CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY

1.0 Introduction

In this chapter of the study, the researcher will provide a background to the study, objectives
of the enquiry and hypothesis. The chapter will further provide a justification to the study and
description of the area under study before looking at limitations of the study and giving a
summary of the chapter.

1.1 Background to the study

Artisanal mining has become one of the core economic activities in both developed and
developing countries. A number of scholars have written effusively on this economic exertion
with serious variations in opinion on both its merits and demerits to the societies it is under
taken in. A sundry of scholars who have written on the issue have raised a lot of nihilism over
its impact on the environment.

Studies that have been undertaken in in other countries and continents have painted a
negative picture of this mineral extraction method on the environment in South America.
According to Naeem (2013) experiences in South America especially Brazil of artisanal have
shown that artisanal mining has had a lot of a negative effects on the environment. According
to the scholar this form of mining is a noteworthy pecuniary bustle in the rural communities
of the country where the majority of the populations eke a living from searching for minerals
like gold and tin at small scale level. Tuomisto (2017) says in artisanal mining in the country
has been blamed for a number of sins against Mother Nature which include among others
deforestation of the Amazon Forest where artisanal mining is confined to, pollution rivers
using mercury and other toxins used in mineral processing as well as soil contamination
which makes agricultural activities near cul-de-sac in the areas of mining.
While artisanal mining has and is found in both Brazil (Latin America) and Rosa Area in
Zimbabwe (the area under study in this enquiry) and has been accused of the same
transgressions against the environment, the regulatory experiences of this mining system in
Brazil is more intricate as the country many regulatory frameworks that seek to contain it
unlike in Zimbabwe where only the Ministry of Mines and Mineral Resources and the
Environmental Management (EMA) through the Environmental Management Act (2002) seek
to control the activity. This multi-layered regulatory system in Brazil has seen artisanal
mining confined to the Amazon Region while in Zimbabwe the system is way too extensive
raising a possibility of extensive damage to the environment (Tuomisto, 2017). It is therefore
the focus to this study to establish the impact of extensive artisanal mining in Zimbabwe on
the environment focusing on the Rosa Mining Area in Chiweshe Communal Lands.

In North America, the issue of artisanal mining is also a common challenge. Bryceson (2010)
In the United States of America, artisanal mining is common especially for gold mining and
has been blamed for malevolent desecration of the environment which has resulted in total
shift of the biodiversity. According to the scholar in the United States this form of mining is
rampant in states like California, Alaska and Colorado where the environment and vegetation
have been destroyed by fortune seekers who hunt for the precious stones. Bryceson (2010)
further says in other parts of North America this mining system is also common in Canada in
but areas like British Colombia, Ontario and Quebec.

However, while artisanal mining in Zimbabwe has been principally done using traditional
mining methods like panning and handmade tools which have been blamed for environmental
degradation the European experience is much more modernized where the miner uses more
sophisticated mining approaches that have less negative impact on the environment. This
study therefore seeks to traditional mining methods employed by the Zimbabwean artisanal
miners have more deleterious impact on the environment than those employed in North
America as argued by Bryceson (2010).

Schowalter (2022) the artisanal mining contagion which has become prevalent in the
Americas and Africa has not left Europe untouched. According to the scholar the mining
modus operandi the system of mineral extraction is also common in Spain and Portugal. In
Spain is approach is common for the extraction of gold and silver while in Portugal the
system is used for mining gold, tin and tungsten in the north of the country. While in
European countries like Spain and Portugal have been raised as matters of concern as in
Zimbabwe, the thrust of the matters raised differs grossly as in Europe matters to do with the
environment are more to do with acid mine drainage and pollution while in Zimbabwe such
matters raised concern total annihilation of the environment through deforestation, and soil
degradation. This study seeks to evaluate whether or not the systems of artisanal mining in
Zimbabwe at the Rosa Mining Area in Chiweshe are in any way more lethal to the
environment that it is in Europe and if so, explain why. The study will evaluate Schowalter
(2022)’s perceptions of artisanal mining in Europe and contrast the to the Rosa experiences in
Zimbabwe.

Asia as a continent has not been left in the 21 st century hunt for fortune. According to Lahiri-
Dutt (2015) say India as one of the largest economies of the Asian continent also has issues
of artisanal mining rampant in it. According to the scholar gold is the most sought-after
mineral in the country with artisanal mining being dominant in the states of Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The scholar however says other than gold other minerals
such as zinc, copper and iron are also mined. The World Bank Report on mining says as with
anywhere in the world artisanal mining has not been without blemish on matters environment
but however the system in India according to According to Lahiri-Dutt (2015) uses more
sophisticated machinery which limits the levels of environmental degradation when
compared to the panning and migratory nature of artisanal miner in Zimbabwe. In this
enquiry the researcher will try to evaluate the nature of environmental impacts of artisanal
mining in Rosa area in Chiweshe and this evaluation will not be done in isolation but in the
context of other societies like the Indian experience to bring out its picture in relation to
world dynamics.

In North Africa, Morocco is one country that has been grossly affected by artisanal mining.
Barney (2014) says that artisanal mining Morocco is primarily concentrated in the Atlas
Region which is rich in copper and silver and The Oriental Region that is rich in gold.
According to the scholar artisanal mining in Morocco unlike in many Africa countries has
been eulogized for creating employment in an impoverished African country. However,
Barney (2014) holds that beyond the like in the rest of the world this approach in mining has
also been in Morocco condemned by environmentalists and scholars for disrupting natural
environment flow. Schowalter (2022) says that predominantly artisanal mining in the
northern African country is unregulated and hence creating havoc with the environment.
According to the scholar lack o0f regulation on the miners in the sector exposes the
environment to wanton destruction and violation by the miners. In this study the researcher
wishes to explore weather as in Morocco, artisanal mining in the area understudy here is
without regulation and if that is so what then are the implication of that legal void on the
environment.

On the eastern side of the Africa continent, one country that has also been affected by
artisanal mining to grander magnitudes is Tanzania. Feyissa (2017) says that this eastern
Africa country is endowed with a myriad of minerals like gold, tanzanite, diamond among
other minerals. Mwaipopo (2018) says artisanal mining in Tanzania is unregulated and has
seen serious environmental deprivation through promotion of deforestation, river bank
panning as well as soil poisoning through use of mercury and other chemicals used in mineral
purification. While findings from Tanzania show that artisanal mining has to a large extent
rebuffs on the environment, this paper seeks to establish whether the same negatives noted in
Tanzania exist in Rosa mining area of Chiweshe in Mazowe District of Zimbabwe or not. The
paper will seek to establish whether or not the impacts this system of mining has in Tanzania
on the environment apply to Zimbabwe.

On the western side of the African continent, Ghana is one state that to this day grapples with
issues of artisanal mining. Hilson (2002) says that artisanal mining in Ghana is an ancient
trade that dates back to pre-colonial times. According to the scholar minerals like gold and
iron have been mined in Ghana since time immemorial. Kumar (2015) says that while there is
no debate on the origins and rise of artisanal mining in Ghana, one of the major issues of
interest today on the line of duty is the issue of its implications on the environment in the
country. According to the scholar like in many states of the world, while this economic
function has been lauded for providing economic escape-routes for the economically pressed
majority, the method of mineral extraction also stands accused of promoting the maleficent
rape and defilement of the environment. Kumar (2015) says in most parts of Ghana where
this is lush deforestation and land and water pollution have become the norm of the day. In
this study however, the researcher does not seek to explore the Ghanaian experience in
isolation but seeks to establish whether what obtains in this west African Republish has any
bearing on what is happening in Zimbabwe especially the Rosa Mining area of Chiweshe in
Mazowe District.

In the central Africa the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is one country where artisanal
mining is common. According to Teschner (2017) DRC is some country rich in diverse
mineral which include among other diamonds, gold and copper especially in the Kasai River
Valley and Kivu area. According to the scholar in all these areas a lot of environmental
degradation is rife in these places and there is very little done in issues of regulation of the
activities in the area. While the challenge of artisanal mining in DRC also exist in Rosa area
of Zimbabwe, this researcher through this enquiry will try to marry the two and see if they are
similarities or differences between the two. The paper will seek establish the environmental
implications of artisanal mining Rosa mining area of Chiweshe and then assess whether or
not the experiences in this area can in anyway be linked to DRC practices.

In southern Africa, South Africa is one country that has been heavily affected by issues of
artisanal mining. Chuma (2017) says South Africa is some country rich in gold and a lot of
artisanal mining is common around the Witwatersrand region. The scholar further says that
artisanal diamond mining is common in in the Northern Cape while similar mining of coal
occurs in KwaZulu Natal and Mpumalanga regions. Msingo (2019) says that issues to do
with deforestation, soil poisoning and degradation are the most common forms of
environmental violation in south Africa. According to the scholar the South African
government has established an artisanal mining policy that seeks regulate and support the
sector. This study seeks to establish whether or not the situation or impacts the environment
impacts of artisanal mining in South Africa are similar to those in Zimbabwe’s Rosa Mining
area.

Back home, a number of scholars have also written on the environmental implications of
artisanal mining on the environment. Bryceson (2010) says a number of areas in Zimbabwe
have been affected by artisanal mining to the point that the environment lies in comatose with
future generation left with nothing to inherit while Dzoro et al (2023) say that as exemplified
by the destruction of Chiwore South Safari destruction of vegetation, the natural environment
in Zimbabwe is under siege from artisanal miners. The media in Zimbabwe is awash with
cases of buildings and schools in the Midlands collapsing owing to activities of artisanal
miners in the country.

