillators and amplifiers. Due to the tunneling
e ect, charge carries moves across the depletion layer at very low voltage. The circuit shown
below is the symbolic diagram of the Tunnel diode. In tunnel diode the p-terminal acts as an
anode and the n-terminal acts as a cathode.

GUNN Diode

A Gunn diode is a semiconductor device formed by only N-type material. It is also termed as
a transferred electron device. As in n-type material, electrons acts as majority carriers and
these are transferred from one valley to another.

It is a two terminal device basically made up of semiconductor material like GaAs, InP etc. As
these materials exhibit the property of producing microwave oscillations.

Gunn e ect is the basis of working of Gunn diode. It was discovered by a physicist J B Gunn in
1963.
IMPATT Diode

IMPATT (Impact Avalanche and Transit Time) diodes are essential parts of high-frequency
semiconductor applications, especially in the millimeter-wave and microwave bands. These
diodes function on the idea of avalanche breakdown and transit time e ect. In the depletion
area, the diode experiences avalanche breakdown under reverse bias, producing electron-hole
pairs. The transit time of the high-energy electrons through the depletion area is caused by the
electric field. The frequency of the resulting microwave signal is largely determined by this
transit time impact. Widely recognized for their capacity to produce continuous-wave
microwave signals, IMPATT diodes operate in the multiple gigahertz to terahertz frequency
range.

TRAPATT Diode
PIN DIODE

A PIN diode, abbreviated as a Positive-Intrinsic-Negative diode, is a semiconductor tool that

belongs to the diode family. Power electronics play an essential role in converting and
controlling electrical strength in numerous packages, ranging from electricity components and
motor drives to renewable energy systems.

A PIN diode, quick for Positive-Intrinsic-Negative diode, is a semiconductor tool that belongs to
the diode family. Unlike normal diodes, PIN diodes include three layers:

 p-type (high-quality) semiconductor layer

 Intrinsic (undoped or gently doped) semiconductor layer

 n-type (poor) semiconductor layer

The intrinsic layer performs a crucial role within the device's operation, permitting it to
characteristic as a variable resistor in reaction to an implemented voltage.

SWR
The Standing Wave Ratio (SWR) is a critical parameter in radio frequency (RF) systems,
particularly in the context of antennas and transmission lines. It is a measure of the e iciency
with which RF power is transmitted and reflected in a transmission line, providing valuable
insight into the performance of an RF system. This article will discuss the SWR formula and its
significance in RF engineering.

The SWR is calculated using the following formula:

1. SWR = (Vmax / Vmin)

Where Vmax represents the maximum voltage along the transmission line and Vmin represents the
minimum voltage. The ratio of these two values indicates the degree of mismatch between the
transmission line’s characteristic impedance and the load impedance.

RADAR

Radar stands for "Radio Detection And Ranging." It is a system that transmits microwave signals
towards an object and analyzes the echoes reflected back to determine the object's distance,
speed, and location.

Radar, which stands for Radio Detection and Ranging, is an electronic system that detects and
locates objects by using electromagnetic waves, typically in the microwave spectrum.

1. Transmission of Pulses

2. Wave Propagation and Target Interaction

3. Reception of Echoes

4. Time Delay and Distance Calculation

5. Doppler Shift and Velocity Measurement

6. Signal Processing and Target Identification

7. Advanced Modes and Applications

Microwave Systems- Radar, Terrestrial and Satellite Communication

Terrestrial System

Terrestrial radar refers to radar systems that operate from fixed, ground-based platforms.
These systems use the same basic operation principles of transmitting microwave or radio
frequency signals, then detecting and processing the echoes that bounce back from
objects. Here's a closer look at how they work and what makes them distinct:

1. Fixed Ground Platform:

Unlike airborne or spaceborne radars, terrestrial radars are installed on the ground. This
positioning means they often have to contend with challenges like ground clutter—
reflections from the terrain, buildings, and vegetation—which can complicate the detection
of intended targets. Advanced filtering and signal processing techniques are employed to
distinguish between true targets and these unwanted reflections .

2. Key Components and Operation:

A terrestrial radar system typically includes a transmitter, one or more antennas, and a
receiver. The transmitter sends out pulses or continuous waves that travel until they hit an
object. When these waves hit a target, part of the signal is scattered back. The receiver then
captures these echoes, and by measuring the time delay between the transmission and
reception—as well as any Doppler frequency shifts due to motion—the radar can calculate
the target's distance, speed, and direction. This principle is central whether the radar is
monitoring aircraft near a runway or tracking vehicles on a roadway .

3. Advanced Techniques – Interferometry and Synthetic Aperture:

Many modern terrestrial radar systems incorporate techniques such as interferometry and
synthetic aperture radar (SAR). For example, Ground-Based Synthetic Aperture Radar
(GBSAR) uses the movement of either the radar system or the target relative to multiple
phase centers to generate high-resolution images of a scene or monitor minute
displacements in structures. Interferometric methods compare the phase of waves
received over separate passes or from multiple antennas, allowing for precise
measurements of ground deformations such as subsidence or structural shifts—critical in
applications like infrastructure monitoring or landslide detection .

4. Diverse Applications:

Terrestrial radars are widely used in numerous fields. In air tra ic control, they help
monitor aircraft and ensure safe flight paths. In law enforcement and tra ic management,
ground-based radars are used for speed detection and vehicle tracking. Furthermore, in
fields like meteorology and environmental monitoring, they provide essential data on
weather patterns and geological changes. These diverse applications highlight the versatility
and critical importance of terrestrial radar systems in both civil and military domains .

Satellite Communication

Satellite communication is a method of transmitting information over long distances by

relaying radio signals through an orbiting artificial satellite. In its simplest form, it involves
three key components: the uplink from a ground station to the satellite, the satellite’s
onboard transponder that processes the signal, and the downlink that delivers the signal to
another ground station.