MODULE-1

Introduction to Metal cutting: Orthogonal and oblique cutting. Classification of cutting tools: single,
and multipoint; tool signature for single point cutting tool. Mechanics of orthogonal cutting; chip
formation, shear angle and its significance, Merchant circle diagram. Numerical problems. Cutting tool
materials and applications.
Introduction to basic metal cutting machine tools: Lathe- Parts of lathe machine, accessories of
lathe Machine and various operations carried out on lathe. Kinematics of lathe. Turret and Capstan
lathe.

Orthogonal and oblique cutting.

The Process of Metal Cutting is classified into two types,
a) Orthogonal Cutting
b) Oblique Cutting

Orthogonal Cutting
 It is a type of cutting operation in which the cutting edge of the tool is straight and
perpendicular to the direction of work or tool travel.
 It is also referred as 2-D cutting operation. Only two components of cutting force acts on
the tool and both are perpendicular to each other.
 The chip does not flow to either side, but flows over the tool face.
 The drawback of this type of cutting is shorter tool life.
 This is because, for the same feed and depth of cut, the force which shears the metal acts
on a smaller area thereby reducing the life of cutting tool.

Fig. Orthogonal cutting

Oblique Cutting
 It is a type of cutting operation in which the cutting edge of the tool is straight and
inclined to the direction of work or tool travel.
 It is also referred as 3-D cutting operation. Three components of cutting force acts at the
cutting edge and they are mutually perpendicular to each other.
 The chip flow across the tool face with a side-ways movement producing a helical form of
chip.
 The chip flow across the tool face with a side-ways movement producing a helical form of
chip.
 Fig. Oblique cutting
Comparison between Orthogonal and oblique cutting

Sl. No Orthogonal metal cutting Oblique metal cutting

Cutting edge of the tool is The cutting edge is inclined at an angle
1 perpendicular to the direction of tool less than 90o to the direction of tool
travel. travel.
The direction of chip flow is The chip flows on the tool face making
2
perpendicular to the cutting edge. an angle.

3 The chip coils in a tight flat spiral The chip flows sideways in a long curl.

For same feed and depth of cut the

force which shears the metal acts on a The cutting force acts on larger area
4
smaller area. So, the life of the tool is and so tool life is more.
less.
Produces a chamfer at the end of the
5 Produces sharp corners.
cut
For the same depth of cut greater
Smaller length of cutting edge is in
6 length of cutting edge is in contact
contact with the work.
with the work.
Generally parting off in lathe,
This method of cutting is used in
7 broaching and slotting operations are
almost all machining operations.
done in this method.
Classification of cutting tools:
Cutting tools are classified into two types based on the number of cutting edges they possess.

 Single point cutting tool is the simple type consisting of a single effective cutting edge
that removes the excess material from the workpiece. Example: Lathe Tools (chamfering
tool, parting tool, facing tool etc), Shaper Tools, Planar Tools, Boring Tools etc., are
single point cutting tools.
 Multi point cutting tool has more than one cutting edge and includes milling cutters,
drill bit, reamers, broaches, grinding wheel.

Single point cutting tool Nomenclature

The important nomenclature for a single point turning tool is illustrated in figure., and listed
below.

 Tool Shank is the main body of cutting tool, and is also the part of the tool that gripped
in the tool holder.
 Face is the top surface of the tool over which the chip (cut material) flows during cutting.

Fig. Single point cutting tool Nomenclature.

 Cutting edge is the portion of the face edge that separates the chip from the workpiece.
The total cutting edge of the tool includes,
 Side cutting edge is the primary or major cutting edge formed on the side face of
the tool.
 End cutting edge is the minor cutting edge formed at the end face of the tool
 Flank is the surface adjacent to, and below the cutting edge when the tool lies in a
horizontal position.
 Nose is the tip of the cutting tool and is formed by the intersection of the side cutting
edge and the end cutting edge.
 Nose radius is the radius of the nose of the cutting tool. It is a very important parameter,
 since it gives strength to the cutting tip, increases tool life, and gives a fine surface finish
on the workpiece.

Cutting Tool Geometry

The cutting tool can perform its function efficiently, when it is ground to the correct shape and
with correct angles. Tool geometry refers to the various angles provided on the cutting tool.
Figure., below shows a single point cutting tool with various geometric elements marked on it.

 Side cutting edge angle: Side cutting edge angle is the angle between straight cutting
edge on the side of tool and the side of the shank (longitudinal axis {z-axis}). It is
responsible for turning the chip away from the finished surface.
 Side relief angle is the angle that prevents the interference as the tool enters the
material. It is incorporated on the tool to provide relief between its flank and the
workpiece surface.