While scholars who have written on the impact of artisanal mining on the environment in the
world, Africa and Zimbabwe could have been right on their assessments of the areas where
their studies were carried out, this enquiry seeks to establish whether or not what they
observed where their enquiries were conducted reflects the same experiences in Rosa mining
area in Chiweshe Communal lands. This study will not seek to take a blanket generalization
of what they saw in the areas they studied and claim it applies to the area under study in this
enquiry but will seek to assess whether or not the experiences in the areas they studied
reflects the experiences of the area under the microscope in this enquiry (Rosa of Chiweshe
Communal lands).

1.2 General objective

The principal objective of this enquiry is:

 To establish the impact of artisanal mining on the environment.

1.3 Specific objectives

The following specific research objectives underpin this study:

 To identify the negative impacts caused by artisanal mining on the environment in

Rosa mining area of Chiweshe Communal Lands.
 To determine the magnitude of negative impact on the environment as a result of the
artisanal gold mining.
 To develop environmental remedies towards the negative impacts.

1.3 Research Questions

The following research hypotheses guide this enquiry:

H0: Artisanal mining does not cause environmental degradation.

H1: Artisanal mining causes environmental degradation.

1.4 Justification of study

In undertaking this enquiry, the researcher was of the view that the findings of the enquiry
would benefit a number of stakeholders in matters environment in the country. It was the
researcher’s hope that the following would be principal beneficiaries of the study:

 Ministries of Environment and Tourism and Mining and Minerals

It was the researcher’s hope that at the close of this enquiry, the ministry responsible for
managing environmental issues in the country (Ministry of Environment and Tourism) and
the one that regulate mineral extraction in the country (Mining and Minerals) would be
informed of the implications of artisanal mining on the environment in the country which
would then enable them to formulate policies for sustainable mining in the country.
  Artisanal miners

By undertaking this enquiry, it was the researcher’s hope that that the findings of this enquiry
would provide artisanal miners with an insight into sustainable mining and enable them to
learn better mining methods that are environmentally friendly that would allow them to carry
on with their ventures without destroying the environment.

 The researcher

It is also the researcher’s hope that at the completion of this enquiry she as an aspiring Health
and Safety officer will gain insight into effective environmentally friendly mining systems
which will enable her to advise aspiring and practicing miners on the best way to go around
effectual mining that is environmentally friendly. It is her hope as well that this enquiry will
assist her complete her degree and get gainful employment in the mining sector which has
always been her priority area of employment since childhood.

 Education 5.0

This research plays a vital role in advancing Education 5.0, particularly in the areas of
environmental sustainability, policy formation, and responsible mining practices. The
framework emphasizes teaching, research, innovation, industrialization, and community
engagement, aligning with the study’s goal of equipping communities with knowledge and
actionable strategies for protecting natural ecosystems.

 Vision 2030

The study supports Zimbabwe’s Vision 2030, which aims to create an upper middle-income
economy by promoting sustainable mining, environmental conservation, and community-led
resource management. By highlighting eco-friendly solutions, the research contributes to
economic resilience while mitigating ecological degradation, helping to fulfil long-term
national development targets.

 MDGs Millennium Development Goals

This study aligns with MDGs objectives related to environmental sustainability, poverty
alleviation, and public health by addressing pollution risks and advocating for responsible
resource utilization.

 National Development Strategy 1 (NDS1)

As NDS1 prioritizes economic growth, governance, and environmental protection, the
findings from this research offer policymakers a foundation for improving regulations and
promoting sustainable artisanal mining practices that benefit both the environment and local
communities.

1.5 Description of the study area

This study is centred on Rosa Mining area in Mazowe District of Mashonaland Central
Province. The map below provides the outline of the place in which this study will be
undertaken.

Map of Rosa Mining area

Fig 1.0 shows study area map

Chiweshe Communal Lands is an area in Mazowe District of Mashonaland Central province

whose geographical coordinates are Latitude: 17.08330 S and Longitude 31.46670 E. The
following are the area’s physical characteristics.

Physical characteristics
Topography of the area: The land of Chiweshe where Rosa Mining area lies is generally
level to moderately sloppy with isolated hills and ridges. The general elevation of the place
ranges between 1200 to 1500 meters above sea level.

Climatic conditions: The area predominantly has a subtropical climate which is

characterized with warm summers and mild winters. The area generally receives most of its
rainfall during the summer months which are from November to March. The area receives
annual rainfall that ranges between 800 to 900 mm per year. Temperature in Chiweshe area
are rather seasonal during summer high temperature are around 26 0 to 280 and low
temperature are around 150 to 180.

Vegetation: In terms of vegetation the area is characterized by a mixture of grasslands,

savannas and woodlands with minhondo and misasa being the dominant trees.

Hydrological set up of the area: The area of Chiweshe has an intricate hydrological set up
which is made up of an intricate labyrinth of streams and revivers with the major rivers being
Mwenje, Ruya and Mazowe rivers.

Soils set up of the area: The Chiweshe Communal area is covered mostly by sandy to sandy-
loam soils and some lower-lying areas like Jaji being covered with clay-loam soils. The
fertility levels of the area low being aided by its acidic nature.

Socio-economic nature of the area

Population and economic activities in Chiweshe Communal and Rosa Mining Area:
Chiweshe area has an estimated population of about 30 000 people residing in a 541 square
kilometre piece of land, with a population density range of 50 to 60 heads per square
kilometre. The vast of the people in Chiweshe Communal Area are youths and children
below the age of 15. The sex ratio is slightly biased towards females.

Rosa mining area has a population of approximately 300 households all adding up to about
1500 people. With 45% of these being youths between 15 and 35 years of age while 25% are
adult males (above 35 years) and the remaining 30% being adult females. The area has a
thriving agricultural sector with females being the dominant players in the sector while most
males are into artisanal mining.

Social problems arising from artisanal mining in the area: A lot of social ills arise from
the operations of social mining in Rosa area. Some among the most dominant are prostitution
where young women and girls batter their bodies for money to the artisanal miners in the
area. Issues of school dropouts are also rampant in the area as young children leave school to
join the trade of mining. There are also cases of early child marriages in the area with parents
auctioning their children into early marriages for a quick buck from the artisanal miners.

In the Rosa Mining area medical facilities are readily available. There is Rosa Rural District
hospital in the mining area and Mother Theresa about five kilometres from the mining area in
the north. There is also a secondary school and primary school in the area to cater for children
of the miners and farmers.

1.6 Limitations of the study

In undertaking this research, the researcher envisioned the following dares as having the
propensity to affect her capacity to effectually undertake the study:

Time constraints-

The researcher over and above being a student is a mother and a house wife who other social
and domestic obligations have the proclivity to take her time away from the study which
could interfere with the carrying out of this study. To ensure all her other commitments
would not interfere with her execution of the study, the researcher had to hire a maid to assist
with other domestic chores so that she could devote her time to the enquiry.

Resource limitations-

The researcher is a self-sponsoring student with the Bindura University of Science Education
who financial resources are torn between her studies and family responsibilities which leaves
her mostly with limited financial resources for the study. To ensure she has enough for
travelling, printing and photocopying for this study the researcher had to get a loan to finance
this enquiry.

1.7 Summary of the chapter

This chapter of the study provided background to the study, statement of the problem,
objectives of the study (both general and specific) and hypothesis to the enquiry. The chapter
also gave the justification of the study, description of the area of study as well as potential
limitations to the enquiry.

The next chapter of the study (two) will review literature related to this enquiry while chapter
three will outline the research methodology to employed in the study. Chapter four will
provide analysis of data collected in the enquiry while chapter five will give a summary of
the study, findings and recommendations to the findings.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.0 INTRODUCTION

This ongoing chapter will review literature related to artisanal mining. Journals, journal
articles, books as well as publications ranging from global, continental and regional have
been reviewed in this chapter. Guided by theories of Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC)
and Human-Environment Interaction theory, the research will unpack the effects of artisanal
mining to communities, paying attention to Rosa communities.

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1.1 ARTISANAL MINING AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Spiegel’s (2009) research examined the socio-economic and environmental impacts of

artisanal and small-scale mining in Tanzania. The study highlighted the complexities of
ASM, including its potential to generate income and create jobs, but also its environmental
health risks. The researcher emphasized the need for a nuanced understanding of ASM,
considering both its benefits and challenges. Spiegel’s research focused on the socio-
economic and environmental dimensions of ASM, providing insights into the lives and
experiences of miners. In contrast to the ongoing study which focuses specifically on
assessing the environmental consequences of ASM in the Rosa area of Chiweshe Communal
Lands.

Smith, Ali, Bofinger and Collins (2016) argue that artisanal mining is a way of alleviating
impoverishment for a myriad of people though it has detrimental effects. Their research puts
forward that the health and safety risks associated with artisanal small-scale mining are not
fully addressed in research, except for mercury contamination from gold mining. This gap
leaves miners, their families, and communities vulnerable to various health hazards. What is
unique about the present study is the need for a more comprehensive approach to addressing
health and safety risks in artisanal small-scale mining, in artisanal small-scale mining,
considering its diversity and complexity. Smith et al’s (2016) line of argument is quite handy
to the ongoing study as it points out that artisanal mining and small-scale mining poses
numerous risks to their communities. The present study however differs from the ongoing
study as it used surveys to collect data form a large representative sample of participants,
providing insights into the health and safety implications of artisanal small-scale mining.

