, •

J
I
1
INDEX
J
Ex.No Date Name of the experiment Date of Sign
submission l
1
RES 1.r,,v\,'f cF wl~E.J y
2 Dc,c-fZM IN.A "T ,<:)
/\'\ t:= ,c R
-
N C)~ et: II J""TAl'IICE
B~U)G.S::-
~~
/
3 IU: S 1J'1 ANC. E- IN .fERfe-1"
- ME T'E~ BRIDGiE
4
Fl'1\u~£ of= McP..\T
5 D~ "TE. R..fl,,\NA, \'I) N oF- F<> c. AL ll=NG.-,H

6 ·t>E""tli:; 12-/\,\\NA'TIOt-l
-
C~N\JE'X
t, (::
l6NJ'
l'="b ~AL L-etJGiTl--l

- C..ONCAVG MtRl<oR
7 Fc-C..A1... LEN Ga,t,-\ oF A CVNLl'\VE"
L~Nf
8 f>N 1) I~ 'bE
T'1NCTI o N

ACT

I HOU H:; \-\cl.. 'h C l~C \Jq·

2 As !E,v\ Gt_,N (h "'THE C..«.lNTEN"t"S

3 I DE N ,ts 1ckT10 ...i Of C...OMfONE;N,J

t:. NV'\ "i lS l""oVC J'Yl/.\.,-1 cN 9 '-I A C..CN\JE;)(

4
<-e-NJ' A "' t) A C-c> tJ CA V (; M\RR<l R

5 l)~A\Nl/"''"1 c,~v,, l) \ACn RAM

6 L~r--J.S' C..oMaJ!'JA,10N

___ _\
I
r

.-
" ,-
,. I '
'

-
-:: \
'l '
1-
1-
I

j
I
I

i
.~ ' j
' .
-l ·--
◄
1
- L f.-·-
: ;7 . ,

--►- _:....j •
......... -- 1-
•
+
~-_____..._:_~

t -- --:..__._ .. -,- L L..J_ ... I ➔ t.;"" ~~ +---+-µ- -:;+-• 1--o. -- - -• ....... f---
=i- ' J 1-<- - :4_.....,~ t' tt:t:n +t 74 --~ - J_... r:t-- -~ ~

· ~-.t ~
L.. -

ij ·; . .: 0 .j-t':\ r~g}~' ." tx+

~ µ:::r ~ ~ · :;_- • : -
f.... ,

t-::::!::.C---
.. - --- --'-• t...... +.!..---'--+-+ I~ ~ ~-
lt:+: • I- +
i-·. ;
L.. _._

.; ~:::-ti'
: ...... - -

j
t
- •
._ - .
. , ~.:..tl
,c:i ~• 'ih:i•::-_,· i• ,;-' ·:::;:r4:-_ ·· u= L-
I ---+ ~ -+
• ·;..;..t ;_: : ... .r '• ;.;_:' - • ____,:=:. i-
ic = r --
i
=:1 r. 11. -1- tu ~ ~ ➔·;· D 1,. :-.-., h~~n:r· 1

~ ➔ . -~ J - !. t:: ·_ -:1.~-i- ;j_.__

• ·..:. ;_..-·-+
•

.:~ . t
_; -: ___?-. -~-:~--: -:~~ -
l~~ - t:___ --- ~ • -= ~ ~
• j •
.T
 I

I
I
I
C IRCUIT DIAGRAM:
I Battery

I +y~r---- ~/
Unknown resistance
· wire

V r--- _ ,
+

_ o.~,; A
Range of ammeter= O - . ~ .-?.. A Least count of amme t e r - ·· ..

Range of voltmeter = O - .. '($.~. V Least count of voltmeter = Q:~£ V

MODEL GRAPH
y
/ AB
/ R=slope=-
l
>
A
. BC

r C 8

o~ - - - - - -•
- / (Ampt'fd

To find the area of cross section of the unknown resistor using a screw gauge:
Least count (LC) = 0.0 l mm
Zero error (ZE) = - "0 Zero correction (ZC) = I-.:> X-o • I mm
Lt;ngth of wire I = \ m Le·n gth of wire2 = , m
f Pi tc;h sca le Head scale Head scale Total reading Area of
Wirc reading coincidence reading (r) = PSR + cross
HSC . ,
PSR HSR = HSC x HSR±ZC section ll' r
LC
mm mm 6 1
X l o· m

()· 4-~ S, ..b

7
Win; I 0 0 • 3f )d~ - 3
I· 68~ 40

4-~ J
Wi ,,: ;, 0 o · ..5x:h-'l I .9t l ">< It

·-
 OBSERVATIONS:

Wire Sino Voltmeter reading Ammeter reading in

inV A

Wire I l
0 . \ c· \

2
() . ,s <>
C) • \.5

3
0 • 1..5 D . '\...5

4
() . 3 () · 3

5
D • 3S 6 · 3~

Wire2 1
() .\ (:) . \ s

2
D • 4-- O· I::,

3
C · ~ C) , '3

4
C) . '3 C) , 4-.£,

'.'0
5
() · '1.. ~
C:, •
V
CALCULATIONS: ~ , -:: \ _.a. , ~ 'l. ::: I· S -IL

e' -: \~ \ . le r )c , ..,,., - b - '. it) t X '(:) - l:. ---C\... h\

\

~ ...
0
1
I · S (1 -'lb'l. "" "~') ::=- 1- -~ x1 0 - I. -"-""-
\

L----~---------- -✓/

J
-
5. Note the ammeter and voltmeter readings. Remove the key K. Shift th e rheostat
contact slightly to increase the applied voltage. Insert the key again. Note the ammeter
and voltmeter reading.
6. Take five different readings by adjusting the position of the rheostat. Reco rd your
observations in a tabular column.
7. Plot a graph between the potential difference and current and determine the resista nce
from the graph.

8. Find the thickness of the wire using screw gauge.

9. Use the formula to determine the resistivity of the given wire.

I 0. Now insert wire 2 and repeat the steps from 3 to 9.

PRECAU TIONS:

l. Ensure the circuit connections are correct and tight before inserting the key.

2. Do not pass the current for a long time as this can heat the wire and change its value.

3. A low resistance rheostat must be used.

4. Use thick copper wires as connecting wires.

SOURC ES OF ERROR:

1. The ammeter and voltmeters are not ideal and so this can affect the value of the
resistance.

2. The resistance of the connecting wires and · rheostat has not been included.

3. The resistance wire may have kinks .

4. The screw gauge may have a back lash error, and this can affect the value of the
resistivity.

RESULT: The resistivity of i) wire I

ii) wire 2

7
 S. NO Known Balancing length in cm X= R(IOO - !)
resistance I
R /c m 100 - / cm
n n
\
\ 38 · '2. 6 \· i ,. ~ \
--
2
\. 5 '+ ; . (, _;4- . 4 \· 1 1
--
3
2. . ; ~C\ . Lt 4-o · b
-
4
\·7 ~ i
l. 5~
-
4-S \· t 3
5
3 ~ 4- -~ -
'3~ . ' \ . ' 2..
-
CA LC UL AT IO NS :

\ . ')( -:: \ ( 1b O - 3 i •~J

~ t · 'L.
l · 'x = \ · S(tcie> - 4--& ·i )
lf -' . t

3 · x ::

4- . )< -:;; l- ·-5 ( rt)~ - 5 ~ • 4-,)

sci . 4-

~ f'<v2..a:r.. ~ 1· ~ 1 -t , :i i -\-, · b , -+ ,
·, "I:::,. 8 -t \ . t 1.
s
10
5. The balance point should be near the middle point so as to minim
ise error due to the
end resistance.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

1. The meter bridge wire and the wire S may not have uniform area
of cross section.

2. The resistance of the connecting wires, thick metal strips at the

ends have not been
taken into account.

3. Due to heating effect of current, there c ea change in the value of resistance in

the wires.

e unknown resistance X was found to be J:.6.7 ... n

11

------- - - -- - - - -
 S.No Known Balancing length in Un kn ow n
Re sis tance Average
resistance R n cm res ist an ce
Resistance
X = R ( I 00 - /)
I 10 0-/ I
n n
1
xi 4-- -,~ •°I 2-3 · l I· \ t
2 \ . 1'1
'"3 '11 · t. 1- 8'· b I - 1.-
l
X2 4- 4-1· f, 57 ·5 ..5 . 4\
2 5 . b {)£
~ "34- , ' 6~ -"I I
5.J> I
X1 an d X 2
ser ies
l
"3 ')__~ . ~ 7o · 1... 7 ·• 01..-
- I
2
Lt
6 · ~I
"'3 1·7 ,2. , "3 · .b - l
CA LC UL AT IO NS :

x, -::: 4-( '1- 3· \ )

~ \ • \ ~ _11....
7b - 9
x, ~ ~ \· \i -;- \ · lo
)() :::. 3(__'t-~·l:) -::: \ - ')_ ..JL
:::. l . \°\ _.Q,
2..
s, . f>

X 'l--
-::
4-C~,- ~) - S -4 -lJ L
41 , _5
X'\...o....\Jo :: S· 4-\ +- s. ~ :: S-'3~5JL
3( fi_ ;; .~ ) S · i.J L 1..
X1.- -;:..
-=
'3 Lt--. \

3 ('1 o • '1-)
X
'2-- °' . i X, "'""'t -:. 7 ·~1 ..-t b· b """' . %I.A.
4-C f,ri._ • ~") 1-

3, - 7

14

--- - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - -
- - - - - - --
..
 8. Calculat e the value ofX 1 and X 2 and hence X 1+X 2 •

9. Next connect the two resistanc es in series and obtain the null deflectio n. Take two
different sets of readings for the series combina tion and calculate the value X.