Fig. Geometry of single point cutting tool (3-Principal views)

 End cutting edge angle: End cutting edge angle is the angle between the end cutting edge
and a line perpendicular to the shank of the tool. It provides clearance between tool cutting
edge and workpiece.
 End relief angle: End relief angle is defined as the angle between the portion of the end
flank immediately below the cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool,
measured at right angles to the flank. End relief angle allows the tool to cut without rubbing
on the workpiece.
 Lip angle: It is the angle between the tool face and the ground end surface of the flank.
Lip angle is maximum when clearance and rake angle are minimum.
 Rake angle is the inclination of the face (top surface) of the tool with respect to the
horizontal reference surface. Rake angle can be zero (neutral), positive or negative as
shown in figure., below.
 Fig. Types of rake angle

 Back Rake angle: Back rake angle is the angle between the face of the single point cutting
tool and a line parallel with base of the tool measured in a perpendicular plane through the
side cutting edge. If the slope face is downward toward the nose, it is negative back rake
angle and if it is upward toward nose, it is positive back rake angle. Back rake angle helps in
removing the chips away from the workpiece.
 Side rake angle: Side rake angle is the angle by which the face of tool is inclined sideways.
Side rake angle is the angle between the surface the flank immediately belowthe point and
the line down from the point perpendicular to the base. Side rake angle of cutting tool
determines the thickness of the tool behind the cutting edge. It is provided on tool to provide
clearance between workpiece and tool so as to prevent the rubbing ofworkpiece with end
flake of tool.
 Zero (neutral) rake angle: When the of the cutting tool is flat or horizontal as shown in
fig. (a) above, the tool is said to contain a zero rake.
 Positive rake angle: When the factor of the tool is so ground that it slopes downwards from
the tip of the tool as shown in fig. (b) above, the tool said to contain a positive rake. Positive
rake angle helps in the formation of continuous chip in ductile materials and contributes in
avoiding the formation of built-up-edge chip.
 Negative rake angle: When the face of the cutting tool slopes upwards from the tip ofthe
tool as shown in fig. (c) above, the tool said to contain a negative rake. Cutting toolswith
negative rake angle are stronger making them suitable for machining high strength
materials; for taking interrupted cuts, and machining with high feeds.

Tool signature for single point cutting tool

Designation of Cutting Tools (Tool Signature)

The tool is designated to denote a standardized system of specifying the principal tool angles of a
single point cutting tool. This designation is termed as tool signature.

There are two systems used to designate the cutting tool:

1. ASA- (American Standard Association) System or ANSI (American National Standard

Institute)
2. ORS - (Orthogonal Rake Angle) System
  ASA- (American Standard Association) System

In the ASA System, the various tool angles are specified independently of the position of the
cutting edge. The three planes of reference and the coordinates are chosen based on the
configuration and axis of the machine tool concerned.

Tool signature of a tool as 10,9,6,5,8,7,2mm represents:

a) Back rake angle = 10°

b) Side rake angle = 9°
c) End relief angle = 6°
d) Side relief angle = 5°
e) End cutting edge angle = 8°
f) Side cutting edge angle = 7°
g) Nose radius = 2mm
 ORS - (Orthogonal Rake Angle) System
In the ORS System, the various tool angles are specified with reference to position of the cutting
edge. The planes of reference and the coordinates are chosen based on the configuration of
cutting tool.

Tool signature of a tool as 5, 10,6,6,5,90,1mm represents:

a) Angle of inclination = 5°
b) Normal rake angle = 10°
c) Side relief angle = 6°
d) End relief angle = 6°
e) End cutting edge angle = 5°
f) Approach angle = 90°
g) Nose radius = 1mm

Mechanics of Orthogonal Cutting

 When the cutting tool is forced to move against the work piece, the tool exerts a
compressive force on the work piece.
 The material of the work piece is stressed beyond its yield point causing it to deform
plastically and shear off.
 The sheared portion of the metal begins to flow along the cutting tool face in the form of
small pieces called chips.
 Work is done by the tool on the work piece, and more than 90% of the energy is
transformed into heat.
 The heat is concentrated near the tip of the tool, and as a result, in some cases causes the
 chips to weld to the cutting tool.
 Hence, the cutting force, heat and wear of the tool form the basic features of the metal
cutting.

Fig. Mechanics of machining

Mechanics of chip formation (Chip formation process)

In the process of metal cutting, as the cutting tool moves forward, the tool removes the work
piece metal along the shear plane in the form of chips.

Three different types of chips are formed:

a) Continuous chips
b) Continuous chips with built-up-edges (BUE)
c) Discontinuous chips

a) Continuous chips:

 When the work piece material is ductile fracture will not occur in the shear plane, and the
chip comes off in the form of a long string or ribbon like shining surface. These are called
continuous chips. Shown in Fig. a1
 Continuous chips are desirable, as it creates smooth finish on the work piece, absorb less
energy/power, create less machining noise and enhances tool life.
 To solve these problems, turning tools are often equipped with chip breakers. Shown
in Fig. a2
The various cutting conditions resulting in the formation of Continuous chip includes:

 Work piece material is ductile.

 Large rake angle is provided on the tool.
 Fine feed and high cutting speeds are selected during cutting.
 Efficient coolants are used.
 Fig.a1) Continuous Chip Fig.a2) Use of chip breaker

b) Continuous chips with built-up-edges (BUE)

 During machining tough steels such as alloy steels, tool steels etc., larger cutting forces
are required.
 This produces a lot of heat at the tool-work interface.
 The high heat generated causes the compressed metal adjacent to the tool nose to get
welded to it in the form of metal lumps.
 The extra metal welded to the nose or point of the tool is called built- up-edge.
 As the chip slides up the tool, the built-up-edge is broken and carried away with the
chip, while rest of it adheres to the surface of the work piece making it rough. Shown in
Fig. b.
 Thus, the formation of BUE must be reduced and this is achieved by circulating a proper
cutting fluid at the cutting zone during machining.