Nyavaya (2021) analysed the organization, structure and legal framework of artisanal and
small-scale mining in Zimbabwe, with a specific focus on the gold sector. The researcher
examined two key areas, Mazowe in Mashonaland Central and Kenzambia in Mashonaland
West, in a bid to understand the factors that constitute artisanal small-scale mining work, a
significant contributor to Zimbabwe’s mineral-driven economy. The study established that
the analysis can inform efforts to address challenges and capitalize on opportunities,
ultimately contributing to the development of a more sustainable and equitable mining
industry. The link between Nyavaya’s (2021) study and the ongoing study is that artisanal
mining is not only dangerous to the miners, but pose a great deal of danger to the
community’s health and safety. The focus is on both instances in Zimbabwe. However, the
present study will dwell much on Rosa community, in Mazowe District, with a specific focus
on the effects of artisanal mining to the communities.

Hoadley and Limpitlaw (n.d.) established that countries with lower human development
index rankings tend to have a higher proportion of workers employed in artisanal small-scale
mining, underscoring the sector’s significance in these regions. The research also established
the substantial increase in artisanal small-scale mining operators as a result of the growing
poverty rates in developing regions. The link between the present study and the ongoing
study is that Hoadley and Limpitlaw’s (n.d.) investigated the artisanal small-scale mining
sector’s capability to create sustainable livelihoods and communities offering
recommendations on how it can enhance community well-being and sustainability. The
difference is however on the case study, whilst the ongoing study will use Rosa community
as a case study to examine the effects of artisanal mining, the present research used South
Africa to evaluate the current legislation and its impact on the artisanal small-scale mining
sector’s (ASM) growth, examining the extent to which local government is empowered to
integrate ASM into development plans and strategies.

Hilson (2010) examines the relationship between ASM and poverty. The researcher argued
that ASM can be a vital source of income for poor communities, helping to alleviate poverty
and improve livelihoods, particularly in rural areas where alternative livelihood opportunities
are scarce. What is common in both studies is the focus on ASM, both studies touch on the
importance of ASM as a source of livelihood for local communities. The diverging point
between Hilson’s (2010) and the ongoing study is that Hilson’s study emphasizes poverty
reduction and livelihoods, whereas the ongoing study aims to explore environmental
degradation, pollution and sustainability.
Hentschel and Priester’s (2004) study provides insights into the complexities of small-scale
gold mining. The research highlights the industry’s potential to contribute to local economic
development, generating revenue and creating jobs. Their study also notes that small-scale
gold mining can be associated with environmental and social challenges. What is handy is
that Hentschel and Priester’s (2004) study emphasizes the need for effective governance and
regulatory frameworks to mitigate these issues. Although Hentschel and Priester’s (2004)
research touches on environmental issues, the ongoing study will provide a more in-depth
examination of the environmental impacts, including land degradation, water pollution and
destruction of biodiversity habitat in a specific context.

Mkodzongi (2018) examined the dynamics of artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM)
in Zimbabwe focusing on its social and economic impacts. The research pointed out the
significance of ASGM as a livelihood strategy for many rural communities. Mkodzongi
(2018) brought to light the role played by ASGM in poverty reduction and improving
livelihoods of people in Zimbabwe. The research also holds that there is need for policies that
support the development of the ASGM sector. However, Mkodzongi (2018) mainly
concentrated on social and economic opportunities of ASGM, whilst the ongoing study will
provide a more detailed understanding of the ecological impacts of ASM in the Rosa area.

2.1.2 ARTISANAL MINING AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC EFFECTS

Campbell’s (2013) research focuses on the governance and regulation of the African mining
sector. The study critiques the dominant approaches to mining governance, arguing that they
often prioritize economic interests over social and environmental concerns. Campbell (2013)
emphasizes the importance of considering the specific contexts and needs of local
communities in mining governance. The main difference between the two studies lies in the
scope and focus. Campbell’s (2013) research explores the governance and regulatory aspects
of mining, whereas the ongoing study concentrate on the environmental impacts of ASM,
providing a deep understanding of the specific challenges and opportunities in the Rosa
communal area.

Keane’s (2008) research highlights the health risks associated with artisanal and small-scale
gold mining, particularly mercury poisoning. The research emphasizes the vulnerability of
miners and local communities to mercury exposure, which can have severe health
consequences. Keane’s (2008) study underscores the need for improved health and safety
practices, as well as effective regulations to mitigate mercury use in ASM. Both studies agree
to the fact that ASM can have adverse effects to the communities. However, Keane’s (2008)
research concentrates on health dimensions and risks of ASM, whereas the ongoing study
focuses on environmental impacts, highlighting the ecological effects of ASM in the Rosa
communal area, as well as the distinct but interconnected challenges associated with ASM.

Castro’s (2017) research examines the exploitation of artisanal and small-scale miners in
Mozambique. The study highlights the precarious working conditions, low incomes and
limited social protections faced by miners. The researcher critiques the power dynamics and
structural factors that contribute to the exploitation of miners, emphasizing the need for
improved labour rights and social protections. In contrast to the ongoing study which focuses
on the environmental consequences of ASM, including land degradation, water pollution and
loss of biodiversity, Castro’s (2017) research explores the socio-economic aspects of ASM,
narrowing down to labour exploitation and social issues.

Hilson’s (2019) research examines the policy vacuum surrounding ASM in sub-Saharan
Africa. The study highlighted the lack of effective regulation and support for the sector,
which hinders its potential to contribute to local economic development. Hilsons’s (2019
research emphasized the need for context-specific policies that address the unique challenges
and opportunities of ASM, which is quite handy to the ongoing research as it is looking at a
specific case study in a remote communal area. The research also substantiated on the
governance and regulatory aspects of ASM, shedding light on the policy gaps and potential
solutions. In contrast to the ongoing study which focuses on environmental impacts of small-
scale artisanal mining in Rosa communal area, the present research focused on policy and
governance dimensions of ASM.

Fisher (2007) explored the dynamics of ASM in Tanzania, focusing on labour integration and
social exclusion. The study holds that there is a complex relationship between miners, local
communities and the state. Fisher (2007) argued that there is need to understand the social
context and power dynamics within ASM, shedding light on the ways in which miners
navigate and negotiate their livelihoods. The research focused on the social aspects of ASM,
providing insights into the lives and experiences of miners. What is unique about this study is
that it explored social dynamics and labour integration. In contrast to the ongoing study
which will provide a more detailed understanding of the ecological effects of ASM in the
Rosa area.
Heller (2015) explored sustainable small-scale gold mining, focusing on challenges and
opportunities for improvement. The study highlighted the potential for cleaner production
methods and more effective regulations to mitigate environmental impacts. Heller’s (2015)
research emphasized the need for a holistic approach to sustainability in ASM, considering
both environmental and social dimensions. The research provides insights into strategies for
improving the sustainability of ASM, which are quite handy to the ongoing study. However,
while Heller’s (2015) research focused on broader sustainability issues and potential
solutions, the ongoing study will use a mixed method approach to provide a detailed
examination of environmental impacts in a specific context, Rosa communal area.

MacGregor (2015) explored the environmental impacts of ASM gold mining in Ghana. The
study highlighted the significant environmental degradation caused by ASM, including water
pollution, loss of biodiversity as well as deforestation. MacGregor (2015) substantiated that
there is need for effective regulations and sustainable practices to mitigate the environmental
impacts of ASM. The link between the present research and the ongoing research is that it
provides insights into the environmental challenges associated with ASM and the importance
of balancing economic development with environmental protection. The main difference
between MacGregor’s (2015) research and the ongoing study lies in the geographical focus,
MacGregor (2015) focused on Ghana, whereas the ongoing study focuses on Zimbabwe, with
a key focus on Rosa area.

Maponga’s (2017) research examines the environmental impacts of artisanal and small-scale
mining in Zimbabwe. The study puts forward the significant environmental degradation
caused by ASM, including air pollution, land degradation, deforestation as well as loss of
biodiversity. Maponga (2017) emphasized the need for effective regulations and sustainable
practices to mitigate the environmental impacts of ASM. The study provided insights into the
environmental challenges associated with ASM in Zimbabwe. The difference between the
present study and the ongoing study lies in the scope. Whereas Maponga’s (2015) research
covers ASM in Zimbabwe more broadly, the ongoing study will focus on a specific
geographic area, potentially highlighting unique environmental challenges and opportunities
in that context.

Diaz-Silveira (2017) provided an overview of ASM in Africa, highlighting its economic,

social and environmental dimensions. The study emphasized the complexities of ASM,
including its potential to generate income and create jobs, but also its environmental and
health risks. Diaz- Silveira’s (2017) research points the need for a comprehensive
understanding of ASM, considering both its benefits and challenges. The main difference
between the two studies lies in their scope and focus. Diaz-Silveira’s (2017) covers ASM in
Africa more broadly, whereas the ongoing study focuses on a more detailed and context-
specific examination of environmental impacts.

2.2 GAP ANALYSIS

Despite the existing research, there is limited focus on specific areas. Few areas have focused
on the Rosa area in Chiweshe Communal Lands, Zimbabwe, leaving a knowledge gap on the
specific environmental impacts of ASM in this region. Majority of researches conducted tend
to generalize or looked at big mines where ASM is practiced such as Mazowe, Shamva and
many more.