PRECA UTION S:
I. Connect ions should be tight.

2. The jockey should not be dragged and not pressed as this may change the uniform ity
of the wire.

3. The balance point should be between 25 cm and 75 cm so as to minimis e error due to

the end resistan ce.

SOURC ES OF ERROR :
1. The meter bridge wire and the unknow n resistanc e wire may not have uniform area
of cross section.

2. The resistan ce of the connect ing wires, thick metal strips at the ends have not been
,
taken into account .

3. Due to heating effect of current there can be a change in the value of the unknow n
resistanc e.

RESUL T: The law of combina tion of resistan ce in series was verified using a meter
Bridge.
The unknow n resistan ce XI = .\ :.\.\ . n and X2 = .5: ~.<=:$ rr

Jhe equivale nt resistan ce of the series combina tion by i) experim ent. X = . ~-: l\. D
ii) calculati on, X = 6:74S. D

15
- - - --- ---
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
E
+ -

i--- •
K

OBSERVATIONS:
fy
Emf of battery(E) = ---- V
S. Resistance Deflection Shunt Deflection Resistance of Figure of merit
No R <p s rp 12 galvanometer K=
E
(R+G)¢
G=~
R-S
n div n div n A/div
I
~I:>\) tf.) \3 7\· 'l.\ l . ~ Lt-4- )( l ~-s
~
2
·J+ t) 0~ 7o 7,. 0 ~ \ . 7 ~ x ,.,,- 5
2Jt ' "L
3
s ()~~ 22 7~ \\ 'l ~ . 4"\ \ . , ~ 'X i e, -5

CALCULATIONS:

6 =- Rs
R-5

1) ~ -
4LOO - ~--o

l\_bO~ --
7--) _:.---- -8-"1>
\..{ (,0 b

3> 5b 0-b 'f.. 1--o

I ~u
;$\)U t> - ~, 16
~
~

V E- ::::- 2 \J
f;...

V l~ - (!- +c\) 7/
A(dt ~

2-
l . ~ yl( ~ IO
,. . ~Ak,IJ
\ } v-._ z
c~lt t) b +- ~-+ z_ I J 9--b
2-

k
-~
2-) 1<\-- s ?(. L1;) A-Idlu
~~ e:, c:, + ~l, os__) '.2-½ =-

(1'~~
::.
,,. ')_\ ---\' 7 \· t> 8 -\- 1 o ,O,°J
;:.
2- \ '3 . 1- !'
'-"3 3

-:::
7 \ ·OG\ -:3 _Q_

- 5 - 5
\ . fltq- Xlo + \.7J ~ ,~- 5 --t-- , .7 4 X ( ~
\<. o----"i -::

3
-_;
5 • 4- \ 4- ~o Lr~ -5
-::

--3
~l"
- \ .
X '""
A/dh.Y

18

- - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - - --
 3. A high resistance should be introduced in R initially otherwise an excess current can
damage the galvanom eter.

SOURCES OF ERROR: I . The e.m .f of the battery may not be constant

2. The division in the galvanom eter may not be uni form .

3. The resistance of the connectin g wires are not taken into account .

RESULT: The resistance of the galvanome ter was found to be1 .I:.~ -~-~ n
-S
figure of merit of the galvanom eter was found to be '· J.~~ -:~.!~. A/div

\. 19
-- ----- --·--·- - - -
lZ t
-2,-
ifj

u-

20
 OBSERY ATION:
The rough focal length by di stant obj ect method J ____ L?.... cm

S.NO Ob.icct Distance ~ 11' cm lmugc Dis tnncc •v' cm

1
-
(2f - 4) \~ 1 R· s
2
(2f - 2) \i '14- .7
3
(2f) ").o 'l. \ · I 5
4
- ---
(2f + 2J 1-'L \
5
(2f + 4) 1.4 \

~.tQ 1,
( - ~(, c)
'L(\o } - L'° -:: \~ t.~

'1.(1~ ) - 1. -- 1l) c:. V'-\

'2- (_\o) -:. 'l. c:, C"""

2( Io) + '1. :: ').'L e ~

ri_(l<oJ+4 -::: 1-4<: .~

22

-- - ----- - ---
-
2. Ensure the principal axis is parallel to th e optic bench .