The various cutting conditions resulting in the formation of built-up-edge includes:

 Cutting tool provided with low rake angle.
 Low cutting speeds imparted during cutting.
 Imparting high depth of cuts
 Rough surface of cutting tool
 Insufficient circulation of cutting fluid.

Fig. b) Continuous chip with BUE

c) Discontinuous chips

 When cutting brittle materials like Cast iron, bronze etc., the work piece material along
the shear plane will periodically fracture producing a segment of the chip. This type of
chip is called Discontinuous chips. Shown in Fig. c.
 The primary reason for the formation of such chips in brittle materials is the fact that, the
binding strengths for metal grains are not very strong, and as such, the metal easily shears
before it elongates.

The various cutting conditions resulting in the formation of discontinuous chips includes:

 The work piece material is brittle.

 Small rake angle is provided on the tool.
 Coarse feeds and low speeds are selected during cutting.

Fig. c) Discontinuous chips

1.6 MERCHANTS CIRCLE DIAGRAM & ANALYSIS

Consider the process of metal cutting as shown in figure 1.8. The various forces acting on the chip
during cutting is shown by arrows. It is desirable to know the value of these forces, since it helps to
calculate the power required for the machine tool; design and stiffness etc.; for machine tolerances;
whether the work piece is capable of withstanding the cutting pressure, and other information. The
relationship among the various forces was established by Merchant with the following assumptions:
Cutting tool materials and applications

Cutting tool materials are chosen based on their mechanical properties and the specific applications
they are used for. The primary materials for cutting tools include high-speed steel (HSS), carbide,
ceramics, cubic boron nitride (CBN), and polycrystalline diamond (PCD). Here's an overview of
these materials and their applications:

High-Speed Steel (HSS)

 Properties: Good toughness, reasonable wear resistance, relatively low cost.

 Applications: General purpose machining, drilling, milling, and tapping of a wide range
of materials including steels and non-ferrous metals.

Carbide

 Properties: High hardness, wear resistance, and heat resistance. More brittle than HSS.
 Applications: Used for high-speed operations and heavy-duty cutting. Ideal for cutting
hard materials like stainless steel, cast iron, and non-ferrous metals. Common in turning,
milling, and drilling operations.

Ceramics

 Properties: Extremely high hardness and wear resistance, good thermal stability, but
brittle.
 Applications: High-speed machining of cast iron and hard steels, finishing operations, and
high-temperature applications. Not suitable for interrupted cuts due to brittleness.

Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN)

 Properties: Second hardest material after diamond, excellent thermal stability, and
chemical resistance.
 Applications: Hard turning, finishing of hardened steels, superalloys, and cast irons.
Suitable for applications requiring high precision and surface finish.

Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD)

 Properties: Highest hardness, excellent abrasion resistance, and good thermal

conductivity.
 Applications: Machining non-ferrous and non-metallic materials such as aluminum,
copper, plastics, and composites. Common in high-precision and high-speed operations.
Introduction to basic metal cutting machine tools: Lathe- Parts of lathe machine, accessories of
lathe Machine and various operations carried out on lathe. Kinematics of lathe. Turret and Capstan
lathe.
Parts of lathe machine

1. Bed – the bed is the foundation of the lathe and supports all other parts. The head stock
and tail stock are mounted on the inner guide ways, while the carriage assembly is mounted
on the outer guide ways of the bed.

2. Head stock – it is located on the left side over the bed. It comprises of the main drive
for different speeds. The main spindle called the live centre projects out it holds the work
piece and rotates the work piece at various speeds.

3. Tail stock – it is a movable part mounted on the right side of the lathe bed. It carries the
dead center in it. The main functions are –
1.To support the free end of the work piece
2.To hold tools like drill bit, reamers, taps etc.

4. Carriage assembly – it guides over the outer guide ways of the lathe bed. This assembly
holds the cutting tool and controls the cutting process. It consists of saddle, cross slide,
compound rest, tool post and apron
(a) Saddle – It is a H – shaped casting sliding over the guide ways and supports the cross
slide, compound rest and the tool post.
(b) Cross slide – it is mounted on the saddle. This enables the cutting tool to move
perpendicular to the lathe axis (lateral feed), so as to give the required depth to the work
piece.
(c) Compound rest – it is mounted on the cross slide and supports the tool post. It has a
circular base which can be swiveled to any angle in the horizontal plane. It is used in taper
 turning operation.
(d) Tool post – it is mounted on the compound rest and holds the cutting tool firmly during
cutting process.
(e) Apron – this is the area below the saddle, which houses the levers, hand wheels,
mechanism for moment of the carriage assembly.

5. Feed rod – it is a long rod in front of the lathe bed and gives longitudinal movement for
the carriage for all its operations expect thread cutting.

6. Lead screw – it is a long screw with square threads on it mounted front of the lathe bed.
It gives the automatic feed to the carriage during the thread cutting operation.

Accessories of lathe Machine:

1. Chucks:

 Three-Jaw Chuck: Used for holding round or hexagonal workpieces.