In addition, there is insufficient analysis of policy and regulatory frameworks within the
knowledge arena. There is need for a more detailed analysis of the policy and regulatory
frameworks governing ASM in Zimbabwe and their effectiveness in mitigating
environmental impacts. Studies that have been conducted merely identify the policies and
regulatory frameworks such as the EMA Act, Mines and Minerals Act but without a thorough
analysis of the implementation, effectiveness of the policies in regulating ASM.

Moreover, there is a lack of comprehensive assessment of environmental impacts particular

to a specific geographic context. A comprehensive assessment of the environmental impacts
of ASM in Rosa area, including the effects on biodiversity, soil structure and water resources,
is necessary to inform sustainable mining practices. This will aid environmental planners to
identify new challenges and opportunities that are unique to a certain geographic area,
thereby developing sustainable and eco-friendly ways of mitigating the effects of ASM.

2.3 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

This study has made use of two theories:

2.3.1 ENVIRONMENTAL KUZNETS CURVE (EKC) THEORY

The Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis has been brought forward by Grossman
and Krueger (1990). The scholars suggested that there is an inverted U-shaped relationship
between environmental degradation and economic growth. According to Stern (2004), the
EKC suggests that economic development initially harms the environment, but eventually
leads to environmental improvement as the economy grows further. Critics however argue
that this is not guaranteed and that targeted policies are needed to ensure economic growth
aligns with environmental protection.

The EKC framework provides lens through which to analyse the environmental implications
of small-scale artisanal mining in Rosa area, Chiweshe Communal Lands, Zimbabwe.
Artisanal mining, while contributing significantly to the livelihoods of rural communities,
often creates substantial environmental challenges. This includes deforestation, soil erosion,
contamination of water bodies and loss of biodiversity (Panayotou, 1993). According to Stern
(2004), such activities, driven by economic necessity, align with the initial phase of the EKC,
where environmental degradation intensifies alongside economic growth in the early stages
of development.

Small-scale miners in rural Zimbabwe typically operate with limited access to technology and
resources, focusing on short term economic gains without adequate consideration of long-
term environmental impacts (Dinda, 2004). This dynamic exacerbates environmental
degradation, as immediate survival often outweighs broader sustainability concerns. Stern
(2004) asserts that the EKC suggests as incomes rise and economies progress, societies begin
to prioritize environmental conservation. Therefore, in the context of Chiweshe Communal
Lands, reaching this turning point requires targeted interventions that promote sustainable
practices and technological improvements in mining process. Below is figure that shows the
EKC, the horizontal axis (x-axis) represents economic growth in terms of gross domestic
product (GDP) per capita. The vertical axis (y-axis) represents the level of environmental
degradation or pollution (environmental damage).
Figure 1 Image extracted from sciencedirect.com

From the above figure, one can note that the EKC theory suggests that environmental
degradation increases with economic growth (early stages, pre-industrial economies); and
later decreases with further economic growth. This relationship has been represented by a U-
shaped curve, where environmental damage initially rises and then falls as income levels
increase.

2.3.2 HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION (HEI) THEORY

The human-environment interaction (HEI) theory explores the dynamic relationship between
human activities and the natural environment, emphasizing how societies shape and are
shaped by their surroundings (Moran, 2010). This framework is particularly relevant when
assessing the environmental impacts of ASM in Rosa area, because it is an example of
human-environment interaction. However, Redman (1999) posits that this activity often leads
to significant environmental consequences, including deforestation, soil erosion, water
contamination, and biodiversity loss. The HEI theory therefore helps analyse how miners
modify the landscape, exploit resources, and respond to environmental changes (Redman,
1999). The research also holds that the theory considers how environmental degradation, in
turn, affects human well-being, economic stability, and social structures.

The theory also highlights the role of governance and policy in shaping human-environment
interactions as stated by Ostrom (2009). Effective environmental regulations, technological
advancements and community engagement can mitigate the negative effects of artisanal
mining. Moran (2010) further points out that sustainable mining practice, such as improved
waste management and land rehabilitation can help balance economic benefits with
ecological preservation.

Another key aspect of HEI theory is the feedback loop between human actions and
environmental responses as highlighted by Ostrom, (2009). In Chiweshe Communal Lands,
miners rely on local ecosystems for water and land, but their activities degrade these
resources leading to reduced agricultural productivity and water scarcity. According to
Redman (1999), these degradation forces communities to adapt, either by implementing
conservation measures, seeking alternative livelihoods, or continuing unsustainable practices
due to economic necessity. Below is a figure that demonstrates how the HEI theory works.

Figure 2 Image extracted from greencitizen.com

The figure above shows that while interactions can have negative impacts, there are also
positive ways to benefit the natural environment. Thus, human interact differently with the
natural environment.

2.3.2.1 DEPENDENCE ON THE ENVIRONMENT

According to Lambin & Geist (2006), every living creature on Earth relies on its natural
environment for survival. This however has increased, taking into consideration residents
from the Rosa area. Their daily lives depend on minerals extracted from the earth. This
dependence has a potential to harm the environment as it has become an over dependency
syndrome.

2.3.2.2 MODIFICATION OF THE ENVIRONMENT

Lambin & Geist (2006) point out that human activity inevitably leads to changes in
environment bringing both adverse and beneficial effects. In the case of Rosa area, ASM
though it has improved people’ s living standards, has destroyed the soil structure, affected
air quality, and contributed to siltation of rivers.

2.3.2.3 ADAPTATION TO THE ENVIRONMENT

This refers to how human beings have thrived under certain circumstances, changing their
way of life to suit the surroundings. Thus, the research seeks to proffer sustainable adaptation
measures to the inhabitants of Rosa area.

2.4 CONCLUSION

The chapter has analysed related literature pertaining to ASM. The chapter further discussed
the EKC and HEI theory, which are its intellectual pedestals. The following chapter looks at
the research methodology and design that the study has adopted.
CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.0 INTRODUCTION

This segment of the enquiry seeks to provide an outline of the research plot or design, the
sampling and sampling procedures to be adopted for the selection of research participants and
the data analysis approach to be used in the study.

3.1 RESEARCH DESIGN

In trying to paint a purer portrait of the environmental impacts of small-scale artisanal miners
in rural Zimbabwe focusing principally on Rosa artisanal mining area in Chiweshe
Communal Lands of Mashonaland Central, the researcher in this enquiry espoused the
mixed–methods research design.

3.1.1 THE MIXED-METHOD RESEARCH DESIGN

According to Chikoko and Mhloyi (2005) The Mixed-method research design is a

consolidation of two research slants or strategies namely the quantitative and qualitative
research approaches. The two cited sages above claim that this research design comprises of
collecting qualitative data through the use of interviewing principal participants in an enquiry
who include residents of the Rosa Mining area and Ward Natural Resource Monitors
(WNRMs) and quantitative data through statistical analysis of responses provided by
respondents through questionnaires. Cohen (2006) opines that Mixed-methods research
encompasses an amalgamation the qualitative and quantitative data collection and analysis
systems which in turn generates a new comprehensive depiction of the academic marvels
under the scholarship.

Rukuni-Makore (2010) posits that all social science researches the adoption and use of the
Mixed-method research design is more expedient than other same systems of enquiry.
According to the researcher, the primary pluses of using this approach include:

 Provision of the researcher with a more complete appreciation of portents under the
microscope through providing both qualitative and quantitative understandings.
 The research design also increases the validity of studies through allowing ease
triangulation of the gotten qualitative and quantitative data.
  Further, the research design helps in addressing polygonal research issues through
using of both qualitative and quantitative methods.
 Finally, the research design offers ironic data though providing text, figures and even
images where possible.

Rukuni-Makore (2010) however, says that the use of this research design also has certain
drawbacks to social research when researchers opt to use it. According to the scholar the most
notable of these demerits include those listed below:

 According to the scholar the use of this research design embraces the use of
convoluted and sophisticated data analysis approaches which if not scrupulously
checked could lead to errors in data interpretation.
 The research design is also demanding in matters of resources which could affect the
execution of studies leading to provision of incomplete and inconclusive findings.
 There is also a prospect of incompatible data collected from the qualitative and
quantitative studies that could further confound the analysis of findings of the study.

However, while complications could arise in using the said research design in this
enquiry, the researcher in this study was of the opinion that this research slant has more to
offer in this enquiry than can the demerits shade off. It was the researcher’s grounded
view that through the adoption and use of this research design, the researcher would be
able to with ease triangulate the collected data and come up with a clear picture of the
results. The researcher also was of the of the opinion through the through the use of the
research design the researcher would be able to adjust to nascent research drifts that
would arise in the course of the enquiry and the approach itself will be able to offer a
richer depiction of issues under study in this enquiry.

3.2 RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

In trying to unpack the environmental impacts of artisanal mining in Rosa Mining area, this
researcher opted for interviews, questionnaires and focus group discussions as data collection
instruments in the enquiry.

3.2.1 QUESTIONNAIRES

Cohen (2006) holds that questionnaires are data gathering instruments used in quantitative
research to collect data from participants in any study that comprise of well fashioned
questions on papers called questionnaires. In the same spirit, Creswell (2012) says
questionnaires are structured questions that are distributed to research respondents in order
for them for them fill them in and return to researchers for the final treatment and analysis of
findings.