3. Take as many reading as possible to minimi se error in determinin g the focal length.

4. Note the reading from the centre of the lens.

SOURCE OF ERROR:
1. Due to spherical shape, a perfectly sharp image cannot be obtained .

2. Due to chromatic aberration in lens, images are coloured.

3.The thickness of the lens is not taken into consideration.

RESULT: The focal length of the convex lens by

i) distant object method .\ ~ ... cm.

· ·)
11 grap h.tea l meth od Io .• 3, cm.
.....

23
RAY DIAGRAM:

PB = u, Object distance
PB' = v, Image distance

AB - Object, A'B'- Image, P- Pole, f- focus ,

C- centre of curvature.

OBSERVATION
The rough focal length of the given concave mirror is ..Z..$.: .~ ... cm .

Image UV
S. No Object Focal length F = - -
distance distance u+v
'u' in cm 'v' in cm mcm
I
4(, _55 ()_5. {) Lt
(2f - 4)

2
4- ~ .5o. _s '1-4 · b
(2f - 2)

3
£0 lr- 6\ 1-i;-.7
(2f)

4 :
S1.. S
(2f +2)
l\-7 · _f)__ 4- . t

(2f +4)
S4- 4-£ · s 2 4- 1 /

24
~-
It. ,ll, ,I

CALCULATIONS:
l,L \J'
r= ~

~-\- \t

l\-b X 5 _~ Lr (, ~ .6° S -;::: I)_ s . <:I 4- c.. Y--\.

,-
I \ . F ,;:::

Lt(,--+ s ~
\ C) \

4~ x .So ·S 4- ~ XS~ ._s ,. 2 Lt· b ( YI--\

'l . F ~ ::
l\-! -t .So•..5 C\ ~ . s
So X 4-'1 :::- ')... L\- • 7 C..'r-A.
3· f- -::: SD X 4--"\ :::

q o -t ~ 9~

4-. F ~ S 'L x 4-1 -S -=

52 )(4- 1 -5 :=
fl-Lt.~ c.""'
5 1 -+4'1 . s '\ °I S 0

S4x4 -.5·£ 'L.4- •, C h--_

5. ~ ~ ~Lt- X 9-.b ·S :::-
:::

5 4- -+-4" .f; • S °l°I . s

r -: . 1 S · a 4- -r '1.. 4-· t + 'l- 4-- •7 -+ 2. 4- . ~ -t 1.- Lt .7

26
-, .- - - - - -
I

4. Note the reading from th e

centre of the mirror .
\

SOURCE OF ERROR: I
1. Due to spherical shape a pe
rfectly sharp image cannot be \
obtained.
2.The formula is applicable to
paraxial rays only .

RESULT: The focal length of

the given concave mirror was found to be
\

') by d.1stant ob.1ect m h d 2-5

1
-4.- cm.
et o .. ; ...

ii) by UV method i_4- . ! .h..~ .. cm.

RAY DIAGRAM:

l\

OBSERVATIONS:
DETERMlNATlON OF THE FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS:
Focal length of convex lens ( f 1 ) = \1o"~ff)
S.No Distance between Distance between Focal length
Object and lens lens and screen f=-cuv m I
u cm v cm u+v

\l:, 2.8 ·~ \o -2--,,~

2
lg 2~ .1- , o-C\\
3 2-.0 ~
'2-l ,
1o . 'L (
CALCULATIONS:
'CJ ·J)
(,l \,'
--t'\ ::.. .,..
,r
'\') '1 t-\ Cltv--
u.+v

~, - -;... IJ"
U .-\-V
-: \i('L4 -7)
) ~ -t1.l\--7
-::..
\~(1.1t ,1)
41- ·7 -:: \t) - 4"\ c...~

f, -;o- \J \} -::.
1-c (1-\•S) ::
~0(1.1 . ~)
lA. --t \J 'lo + 1.\ , 5
-::. l ~ - "'3~ c._ ~
'-t-\ •5

\ ~ . 1-4-- -t \ ~ · 4-, -+ IC) , 3i

~ 3\-0 \
·3
3

28
DETERMINATION OF THE FOCAL LENGTH OF COMBINATION:
1b , ~ [..,lo)
S. No Di stance betwee n Di stance between Focal length
O bject and lens lens an d scree n f =-
UV
cm
uc m vcm u+v
1 \{:, , a5
~ 3D 34- - .S
2
?12- 3 2-._ '3 '1. - .5 H:, - \'L
3
'3 l • 3 16 · '2'\
'#'/" 3 er
, b · \5
C A LC ULATIONS:

i -::. (_J._\J

L.l.-\- V

f , ::.. 3e> x. ?,4 -5 -:::