 Four-Jaw Chuck: Independently adjustable jaws for irregularly shaped workpieces.
 Collet Chuck: Provides high precision for holding small cylindrical workpieces.

2. Centers:

 Live Center: Has bearings to rotate with the workpiece, reducing friction.
 Dead Center: Does not rotate, used with lubricants to minimize friction.
 Pipe Center: Designed to support hollow workpieces.

3. Tool Post:

 Standard Tool Post: Holds cutting tools in a fixed position.

 Quick-Change Tool Post: Allows for rapid tool changes and adjustments.

4. Steady Rest and Follower Rest:

 Steady Rest: Supports long workpieces to prevent deflection during turning.

 Follower Rest: Moves along with the carriage to provide continuous support.

5. Faceplates:

 Used to mount irregularly shaped workpieces that cannot be held by chucks.

6. Mandrels:

 Used to hold hollow workpieces for internal machining operations.

7. Lathe Dogs:
  Used to drive workpieces held between centers.

8. Taper Turning Attachments:

 Allows the lathe to cut tapers without the need for a compound slide.

9. Thread Cutting Attachments:

 Enables the cutting of various thread pitches.

10. Drill Chucks:

 Holds drill bits for drilling operations on the lathe.

11. Knurling Tool:

 Used to create textured patterns on the surface of the workpiece.

12. Cutting Tools:

 Carbide Inserts: Replaceable cutting tips.

 High-Speed Steel (HSS) Tools: General-purpose cutting tools.
 Boring Bars: For internal machining.

13. Parting Tools:

 Used to cut off pieces from the main workpiece.

14. Boring Heads:

 Used for precise internal machining and enlarging holes.

15. Lathe Milling Attachments:

 Allows the lathe to perform milling operations.

Various operations carried out on lathe

Operation on Lathe

1. Plain Turning (Turning)

The work piece is supported between the two centers which permit the rotation of the work
piece. The cutting tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of the work piece to a given depth of
cut, and is then moved parallel to the axis of the work piece. “This method of machining
operation in which the work piece is reduced to a cylindrical section of required diameter is
called ‘turning’”.

2. Facing

This operation on lathe is used to produce either flat surface or shoulders at the end of the work
piece and used to reduce the Length of the work piece. The work piece is held rigidly in the
chuck. The cutting tool is fed perpendicular to the axis of the lathe from the outer edge of the
work piece towards the center.

3. Knurling

It is an operation used to emboss serrated surface on work piece using a knurling tool. It is
used to produce straight, angled or diamond pattern on the work piece mainly for gripping
purpose. The knurling tool is set in the tool post such that upper and lower rollers of the knurl
head touches the surface of the work piece. The spindle speed is kept 60 to 80 rpm. The feed
of the knurl tool is 0.38 to 0.76 mm/rev.
4. Thread cutting

A thread is a helical ridge formed on a cylindrical rod. This operation generates V-threads or
square threads on the work piece. The work piece is held between centers and rotated. By
maintaining an appropriate gear ratio between the spindle (work piece) and the lead screw (tool
movement), screw thread of required pitch can be cut. The tool moves parallel to the lathe axis.

5. Drilling

For drilling, the work piece is held in a suitable device such as face plate, chuck and the drill is
held in the sleeve or barrel of the tailstock. Refer Fig. Dead centre is removed and drill chuck
or sleeve is inserted in its place. Then, the drill is fed by rotating the hand wheel of the tailstock.
First a shorter length is drilled, by using smaller and shorter drill, followed by producing the
required diameter by using the correct drill size. The already drilled hole acts as a guide for the
latter drill

6. Taper Turning

It is an operation done on the lathe to produce conical surface on the work piece. It can done
by two methods –

(a) Swiveling the Compound rest

(b) Offsetting the Tailstock

 (a) Swiveling the Compound rest

In this operation the work piece is mounted coaxial with the axis of the lathe centers. The
cutting tool is mounted on the compound rest and swiveled to the required taper angle and
locked. The carriage is also locked in that position. The feed is given to the compound rest
which produces a taper on the work piece. This is limited for shorter taper lengths.

(b) Offsetting the Tailstock – This is also known as “set over tailstock” method.

In this method, the tailstock of the lathe is offset to the axis of the lathe bed. When the work
piece is mounted between the centers, it will be inclined to the lathe bed. The cutting tool is
moved parallel to the lathe bed to cut the taper. This method is suitable for long work pieces
having less taper.
Turret and Capstan lathe.
The conventional engine lathe can perform a single operation on a job at a time. To perform
the next operation on the same job it needs tool replacement and resetting. Thus, the operation is
slower and labourious. Hence, to make the operation faster and economical engine lathes were
modified and with advancement in technology, these were developed to perform a number of
operations. These are known as Capstan and Turret Lathes.

Capstan and turret lathes are semiautomatic type production lathes. These are capable of
producing similar parts in large numbers at faster rate and economically.