Cohen (2006) furthers says there are different systems of questionnaire designing which are
of on-line questionnaires, paper-based questionnaires and telephone-based questionnaires. In
this study the researcher adopted the paper-based questionnaires for easier analysis of data
and storage of responses for future needs.

According to Creswell (2012) the use of questionnaires in social research has advantages for
the any research. Creswell (2012) says that some of the positive returns in adopting and using
this data collection method are:

 Questionnaires are low cost instruments.

 Questionnaires can be standardized which them makes it easier to compare the
collected data.
 Questionnaires are not time consuming both distribution and analysis.

In this enquiry, the researcher opted for using to use questionnaires based on the views raised
by Creswell (2012) above.

While questionnaire have merits, Cohen (2006) says the use of questionnaires in social
research may have demerits. According to the scholar one of the major hitches of this method
to research is that respondent may choose not to return the instruments or answer certain
questions in the questionnaire which could lead to misleading findings. To counter this
researcher in this study used interviews to ensure that where there were shortfalls with
questionnaires, interviews were used to complement data collected through questionnaires. In
this enquiry, both open-ended and closed-ended questionnaires were used make sure that the
participants in the study could elucidate well in their responses where it was necessary.

3.2.2 INTERVIEWS

Interviews are research data collection approaches that include dialog or direct questions and
answer sessions between the researcher (interviewer) and individuals or groups of
participants in the study whose sole intention is to gather comprehensive rejoinders on a topic
of study (Rukuni-Makore, 2010). Saunders (2015) on the other hand also says that there are
five different of interviews types in research which are structured, semi-structured,
unstructured and group discussions. According to the Saunders (2015) the usage of dialogs
(interviews) for data collection in research has a number of advantages some of which
include among others:

 These provide a chance for interviewers to seek for precision where interviewees’
responses appear obscure and indistinct.

 They provide thorough appreciation of perceptions into researched phenomena

because the interviewee has the chance to explicate on concepts discussed.

 Give the researcher a chance to get personal perspectives of respondents on the

research narrative understudy.

 Interviews are a more flexible means of research which can be undertaken in a

relaxed atmosphere where the respondent can unwind totally to give the researcher all
the necessary details.

However, while Kvale (2007) says interviews also have disadvantages and some of the major
one being these listed below:

 Interviewing research participants is time consuming.

 Interviews are necessary when dealing with small samples.

 They are also subjective in nature which then makes them an over compromised
form of enquiry.

However, this researcher in this enquiry complemented interviews with questionnaires to

make the findings of this study more comprehensive.

3.2.3 FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS

According to Lewis (2000), a focus group is a type of interview that is planned in a manner
that allows viewpoint to be yielded in the topic of interest in a permissive, non-threatening
environment. Focus group discussions were very important as they assisted in obtaining
general background information pertaining to artisanal mining activities happening in Rosa
area in Chiweshe Communal area and their socio-economic effects. According to Stewart and
Shamdasani (1990), focus group interviews can also be used to stimulate new ideas and
creative concepts. The scholars further put forward ideally a focus group should consist of 5-
12 relatively homogenous participants, this allows perceptions to develop through
participants’ interaction. The researcher conducted 2 focus group discussions A and B in
which both groups had 5 participants which is a manageable sample and would not allow one
or two members to dominate over the others. Focus group discussions were conducted first
via WhatsApp so as to capture unanswered questions for face to face interviews, and also the
social media platform was very cheap considering the fact that it eliminates geo-physical
boundaries.

3.3 STUDY POPULATION

Rosa Mining area lies in Mazowe District and has two Ward Natural Resource Monitors
(WNRMs) whose responsibility is to monitor issues of environmental management and has
300 households with a total population of 1500 people and these in the study constituted the
research population in this enquiry. It was from these people (the population) that the
research sample was drawn.

3.4 SAMPLE AND SAMPLING PROCEDURES

The matter of what creates an opposite research sample for any enquiry is somewhat
contentious. Countless dons have dissimilar instructions. Makore-Rukuni (2010) says 2/3
(two thirds) of the population creates a sample while Creswell (2014) opines that 33.33% of
the population is a valid sample for any study. Kvale say between 10 and 20% of the
population is good enough sample. In this study however, the researcher chose to go by
Kvale say between 10%’s recommendation which means a sample for this enquiry will
comprise of 150 people from the households in the mining area.

In the sampling procedure the researcher used the purposive sampling where the two
WNRMs in the were selected on the basis of their responsibilities that entail monitoring
environmental issues which is relevant to the thrust of this enquiry and then the other 148
respondents were chosen using the random sampling technique where cards inscribe Yes and
No were put into a box and the WNRMs were asked to pick from the box. Those who Yes
were chosen to participate in the study and those who picked No were left out.

3.5 DATA PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS

Data in this study was presented in form of table, charts and graphs for the quantitative data.
Statistical information pertaining to response rate was also presented in tables and analysed
by SPSS basing on the gender that took part in the answering of the questionnaire.

3.6 Summary
In this section of the study, the researcher gave the research design, an outline of how this
study will obtain. The researcher in the enquiry opted for the mixed methods approach from a
population 1500 Rosa residents. A sample of 150 participants was chosen using both
purposive sampling and random sampling method. Data was collected through interviews and
questions. The collected data was collected both qualitatively and quantitatively. The next
chapter (four) provides the findings found from the analysed data.

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

4.0 INTRODUCTION

In this segment of the study, the researcher provides the analysis and interpretation of data
collected through questionnaires and interviews to establish the environmental impacts of
artisanal mining in communal areas focusing squarely at the experiences drawn from Rosa
Mining Area in Chiweshe communal lands of Mashonaland Central province. Charts, table
and graphs were used to provide a reflection of the views of the respondents.

4.1 RESPONSE RATE

Table 1: Response rate

Instruments

Respondent category Questionnaires Interviews Average

WNRMs 100% 100% 100%
Residents 95% 94% 94.50%
Overall Response rate 97.25%

As is provided in the table above 100% of the Ward Natural Resource Monitors (WNRMs)
returned the questionnaires and an equally corresponding figure of 100% of this class of these
respondents were also available for the interviews making it that 100% of the WNRMs were
available for the study. On the residents of the Rosa community 95% of the respondents
returned the questionnaires while 94% were available for interviews. The averaged response
rate for both the WNRMs and residents was 97.25% which is a high portion of same to render
the findings of this enquiry both credible and representative of the views of the sample
selected for the enquiry. However, the other 5% did not return the questionnaires and the
other 6% did not appear for the interviews. Rosa community residents who did not return
questionnaires may indicate certain underlying factors affecting participation. Possible
reasons for non-response include lack of time, unwillingness to disclose information, literacy
barriers, or scepticism about the study’s objectives.

4.2 DISTRIBUTION OF RESPONDENTS BY GENDER

Pie chart 1: Gender distribution of sample
 Males
Females
47%
53%

As the pie chart above provides, 47% of the respondents were females while 53% were
males. The fact that more males participated in the enquiry could be out of the patriarchal
nature of the rural communities in Zimbabwe where more men than women appear concerned
with the world outside homes and the environment than women. The fact however that both
males and females participated in the enquiry show that the views expressed in the study are
gender balanced because both females and males were participants in the enquiry. The
variations in their rations is not of much material worthy.

4.3RESPONDENTS AGE DISTRIBUTION

Graph 1: Distribution of respondent by age

% of Respondents
63+yrs. 10%
58 to 62 yrs. 5%
53 to 57 yrs. 10%
48 to 52 yrs. 10%
43 to 47 yrs. 20%
38 to 42yrs. 5%
33 to 37 yrs. 15%
28 to 32yrs. 10%
23 to 27yrs. 15%
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%
The figure above provides a clear depiction on the distribution of participants by age. From
the figure 15% of the respondents were between 23 and 27 years of age while 10% were
between 28 and 32 years of age. The other 15% were within the 33 to 37-year age bracket.
5% of the respondents were respondents were between 38 and 42 years of age. The larger
hunk of the of the groups constituting 20% were between 43 and 47 years of age while 10%
were between 48 and 52 years of age and other 10% were between 53 and 57 years of age.
5% of the respondents were between 58 and 62 years old and the last 10% were 63 years old
or above that age.

The age distribution of the respondents as is given in the figure above shows that the
participants in the study were drawn from different generations as reflected by their aged
where the young population was represented by those in the early twenties to the early thirties
and the middle ages were represented by those in the forties while the old generations where
represented by those above sixty years of age. Such a distribution shows that ideas and
responses raised in this study capture the views of all generations of people in Rosa Mining
area and hence based on this the findings of the enquiry could be said to be inter-
generationally sound, credible and reliable as they drew perceptions of all generations in the
society.

4.4 YEARS OF EXPERIENCE OF WNRMS AND RESIDENCE OF RESPONDENTS

IN ROSA MINING AREA
Graph 2: Years of experience of WNRMS and residence of respondents in Rosa Mining
area
70%

60% 0.6
0.5 0.5
50%

40% 0.4

30%

20%

10%

0%
6 to 10 . 11 to 15 16 to 20 21 yrs +

Years of work experience (yrs) 0 to 5 Period of Residence in Rose (yrs) 0 to 5.

From the graph above, 50% of the Ward Natural Resource Monitors have been at work for
between six to 10 years while the other 50% have need working in their position of
monitoring the environment in the area for between 16 to 20 years. The periods of
experiences possessed by these respondents is too long a period to enable them to understand
issues of environmental degradation and the impact of artisanal mining which is the thrust or
pith of this enquiry. Their protracted years of industrial experience renders their contribution
to this enquiry both trusty and credible which therefore renders the findings of this enquiry
sound and encyclopaedic.