3o(34-·S)
'3a + "'"3 4- · ~ b 4- · 5

~ 'LC 3 'L· s)
f L-
~ '?:>'L~ 3'2. · 5'
-=
°3'2---\- 3 L· S ,4.5

f3 -:::: '34-x3\ • ~
- 3½-(""3\. '"3. 1
3£+- -t- 31 .. 3 CS · 3

l~ · c,S+ \6 · \'l. --t 1'- · 1.9 4-8 · 4-b

f o...va ::: 3
~

\
f --r t

tb · 3 3 - f 6 · IS-

30
 - -·- -- -- -- -
PR EC AU TI O NS :

I . Do no t di stu rb th e li
gh t so ur ce an d co nv ex
d ist nn cc . len s wh ile no tin g, th e
ob je ct o r im ag e

2 . Th e co nv ex le ns sh
ou ld ha v e sm all e r fo ca
l len gth th an th e co nc
av e len s.
SO UR CE O F ER R
OR:
I. Th e up rig ht s m ay no
t be ve rti ca l.

2. Th e fo rm ul a is ap pl
ic ab le fo r th in lens and
th e fo ca l le ng th . so th er e is an er ro r in th
e de te rm in ati on of

3. Pr in ci pa l ax is of th
e \en s m ay no t be para
llel to th e \ens and sc re
en .
RESULT: Th e fo ca l le _ ~g .t l
ng th of th e gi ve n co nc
av e lens wa s fo un d to be
.... ...... cm

31
 (V)
~
±
l
5
N
u, \ _D AT E:
~
--.J
0
SXPT: 8
u,

~ IM : To
_~v erse b

1---PPA
R)

IE OR '

\ diod,

' -v e
............... ..-
• ..w...
nput :
± $B....: ~
.,. ~
.._..._ ·- nega1
,in al c
-- :..
-- ......~ _____, _._
-'----'- rse bi.
fiB- -
I

t ....... >C£JJ
~- -~ ~

= .,.
,-"-
m -- :lCteri ~

iju st 1
-
-
- ~ =- oltagt
- - 1te the

-- \J \.\J) 1 bern
- -
- ,ke th
~ - ~

-
JUSt l
)lt ag,
--
-- na g
~

-
-....-
~

CA L
I con
~

2. Select a

3. Tumthi

32
I
 . - -· -- ·-

FORWARD BIAS:
Least count of volt1neter: ,... {) · 0 S v.
Least count of ammeter. o -~ tYI f).

REVERSE BIAS:
Least count of voltn1eter:
Least count of amn1eter.
Reverse bias
Forward bias
Current Voltage
Current Voltage
Sino I (mA) V (V) I (µA) V (V)

0 Q· \ 4-t>' I
1
0,t 9S 3
0
2

3
0 0 · .3 l 5g 5
0
0 . Lt- 2. 1·o 7
4

0 c). 4~ ?-(, o 4
5

6
0- ~ O·S 3 .5o 1l

7
I () .ss Lt--o~ '1'3

8
2- . ~ 0. t 4t5o \5

'7 . £' 0 ► (; ~ Lt-1 0 It

9
2-£; 'O ·l So o ., 7
10
----►----
-----~

-;,7 V
- , ..
V

~ R

J~ -0 + j
A
Rh
Rh
E K
lal E

V
- + V
l' -7 +

~R
<. R

E E
le\ (d)

Fig . A 2. l (aJ.(b).(cJ,(d.) Op en ctr cul ts

M ar k in ap pr op ri at
e co lu m n
1
Sl .N o C ir cu it co m po ne nt I
C or re ct co nn ec tio
n In co rr ec t
1 B at te ry /c el l co nn ec ti on
2 R es is to r
3 R he os ta t
4 K ev -

5 A m m et er -
6 V ol tm et er -
\< ~ c. -r 1~ 1~ t:)
c, pc,11 --r: BA--r\-ri~, - '
-. f
~-- -t-----. \ ! \L -_ _
1
-- lv \N V ,I \_ _
•
RH t.o ~-tA T

A
S.No Focal length F cm
Fl F2 Combined ;:---
\Lt .5
' ' c~ c.~ b · 'LS ----------
c"'-'
-----
\
'l. lt1 · S c..m l 5. S c: ho\ b · ~Sc"'-'
3 "' · s c.~
IC · 5 Ch-\
--------
4- - c.riec-~

46