Principles of Capstan and Turret Lathes

Though Capstan and Turret lathes perform basically the similar operations as the
engine lathes, they differ in the following respects:
1) Structure
2) Tooling
3) Operation
4) Tool setting
These aspects are briefly discussed in the following paragraphs.
1) Structure: These lathes have all basic structural features such as bed, head stock,
carriage, support columns, etc., similar to an engine lathe. However, it has some
special feature like all geared head stock, 4 station tool post, an additional tool post
at the rear of the carriage, and a hexagonal turret on the slide in place of the tail stock
of an engine lathe.
2) Tooling: Such a lathe can carry, totally eleven different tools and hence can perform
eleven different operations in one cycle. It can hold 4 tools on the four station tool
post, a parting tool, generally, at the rear tool post on the cross slide and 6 different
tools at the six hexagonal surfaces of-the turret. The tools on the 3-station tool post
are indexed manually, while the tools on the turret are indexed by either automatically
or by hand.
3) Operation: Since there is no tail stock, the work piece is always held by a collet chuck,
which is useful for quick loading and releasing of the bar stocks. At the end of each
cycle of operations, performed by various tools on the 3-way tool post and the turret,
the finished job is separated from the bar stock by the parting tool. Then the collet
chuck releases the grip, feeds the bar stock properly, and again the bar stock is held
rigidly. The length of the bar stock fed is controlled by a stop mounted in one of the
hexagonal surfaces on the turret
4) Tool setting: All the tools can be set so as to obtain the predetermined dimensions of
the job. The tools on the tool post and the turret are arranged in a sequence to perform
step by step operations in a cycle. The turret and the tool posts after setting the tools,
are moved and fixed so as to provide necessary feed and depth of cut on the job to
produce required dimensions. At the end of each operation the tool for the next
 operation moves into position. This operation, known as indexing is achieved by
either automatically or manually. The finished job is checked, periodically for
deviations to reset the tools. In any cycle of operation, the last operation is performed
by the parting tool to part-off the finished job.

Comparison Between Capstan and Turret Lathes and An Engine Lathe

Capstan / Turret lathe and an engine lathe differ in a number of parameters. A brief
comparison and/oi- difference between a Capstan and Turret lathe and an engine lathe is
brought-out with reference to the following points:
1) Head Stock: A Capstan/turret lathe has an all geared, robust head stock with large
number of speeds, where as an engine lathe generally has 8-10 geared head stock (both
belt and gear driven). It is powered by a more powerful motor, as compared to • an
engine lathe of similar size (3-5 times powerful motor as compared to an engine lathe).
2) Tool Post: A capstan/turret lathe has got two tool posts, one the 3-way tool post on
the carriage, other at the rear of the cross slide, while an engine lathe has got one
single-tool post or 2-4-way tool post.
3) Tail Stock: A capstan/turret lathe has an hexagonal turret in place of the tail stock of
an engine lathe. It can hold 6 different tools at its six surfaces to perform different
operations.
4) Job Holding: A capstan/turret lathe uses a flexible collet chuck to hold the work piece
in operation, which feeds the job automatically to the required length after completion
of one job. An engine lathe generally uses 3-jaw/4-jaw chucks, or face plates or catch
plates and carriers.
5) Construction: Though a Capstan/turret lathe has the same basic features of an engine
lathe- like, the support columns, bed, head stock, carriage, it also has additional
features like all geared (wide range of speeds) head stock, two tool posts, a hexagonal
turret in place of the tail stock. It is slightly smaller in construction as compared to an
engine lathe.
6) Tooling System: In an engine lathe generally one tool can perform one operation at a
time on a job. For the next operation, it needs tool replacement and setting. Thus it
needs a number of tool changing and setting as many operations are to be performed.
But in a Capstan/turret lathe eleven tools (4 on the front tool post, one on the rear tool
post both on the carriage, and six on the hexagonal turret) can be preset in a
predetermined sequence, hence eleven different operations can be performed on the
same job without going for any tool changing and setting.
7) Operational Features: In a Capstan/turret lathe each tool is indexed either
automatically or manually to perform the next operation in a preset sequence, where as
in an engine lathe it needs to change the tool manually to perform the next operation.
Hence, the operation in a capstan/tuft& lathe, is semi-automatic, and products are of
close tolerances. Also a Capstan/turret lathe does not have a lead screw for thread
cutting and for thread cutting it uses taps and dies, where as in an engine lathe though
taps and dies can be used for thread cutting, it makes the operation easier with its lead
screw.
 8) Jobs Produced: A Capstan/turret lathe is suitable to produce large number of similar
work-pieces in large quantity. The operations are faster, and easier. An engine lathe
is suitable for only regular shaped job or piece works. However, small sized jobs
can be handled in a Capstan/turret lathe, while in an engine lathe large sized,
irregular shaped jobs can be held and machined.