On the issue of residents of respondent is Rosa Mining area, 40% of the respondent say they
have been resident in the area for a period ranging between 16 and 20 years while the other
60% claim to have been resident in the area for a period ranging from 21 years and beyond.
The fact that these respondents have been resident in the area under study implies that they
have seen over years the deprivation of the environment that the area has seen over years due
to artisanal mining activities in the area their lingering habitation in the area has enabled them
to see the environmental transformation of the area brought by the rise of artisanal mining in
the area. Their stay in the area under the microscope has therefore given them the ability to
provide responses to both questionnaires and interviews that informed by experience which
by no means can fail the test of reliability.

4.5 ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IN ROSA MINING AREA AND ITS

FORMS
Table 2: Prevalence of environment degradation and it forms
% of
Yes No Forms of environmental degradation respondents
100% 0% Gullying 30%
River bank panning and river siltation 20%
Land pollution 10%
Water pollution 6%
Noise pollution 10%
Air pollution 4%
Poisoning of water bodies through cyanide & other
chemicals 7%
Deforestation 13%

The 100% of the respondent all claim that there are serious issues of environmental
degradation in Rosa Mining area and according to these respondents these forms of
environmental degradation are grossly linked to activities of artisanal mining in the area. The
fact that 100% of the respondents agree to the incidences of environmental vandalism in the
area which they claim is or could be linked to the mining activities in the area provides a
justification why this study was necessary in the area it was undertaken. The fact that all
respondents find a link between the environmental shattering and artisanal mining in the area
provides a sound explanation as to why this study can be read for a credible enquiry as it
sought to address a genuine issue that is prevalent in the area of Rosa which is violation of
the environment owing to artisanal mining activities in the area.

On the forms of environmental degradation ubiquitous in the area, 30% of the respondents
claim that gullying or digging and leaving open gullies in search of gold is the most dominant
form of environmental wrecking in the area while the other 20% say river bank panning
which then gives way to river siltation is another issue of environmental violation common in
the area. According to these respondents when going after the alluvial form of gold artisanal
miners go to the banks of Mutoradundu and Ruya Rivers in the area where they dig for soil
which they then pan in the rivers resulting in a lot of siltation of the rivers.

The other 13% of the respondents believe that artisanal mining in the area has resulted in
heightened deforestation when the artisanal miners have to cut down tree for either timbering
their mines or general uses as firewood in the gold purification processes.

The 10% of the respondents say that the other for of environmental degradation experienced
in Rosa Mining area owing to artisanal excavation in the area is the issue of land pollution.
According to these respondents a lot of rubble from the mines is deposited anywhere and
everywhere as the mines have no designated dumping sites in the area. According to the
respondent a movement through the places provides an eye soring kind of scenery of dumbs
of rubble and uncovered pits that have become not only risks to the people but even to
animals in the locality. The other 10% of the respondents hold that the other form of
environmental degradation in the area is the issue of noise pollution which emanates from the
diesel -powered machines that are used by the miners in their quest to get the yellow stone
from deep under.

According to 7% of the respondent the other environmental hazard that occurs in Rosa
mining area owing to artisanal mining in the area is pollution and poisoning of the water
bodies in the area from cyanide used in the cyanidation of gold and other minerals like
mercury that they use in the treatment and purification of gold. The use of these
environmentally toxic chemicals does to a large extent destroys the environment as well as
possess health dangers to both people and animals in the area.
The 6% of the respondents are of the opinion that the other challenge or environmental
menace that artisanal mining in Rosa has levied on the environment is water pollution.
According to the respondents’ water bodies in the area have become cleaning basins for
miners who are either into alluvial gold search or those with bigger mining facility who want
to clean their ore. In addition to these forms abuse of water bodies in the area, rivers and
other water sources in the area have also become dumbing sites of chemical laden mining
residue.

The last 4% of the respondents said that air pollution is another issue of environmental
concern common in Rosa Mining are emanating from artisanal mining activities in the area.
According to these respondents a lot of miners in the area use diesel powered machines
which emit a lot of smoke in the process which causes air pollution. Of the 4% some
respondents also say that during the mining process there is a lot of dust that is raised from
the mines which also results in the pollution of the air.

The fact that the all respondents in the study acknowledged the prevalence of environmental
violation in Rosa mining area which they all attribute or claim is closely linked to artisanal
mining in the area justifies the validity of this study in that it is an enquiry that took place in
an area affected by artisanal mining which makes it findings credible and lucid to the core.

4.6 HOW ARTISANAL MINING CAUSES ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

Doughnut Chart 1: Impact of artisanal mining on the environment

Impact of arti sanal mining on environment

14%
5% 32%

9%

18%
23%

Pollution of water bodies Land degradation Air polution

River siltation Deforestation Unsanctioned dumbing
The 32% of the respondents were of the opinion that artisanal mining in Rosa Mining
community in Chiweshe communal area is responsible for major environmental violation
which include pollution of water bodies. According to these respondents, the use of river for
panning and, cleaning the ore as well as dumbing mining residue are form of water pollution
which are rampant in the area. The views given by the respondents here are in sync with the
views raised by Hajer (2009) who opined that the first fatality in any area where artisanal
form of mining takes place area the water sources that miners adopt as mineral purifying
centres. The view is also supported by Adams (2015) who holds that in every artisanal
mining community water sources are the first victims of abuse by artisanal miners who target
them and use them for mineral processing in their exertion to eke a living out of the
environment. The fact that respondents in the enquiry raised the issue of water bodies that
were also raised by Hajer (2009) and Adams (2015) implies that indeed to a greater extent the
environment in Rosa mining area is under siege from artisanal miners and it is clear that the
first aspect of the environment are water bodies in the area used for the purification and
treatment of gold by the miners themselves.

The other 23% of the respondent are of the view that land degradation is the other way
artisanal mining in Rosa is impacting on the environment. According to these respondents
through gullying the area by digging everywhere and anywhere the mines destroy the land
and equally so through dumbing their residue everywhere artisanal miners are destroying the
environment. According to these respondents despite massive land degradation in Rosa there
have not been even the barest efforts from the miners to reclaim the violated land. The view
of land degradation being a challenge in artisanal mining zones has also been said by Chuma
(2017) who opined that in South Africa Artisanal mining has resulted in massive land
degradation and this is the same experience of residents and WNRMs in Rosa mining area.

Also 18% of the respondents said that air pollution is another may through which the
environment has been impacted on by artisanal mining in Rosa. According to the respondents
through the use of either diesel or gasoline powered engines to power machinery used by
artisanal miners in Rosa area heavily pollutes the air to the point that a lot of the people in
area now fear for their health. Other than fumes from diesel and petrol the dust raised from
the mining activities is another area of concern for the residents and WNRMs in the area.
This response from participants in the study proves that through the use of machinery that
emits petrol or diesel billows artisanal miner in Rosa affect the environmental equipoise.
From the 18% of the respondents the other 14% of the respondents are of the view that
unsanctioned and uncontrolled dumbing of disused ore or other mining solid mining residue
is another means through which environmental degradation takes placed in artisanal mining
area. According to these respondents the deposition of unwanted and useless mining dregs
everywhere is a form of environmental violation experienced in the area. This view is in line
with the view raised by Kumar (2015) who says in Ghana mounts of unwanted mining debris
has become an eye sore in some of the country’s artisanal mining communities. This same
experience has become a common sight in Rosa where such actions are rampant proving
therefore that uncontrolled dumbing of has resulted in creation of serious mountains of
useless mining debris in the area.

Through river bank and stream bank panning 9% of the respondents claim that stream and
river siltation is another way by which the environment in Rosa Mining area is affected by
artisanal mining activities in the area. According to these respondents when artisanal miners
in the area ply their trade close to the rivers and on the banks, this leads to erosion that
consequently leads to rivers filling up with soils.

The other 4% of the respondents opined that the other way mining in Rosa has impacted on
the environment in the area is through deforestation where miners and their families wantonly
cut down trees for firewood either for mineral purification or cooking or timbering their
mines for safety. According to these respondents owing to the rise of mining in the area in the
early 1990s there has been serious deforestation in the area to the point that the area now
stands on the peripheries of desertification.

4.7 MEASURES PUT IN PLACE TO CURB ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

IN ROSA
Pie chart 2: Measures put in place to curb environmental degradation in Rosa

14% 19% Community awareness compaigns

Engagement with community and
traditional leaders
24% Heightened policing
Community environemntal commi-
29% tees
5% Partnerships with EMA, Forestry and
10% other stakeholders consultations
Artisanal miner engagement

In a bid to control the challenges of environmental degradation in the Rosa mining area a lot
of has been done in the area by the community and other stakeholders. 29% of the
respondents say that they have been efforts to engage with traditional and community leaders
engage the miners and community members on matters of environmental issues while 19% of
the respondents say that WNRMs and other governments have engaged communities through
community awareness campaigns.

The 24% of the of the respondents say partnerships with government parastals like the
Environmental Management Agency (EMA), Forestry Commission and other stakeholders to
effectively police environmental issues in the area while the other 14% of the respondents say
that direct engagement of the miners by EMA, Forestry Commission and Mazowe Rural
District Council (Natural Resources Unit) have also been used as potential ways out of the
environment mining quagmire Rosa mining area has found itself in owing artisanal mining
activities in the area.