Difference Between Capstan and Turret Lathes

Though the capstan and turret lathes look similar they differ mainly in the con
construction of the turret, operation and use of the machine. The important differences are
as follows:
1) Turret mounting: The turret of a turret lathe is mounted on a saddle that slides on
the lathe bed ways, whereas in a Capstan lathe, the turret is mounted on a ram or a
shaft slide which in turn is mounted on the saddle. The saddle can be clamped on the
bed, which can also slide on the bed ways, while the ram or short slide with the turret
slides on the saddle.
2) Operation: In operation to feed the tool in a Capstan lathe, only the short slide moves
while in a turret lathe the whole saddle moves. The tool indexes to the next position
in a capstan lathe when the short slide moves back, where as in a turret lathe tool
indexes when the saddle moves back.
3) Use: Since the turret in a capstan lathe is mounted on a short slide, as the tool is feed,
the slide overhang increases, thus increasing the instability, thereby leading to more
vibration in cutting action. But in a turret lathe the tool feed is done by directly
moving the saddle, which can take heavier cuts with minimum vibrations and the tool
post still remaining more stable. Hence a capstan lathe is suitable for machining small
and lighter work pieces, where as a turret lathe can be used for heavier work pieces.
4) Work Holding Devices: As the turret lathes are used for heavier works, they are
equipped with hydraulic or pneumatically operated chucks. This helps in holding the
work faster and with minimum effort of the operator, whereas the Capstan lathes are
equipped with light duty collet chucks for lighter jobs.

5) Operational Speed: The working speeds and feeds in a capstan lathes are much
higher and hence the operational time is less as compared to a turret lathe.
 Constructional Features:
These lathes have the same basic parts as the engine lathe, and additionally they have the
complex turret mechanism. Fig. 4-43 and fig. 4-44 show the different parts of capstan and turret
lathes.

Bed: It is the strong box structure made of steel casting. It has smooth guide ways on
which the carriage and the turret saddle move. The bed is strong & rigid to take the loads and
vibrations.
Head Stock: It is located at the left side of the lathe. It houses the transmission
mechanism to operate the spindle at different speeds. It may have a direct electric motor
driven head stock, or all geared head stock or a preselective head stock.

In all geared head stocks, different mechanisms and speeds are controlled through
various gear mechanisms. The speed changing can be effected by changing levers.

Preselective Gear Box: It is an all geared mechanism having facilities for rapid starting,
stopping, and speed changing for different operations. It uses spring loaded buttons or levers
which change the gears. In this, to achieve various speeds for different turning diameters, the
required speeds are preselected before starting the operation. After completion of each
operation at the selected speed, the= next speed is automatically selected (based on the
preselection) by a button or lever actuated by the built-in mechanism. This mechanism works
with the help of clutches, gears, levers and actuating mechanisms. In this machine the main
motor is not stopped while changing from one _operation to the next operation.

Cross-slide and Saddle: In capstan lathes, the cross slide and the saddle, are moved on
the lathe bed by manual operation of a hand wheel. The carriage may be of two types -
Conventional and side hung type.
 In conventional type, the carriage is mounted only on the top bed ways and it bridges
the front and rear bed ways. It is mounted with a four station tool post at the front and one
rear tool post at the rear side of the cross-slide.

The side hung type of carriage is used in heavy duty turret lathes. In this, the saddle
is supported on the top and bottom guide ways on the front of the lathe bed. The side
hanging carriage facilitates working of larger diameter workpieces without any
interference. The saddle and the cross-slide can be operated both longitudinally or
laterally either by hand or by power.

The Turret Saddle and Auxiliary Slide: In a capstan lathe, the turret is mounted on an
auxiliary slide which moves on a saddle. In this case the turret moves which the slide is
moved or when the saddle is moved.

In a capstan lathe, the saddle bridges the front and rear guide -ways and it can be
moved on the guide ways and clamped at the desired position. In the case of turret lathe,
the turret is mounted on a saddle which directly moves on the bed ways, and does not have
a separate slide. The turret is moved simply by moving the saddle.

Turret: The turret is a hexagonal shaped tool holder and suitable to hold six different
tools. Each face perpendicular to the centre line of the spindle is accurately machined and
has a bored hole at its centre, where shanks of different tool holders are inserted. The
centre line of each hole coincides with the lathe axis when rotated by 60 degrees. Each face
also has four tapped holes for securing different tool holding attachments. The turret can be
locked by a clamping lever at its top. The movement of the turret is restricted by a stop so
that the turret when rotated always comes in line with the lathe axis.

Work Holding Devices

In a capstan lathe there is no tail stock, and work is to be held rigidly at the head
took spindle alone. One more requirement is, individual work pieces are not fed,
instead work is to be fed continuously by a bar stock. To meet these requirements collet chucks are
used which can hold and release the bar stock quickly. Various jaw chucks are also used. These are
useful for medium to large works and where the working is jobbing type and for special works. The
different types of collet chucks used are-

1) Push out Type

2) Draw in Type
3) Dead length Type
1) Push out Type Collet Chuck
This type of chuck is shown in Fig. 4-47a. Like any other collet chuck it has a slotted cone
shaped collet. The bar stock passes through the hollow collet as shown in figure. Inside diameter of
the collet can be suitably selected to match the diameter of the bar stack to be fed. To hold the work,
the bar stock is fed up to the bar stop, and the push tube is pushed in, due to which the conical end
of the collet moves into the conical surface of the head stock hood. The slotted collet thus gets reduces
in its Inner diameter thereby gripping the work properly.

To release the work, the push tube can be pulled out, which causes the collet to move out of
the conical surface because of its spring action, hence releases the work.
 2) Draw-In Type Collet Chuck
This is similar in construction to the push out type collet chuck, except that the conical
shape is reversed as shown in Fig. 4-4,7b. To hold the work, the draw tube should be drawn
in, so that the conical end of the collet mates with the conical surface of the spindle hood,
thereby gripping the job. To release the work, the draw
tube should be pushed in.

3) Dead Length Type Collet Chuck

In both push out type and draw in type of collet chucks there will be slight feed length
error due to the movement of the bar with the collet while gripping. This problem can be
solved by using a stationery collet to grip the bar. This type of collet chuck is shown in Fig.
4-47c. A sleeve moved by the push tube closes the collet gripping end, and while doing so
the collect, hence the bar does not move, since the movement of the collet end is restricted
by its shoulder stop acting with the hood as shown.

Tool Holding Devices

The turret and capstan lathes use a variety of tool holding devices depending upon the
type of operation. The tool holders can be mounted on the turret faces or cm the cross-slide
tool post. Here, the whole assembly of holder and its tool is designated according to the type
of the holder. Thus a slide tool holder with the tool is simply called a slide tool. The
important tool holders are discussed here.
1) Straight Cutter Holder (Fig. 4-48): This is a simple tool holder designed to hold
standard tool bits. The shank of the holder is inserted into the turret face-. The tool is
held perpendicular to the shank axis as shown in figure. The tool is held rigidly by a
set of three screws. This is suitable for turning, facing, boring, chamfering, etc.

2) Adjustable or Plain Angle Cutter Holder (Fig. 4-49): This tool holder has an angular slot
on which the tool is mounted and fitted with Proper screws. Thus the tool is held in an
inclined fashion as shown in figure. which helps to maintain a clearance with the work, and work
holding devices, especially while using jaw chucks. A micrometer can also be used for accurate
setting.
3) Multiple Cutter Holder (Fig. 4-50): It can hold two or more tools and used at a time. This
facilitates turning of different diameters in one operation. Tool shown in figure can be used to
perform two turning operations. Turning and boring tools can be held and used to perform both
operation simultaneously.

4) Offset Cutter Holder (Fig. 4-51): In this holder, the body of the holder is offset with the
shank as shown in figure. This is useful for machining of larger diameter works.
5) Knee Tool Holder: These are useful for simultaneous operations of turning and boring or
turning-and drilling. A knee tool with turning and boring facility is shown in Fig. 4-52. Here, the knee
holder is fitted directly on the turret face. The axis of the lower hole in the holder coincides
with the lathe axis & is used for holding boring bars, drills, etc. The turning tool is fitted on the
upper hole which performs turning operations on the outer surface of the work. A guide bush
is provided at the top of the holder to pilot the tool on a pilot bar.
6) Knurling Tool Holder: It can be mounted on the turret face or on the tool post - on the
cross-slide. The knurling tools fitted in the holder are adjustable in height with the help
of screws, and thus facilitate knurling of different diameter work pieces. Fig. 4-53 shows
a' knurling tool holder mounted on the turret face.
7) Self-Opening Die Holder: It is a tool used for cutting threads to a pre-determined
length, and to make the operation faster by quick removal of the die from the threads.
 Fig. 4-54 illustrates the schematic of a self-opening die holder commonly used in
Capstan and Turret lathes. It consists of 4 dies held in a die holder under spring pressure
with the help of a locking pin. When the desired length of thread is cut, a stopper triggers
the locking pin to open and release the spring pressure thereby opening the dies out from
the threads. In such a condition the tool can be withdrawn without stopping or reversing
the spindle rotation. This tool is generally used for thread cutting on small and precision
screws and bolts.
8) Roller Steady Centering Tool: It is a tool used in Capstan and Turret lathes, for turning
operations of bar stocks. The construction of roller steady centering tool is shown in Fig.
4-55.

It consists of two rollers which support the bar stock. The cutting tool may be kept either radially
or tangentially to the bar stock. When the tool is radially mounted, the cutting force acts at the
lowest and hence the weakest section of the tool i.e., the cutting edge. In the tangentially mounted
tool, the cutting force acts along the length of the tool and hence through the shank to the holding
points. Thus a tangentially mounted tool can take higher feeds and depth of cut
Usually, carbide tipped tools are mounted tangentially. The position of the rollers and the tool
can be varied to place them properly on the bar stock. The rollers, in addition to support the tool,
also provide a burnishing action on the bar stock thereby giving a superior finish.
However, such a tool has certain disadvantages:
a) It may produce uneven surface at the start of the turning due to high pressure of the rollers on
the bar stock.
b) It may produce withdrawal mark on the finished surface, if drawn in running condition,
without retracting the rollers.
c) If the cut is light, the surface finish may be poor.
d) Continuous chips, if formed, may get into the roller and disturb its functioning, and spoil the
surface finish.
 Other tool holders that are commonly used in Capstan and Turret lathes are-
a) Drill holder b) Reamer holder c) Boring bar holder d) Recessing tool holder
e) Tap holder f) Balanced tool holder g) Form tool holder h) Box tool holder