The other 9% of the respondents say increased police visibility and heightened community
policing is the other way that has been adopted by Rosa community and the try and arrest
environmental violators in the area while the last 5% of the respondents say that
establishments of community environment committees that work with community leaders,
police and WNRMs in monitoring and reporting environmental issues has also been adopted
as a measure in the area.
4.7 EFFECTIVENESS OF STRATEGIES EMPLOYED TO CURB
ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IN ROSA

Graph 3: Effectiveness of measures to curb environmental degradation in Rosa

The graph above provides a feel of the respondents on the effectiveness of the adopted
strategies to control environmental degradation in Rosa Artisanal mining area. According to
5% of the respondents the strategies employed in the area are effective in that some of the
miners in the area like the Rosa Mining Syndicate and Rosa 10 syndicate have started have
responsible litter and disposal mechanisms where they two are engaged in gully filling and
land reclamations. The other 25% of the respondents hold that there is no significant shift in
matters environment in the area despite the implementation of new strategies. According to
these respondents despite these new strategies, issues of water bodies pollution, land
degradation and deforestation still persist in the area. The majority of the respondents (70%)
say that there have been some partial or fractional improvements in the area where certain
mining syndicates have taken it upon themselves to promote responsible and sustainable
mining activities in the area like land reclamation and rehabilitation which were not there
previously. However, these respondents say that there still certain grey areas in
environmental protection from the artisanal mining like water bodies pollution still continues
and air pollution is still a challenge. But based on the views of respondents, it is apparent that
the migration towards conservational mining in the area is still too minimal to write home
about.
4.8 POSSIBLE SOLUTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES IN ROSA
MINING AREA.
Graph 4: possible solution to environmental challenges in Rosa Mining area

strengthening of community enviromental commitees

Empowerment of traditional leaders to prosecute and fine

Prosecution with heavy pernalities for perpetrators

Employment of more WNRMs

Curb corruption in police, WNRMS and others

Establish EMA and Forestryb offices in Rosa

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%

As is given in the graph above 25% of the respondents say to effectively claim that to
effectively curtail environmental degradation in the Rosa artisanal mining area there is need
to establish resident offices of EMA, Forestry Commission in the area to arrest and process
the prosecution of environmental violator unlike the current establishment when these visit
the area intermittently. According to these respondents their permanent residence in the area
provides for them to monitor issues of environmental use and abuse by artisanal miners in the
area.

The other 25% of the respondents were of the view that the legal systems in the country are
rather on the indulgent side that they should be. According to these respondents there is need
for arrest by either the police or environmental agency like EMA and Forestry Commission
of violators of the environment that should be followed by prosecution of these people.
According to these participants in the study the current arrangement where environmental
violators are either arrested and released without custodial or heavy penalties serves only to
exacerbate the issue of environmental degradation in the area.

The 15% of the respondents believe that there is also need to strengthen environmental
monitoring committees in Rosa to ensure these are given arresting powers as members of the
neighbourhood watch committees to ensure they can work to deter environmental
degradation in the area while the other 15% believe there is need to employ more WNRMs as
the current number of two per ward cannot exhaustively manage the ward which is too big for
only two people.
The 10% of respondents say that traditional leaders in the area like village heads, the
headmen and chiefs should be empowered legally to try environmental issues and move away
from the current schema where their exclusive province appears to be only domestic and
family squabbles. According to these if traditional leaders are empowered to do this then
these cases can surely be reduced in the area. The other 10% of the people were of the
opinion that there is need to curb corruption in the police force, WNRMs and other
environmental agency through continually rotating officers as these have to an extent become
agency of environmental degradation rather than protecting it. According to respondents
oiling the palms of a police office or WNRMs with a few coins of silver can earn you a
passport to environmental rape.

4.9 ANALYSIS OF DATA GATHERED FROM FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS

Responses in both focus groups seem to marry because Rosa residents identified signs of land
degradation which include deforestation, air and water pollution, as well as disruption of
water flows. This according to WNRMs, are the chief environmental impacts of artisanal
mining, which has led to soil erosion, water contamination in the local water bodies.

Henceforth, the research holds that small-scale artisanal mining in Rosa poses significant
environmental risks, with potential impacts on the local ecosystem and surrounding
communities. One of the primary concerns is deforestation and land degradation, as mining
activities lead to clearing of vegetation, soil erosion, and land degradation of land. This not
only affects agricultural productivity, but also contributes to loss of biodiversity.

Water pollution is another major issue, as artisanal mining often involves the use of mercury
and other chemicals. These toxic substances can contaminate nearby water sources, posing a
significant risk to human health and aquatic life. Moreover, mining activities can lead to soil
pollution, releasing heavy metals and other pollutants into the soil. This can have devastating
effects on agricultural productivity and human health.
Pertaining to the environmental changes, focus group A, highlighted the degradation of soil
structure which has become more prone to erosion. Focus B, though not clear pointed that
many trees have been cleared to make way for mining operations. thus, small-scale artisanal
mining in Rosa has led to significant environmental degradation. Soil structure has degraded,
increasing erosion and sedimentation in local water bodies. Deforestation has altered the
ecosystem, affecting local flora and fauna. Increased dust pollution has compromised air
quality, while gully formation and soil erosion have exacerbated environmental change.
In regards to regulations, governing artisanal mining in Rosa, focus group discussion A
pointed out that the Mines and Minerals Act, as a law that regulate mining activities.
However, the effectiveness of this regulation in mitigating environmental impacts of artisanal
mining is limited due to lack of proper enforcement. As a result, environmental impacts
persist, and the regulations are not effectively mitigating the negative effects of small-scale
artisanal mining in Rosa.
In relation to the mitigation of environmental impacts, both focus groups, comprising of Rosa
residents and WNRM, converged on potential strategies and opportunities to mitigate the
environmental impacts of small-scale artisanal mining. Strategies included providing
alternative livelihoods, environmental education, regulatory enforcement, rehabilitation of
degraded lands, and community-led management. Opportunities for sustainable mining
practices, eco-tourism, agricultural development, collaboration with NGOs, and access to
finance were also identified. Notably, both focus groups emphasized the importance of
empowering local communities and promoting sustainable practices, highlighting a shared
commitment to environmental conservation and community development.
4.10 SUMMARY

This section of the study provided a presentation and analysis of the data collected in the
enquiry through questionnaires, interviews and focus group discussions. Charts, tables and
graphs were used to present the data. The next chapter will now provide the summary,
conclusions drawn from the study and recommendations.

CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

5.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter aims at interpreting and analysing the findings presented in the previous chapter,
examining their importance within the context of the study’s objectives. By synthesizing
results with theoretical frameworks, such as the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) and
Human-Environment Interaction (HEI) theory, this discussion highlights key challenges,
trends and opportunities relevant to small-scale artisanal mining in Rosa area, Chiweshe
Communal Lands, Zimbabwe.

5.2 DISCUSSION OF INFORMATION GATHERED FROM QUESTIONNAIRES

Pertaining to the response rate, the respondents who did not return the questionnaires, though
a minority represents a small gap in data collection that should be acknowledged. While the
overall response rate of 97.25% is notably high and ensures that the findings are credible and
representative, the 5% of Rosa community residents who did not return questionnaires may
indicate certain underlying factors affecting participation. Possible reasons for non-response
include lack of time, unwillingness to disclose information, literacy barriers, or scepticism
about the study’s objectives. Although their absence does not significantly compromise the
validity of the study, it is important to recognize that non-respondents may hold perspectives
that differ from those who participated. If their views diverge considerably, their absence
might create a slight bias in the findings.

In regards to gender responses, the data gathered shows that the participation ratio of males
(53%) and females (43%) in the study is relatively close, ensuring that both genders were
represented and their views were included in the findings. While the slight disparity may
stem from cultural and social dynamics in rural Zimbabwe, where traditional patriarchal
norms often shape participation in public and environmental matters, it is important recognize
the significance of both genders contributing to the research. The difference in participation
rates though noticeable, does not diminish the credibility of the findings or create a
significant bias, as both perspectives were adequately represented. This balanced
representation contributes to the reliability of the study and ensures that the results reflect a
diverse range of opinions and experiences.

In relation to age dynamics, the age distribution of respondents reflects a diverse

representation of age groups ensuring a balanced perspective of different generations. The
majority participation from individuals between 43 and 47 years of age (20%) suggests that
middle-aged adults play a significant role in engaging with the study’s themes, potentially
due to their extensive experience in the community and environmental concerns. The notable
presence of younger respondents, such as the 15% in the 23-27 age groups indicates a level of
involvement among younger demographics, possibly influenced by educational awareness or
direct economic ties to artisanal mining. Although participation declines slightly in older age
brackets (with 5% between 58-62 years and 10% above 63 years), their involvement ensures
that insights from long-standing community members are included. This mix of respondents
from various age groups enriches the study by integrating perspectives from different stages
of life, helping to provide a comprehensive understanding of the environmental and socio-
economic impacts of small-scale artisanal mining in Rosa area, Chiweshe Communal Lands.