Tools for Capstan and Turret Lathes

The different tools used in Capstan and Turret lathes are as follows:
1) Turning tool
2) Facing tool
3) Parting-off tool
4) Chamfering tool
5) Bar ending tool
6) Grooving tool
7) Forming tool
8) Drill
9) Boring tool
10) Counter bore
11) Thread cutting tool
12) Reamer
Some of the common. types of tools used in Capstan and Turret lathes are briefly explained here.
1) Turning Tool
There are two types of turning tools used in Capstan and Turret lathes - a single point tool and a
hollow mill. The schematics of a single point turning tools are shown in Fig. 4-56. The tool shown
in Fig. 4-56a is a heavy duty tool mounted on the cross slide tool part or in a knee holder. The tool
shown in Fig. 4-56b is a knife edged turning tool mounted on the box tool holder or on the cross
slide tool port. It is used only for light duty turning operations.
The hollow mill shown in Fig. 4-57 is a multi-point turning tool having three cutting edges
on its three teeth. It has a hollow inner portion which helps to guide the bar stock while being
turned. This is suitable for turning small diameter components. The disadvantage of this tool
is the change in diameter of the bar stock of after regrinding of the cutting edges. Also, it is.
difficult to regrind the edges because of the shape and size of the tool.
2) Facing Tool
A facing tool combined with turning tool is shown in Fig. 4-58. Rakes are given in two
directions to facilitate both facing and turning. The tool is mounted on the cross slide tool
post or on the knee tool holder.

3) Parting-off Tool
Fig. 4-59 illustrates the schematic of a parting-off tool. It has clearance on all sides, which is
essential to clear the work during parting-off operation. This tool is generally mounted on the
rear tool post in Capstan and Turret lathes.
4) Bar Ending and Chamfering Tools
A bar ending tool is used to get a desired shape at the end of the bar stock after parting -off
operation. For example, in a bolt making operation, the end may have a circular end, while
special purpose bolts may have a combination of conical and step ends. Fig. 4-60a, b shows
two types of bar ending tools. A chamfering tool is similar to a bar ending tool, in construction
and operation. A chamfering tool is shown in Hg. 4-61.

5) Boring/Counter Boring Tools

These are similar to the tools used in engine lathes and drilling machines. The shank size
depends upon its mounting requirements. It can be mounted in the tool post on the cross slide
or in the knee holder tool.
Tool Layout
To manufacture a number of similar jobs on a capstan and turret lathe it is essential to make
a proper tooling layout. Generally, to make an economical and optional tool layout the
following procedure is adapted:
1) The most important and primary task in preparing a best tooling layout is to first make the
process chart. A process chart involves the sequential procedure of a number of operations
that are to be carried out to produce the required product.
2) Based on the process chart proper tools are selected.
3) For each operation necessary speed, feed rate and depth of cut are selected.
4) The sequence arranged must be such that possible operations are combined (generally two
operation) i.e., two or more tools are fed in one step, to reduce the operational time and make
economical use of the machine.
5) Based on the process chart details the tools, speeds and feeds are set to make the tool layout.
A typical tool layout is shown in Fig. 4-62.
Tool Layout to Produce Small Bolts
To make a tool layout on a turret lathe to produce small bolts, first the bolt drawing is made.
Based on the drawing the process chart, showing the different
operations in a proper sequence, is prepared. To produce a hexagonal bolt, the sequence of
operations are -
1) Feeding the Bar stack 4) Thread cutting 2) Plain Turning 5) Head chamfering 3) End
Machining 6) Parting-off
 Then the tool feed is set to the required length by hand indexing (with machine in idle
condition) and setting the tool stops. For different operations suitable spindle speeds are
selected, and both feeds speeds are noted in the process chart against the corresponding
operation. The sequence of operations performed are as follows:
1) Feeding the Bar stack: To produce a hexagonal nut, a hexagonal bar stock of dimensions
to suit the bolt head is used. It is fed by the automatic bar feeding mechanism and the
bar length fed is determined by the preset bar stop (Fig. 4-64a) at turret face 1. After bar
setting the turret head is indexed to position 2.

2) Plain turning: The hexagonal bar is plain turned to the major diameter of the bolt,
generally by using a box turning tool (Fig. 4-64b). The depth of cut being preset; the
feed is controlled by the tool stop. After the operation the head is indexed for next
operation.
3) End Machining: The bar end is machined to the required radius by a forming tool (Fig.
4-64c), whose feed is controlled by the corresponding tool stop.
4) Thread Cutting: Indexing after end machining of the turned bar brings the thread
cutting die head to its feed position, to perform the thread cutting operation (Fig. 4-64d).
The self-operating die head is housed with thread cutting dies of proper diameter. The
tool stop is set to obtain the thread length as per the drawing.
5) Head Chamfering: Generally chamfering tool is mounted on the 4 station tool post on
the lathe carriage. It is fed by moving the cross slide to the preset depth (Fig. 4-64e).
6) Parting-off: The parting off tool set at the rear of the cross slide on the carriage is fed
finally to cut off the bolt produced (Fig. 4-64f). The parting off is done to obtain suitable
bolt length. After these operations one cycle is completed, and the next cycle of
operating is repeated with operation number one, i.e. Feeding the bar stack.
A typical process chart for producing hexagonal bolts using mild steel bar stack is shown
below.

In the above chart, the cutting speeds are selected from standard charts. In this, the
cutting speeds (vary for different materials) are selected based on their thread pitches. The
depth of cut and the feed depends upon the requirements of the final product.