The data on the tenure of Ward Natural Resource Monitors (WNRMs) reflects a significant
level of experience among respondents. The even split- 50% with 6-10 years of experience
and 50% with 16-20 years of experience suggests a well-balanced workforce with both
relatively newer and highly seasoned monitors. The presence of experienced individuals is
valuable for managing small-scale artisanal mining’s environmental impacts, as they can
draw on their historical observations to identify changes, enforce regulations, and educate
local miners on sustainable practices. The residency data of communities indicates a long-
term presence of respondents in Rosa mining area, with 40% having lived there for 16-20
years, while the majority (60%) has been residents for 21 years or more. This significant
tenure suggests that most individuals in the community have developed deep-rooted
connections with the environment and local mining activities. Such long-term residency is
valuable in assessing the environmental impacts of artisanal mining, as these individuals
possess first-hand knowledge of ecological changes, land use patterns, and socio-economic
shifts over time. Their extended stay implies that they may have witnessed both the benefits
and challenges associated with mining, contributing informed perspectives to the study.

5.3 DISCUSSION OF INFORMATION GATHERED FROM INTERVIEWS

5.3.1 FORMS OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IN ROSA MINING AREA

The data gathered presented various forms of environmental degradation prevalent in the
Rosa area, highlighting key concerns such as gulling (30%), river bank panning and siltation
(20%), deforestation (13%) and poisoning of water bodies through cyanide and other
chemicals (7%). According to Grossman and Krueger (1990), the EKC suggests that
environmental degradation initially increase with economic activities but eventually declines
as economies mature and implement better environmental regulations and technologies.
Therefore, in the case of Rosa mining area, the high prevalence of gullies, river siltation, and
land pollution indicates that the mining community is in the early stage of the EKC, where
environmental damage intensifies due to unregulated exploitation of resources. From an HEI
perspective, the information highlights direct human intervention in the ecosystem through
artisanal mining. These findings emphasize the urgent need for harmonized resource
management in Rosa, because, Redman (1999) argues that unless adaptive strategies – such
as land rehabilitation, water conservation measures and community-based regulations are
implemented, the degradation will continue to impact livelihoods and ecosystems negatively.

5.3.2 ARTISANAL MINING AS A CAUSE OF ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION

The findings highlight that artisanal mining is a chief cause of environmental degradation in
the Rosa mining area. Among the most prevalent issues is the pollution of water bodies,
accounting for 32% of the recorded environmental damage. This underscores the substantial
role that mining activities play in contaminating local water sources, posing risks to both
aquatic ecosystems and human health (Heller, 2015). Land degradation, making up 23% of
the impact, further reflects how unregulated resource extraction leads to soil erosion and loss
of arable land, ultimately affecting agricultural productivity and biodiversity. HEI theory
contextualizes these findings by emphasizing the reciprocal relationship between human
activities and the environment. Mining is deeply embedded in the livelihood of Rosa
residents, yet its consequences such as river siltation (9%), unsanctioned dumping (14%), and
deforestation (4%), illustrate how unchecked exploitation disrupts ecological balance. Hilson
(2010) asserts that human actions directly shape the landscape, affecting water availability,
soil stability air quality. In return, these environmental changes impact the sustainability of
mining itself, forcing communities to adapt increasingly fragile ecosystems. Henceforth,
Lambin and Geist (2006) assert that if mitigation strategies are not implemented, ongoing
environmental degradation will reduce resource availability and threaten long-term economic
viability.

5.3.3 MEASURES TO CURB ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION IN ROSA

The largest segment (29%) reflects efforts to engage community and traditional leaders,
emphasizing the importance of leveraging local authority and influence to drive
environmental conservation initiatives. This measure, according to Moran (2010), aligns well
with the principles of HEI theory, which highlights the significance of social structures in
shaping sustainable practices. Community awareness campaigns, accounting for 19%,
suggest a focus on educating residents about the environmental impacts of artisanal mining
and promoting environmentally friendly behaviours. Such campaigns are crucial for fostering
a sense of responsibility and encouraging collective action, which is in-line with the EKC
framework. Thus, by increasing environmental awareness, the community can potentially
make a transition toward reduced degradation as socio-economic conditions improve. The
heightened policy 9% reflects efforts to enforce environmental regulations and deter illegal or
harmful practices. While enforcement is a critical component, its relatively low emphasis
suggests the policing alone maybe insufficient without broader community engagement and
education. Similarly, the small allocation to community environmental committees (5%)
could be expanded to strengthen participatory governance and ensure that local voices are
actively involved in decision-making processes. The distribution of measures demonstrates a
multifaceted approach to addressing environmental degradation in Rosa.

5.3.4 EFFECTIVENESS OF STRATEGIES CURBING ENVIRONMENTAL

DEGRADATION IN ROSA

The data presented signals that while certain strategies show promise, their effectiveness is
yet to reach a level where they can be considered transformative (Ostrom, 2009). 25% of
respondents expressed dissatisfaction, indicating that the implemented strategies have not
resulted in substantial changes. Issues like water body pollution, land degradation, and
deforestation remain pervasive, highlighting ongoing challenges in curbing environmental
harm. This perspective underscores a gap between strategy implementation and its tangible
impact on the environment, suggesting that more comprehensive approaches may be needed.
The small scale of success points to the need for stronger interventions, such as stricter
enforcement, broader community engagement, and targeted support for sustainable mining
practices. While 5% of respondents see the strategies as successful, pointing to specific
improvements like responsible litter disposal, gully filling, and land reclamation initiatives by
groups such as Rosa Mining Syndicate and Rosa 10 Syndicate, this sentiment represents a
minority. However, the efforts are notable as they show a growing awareness of sustainable
practices among some stakeholders. To make meaningful progress, stakeholders must address
these grey areas comprehensively, ensuring that environmental protections are robust and
effectively applied across all mining activities in the area (Smith et al 2016). Heller (2015)
holds that this gradual process, though minimal, could lay the foundation for larger-scale
improvements in the future.

5.3.5 POSSIBLE SOLUTION TO THE ENVIRONMENTAL CHALLENGES IN

ROSA AREA

The most strongly supported measures, each with approximately 30% backing, are the
prosecution with heavy penalties for perpetrators and the establishment of Environmental
Management Authority (EMA) and Forestry offices in Rosa. This suggests that residents
emphasize both strict enforcement and the establishment of local institutions as critical to
addressing environmental challenges effectively. These preferences highlight a demand for
enhanced accountability and localized regulatory presence, both of which align with
addressing systemic issues in managing artisanal mining impacts. The strengthening of
community environmental committees, with 15% support, also reflects the importance of
empowering local actors to take a centre stage in conservation and environmental
governance. This measure aligns closely with HEI theory, emphasizing community-based
engagement to foster sustainable practices. The presence of the Ward Natural Resource
Monitors (WNRMs), underscores the need for additional on-the-ground personnel to monitor
and enforce environmental protections. The emphasis on empowering traditional leaders to
prosecute offenders (15%) reflects the community’s recognition of the cultural and traditional
structures in enhancing compliance and sustainable practices. The long and short, the graph
suggests that community members value both top-down regulatory measures and bottom-up
participatory approaches (Heller, 2015), which when effectively implemented could facilitate
a sustainable balance between mining activities in Rosa area and environmental conservation.

5.4 DISCUSSION OF INFORMATION GATHERED FROM FOCUS GROUP

DISCUSSIONS

5.4.1 ENVIRONMENTAL KUZNETS CURVE (EKC) PERSPECTIVE

The EKC framework suggests that environmental degradation typically increases during the
early stages of economic activity but eventually declines as societies reach higher levels of
income and environmental awareness (Stern, 2004). However, the research in Rosa reflects
that the area is still in the early phase of this curve, where exploitation of resources is
prioritized over environmental concerns. Issues like soil erosion, deforestation and toxic
water pollution demonstrate the heavy toll of unregulated mining. The limited enforcement of
the Mines and Minerals Act further hinders progress toward the EKC’s turning point where
sustainable practices could be adopted. As the findings show partial efforts toward land
reclamation and rehabilitation, they hint at a gradual movement toward sustainable mining,
though the progress remains insufficient to reverse the environmental damage.

5.4.2 HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTION (HEI) THEORY PERSPECTIVE

The findings from the focus group discussions align closely with the HEI theory, which
emphasizes the interconnected relationship between human activities and the environment
(Moran, 2010). According to Ostrom (2009), artisanal mining disrupts ecosystems through
deforestation, gully formation, and sedimentation in local water bodies, showing how human
intervention alters natural landscapes. The focus groups underscore the degradation of soil
structure and biodiversity, indicating a feedback loop where environmental harm negatively
affects agricultural productivity, water availability and community health. While some
syndicates are adopting responsible practices, such efforts are sporadic, leaving critical areas
like water pollution and air quality largely unaddressed.

5.4.3 REGULATORY AND MITIGATION EFFORTS

The effectiveness of the Mines and Minerals Act emerges as a key point of concern. The lack
of proper enforcement allows environmental impacts to persist, revealing a gap between
policy intent and execution. Both focus groups identified strategies for mitigation, including
alternative livelihoods, environmental education, and rehabilitation of degraded lands, all of
which emphasize the importance of empowering local communities to actively participate in
conservation. These strategies align with HEI’s emphasis on adaptive management and
highlight a shared commitment to sustainable development.

5.4.4 OPPORTUNITIES FOR SUSTAINABILITY

The findings further identify opportunities for sustainability, such as ecotourism, agricultural
development and collaboration with NGOs. These initiatives hold promise for transitioning
artisanal mining toward environmentally responsible practices. However, the gradual pace of
change signals the need for stronger enforcement, targeted funding and community-driven
solutions to ensure these opportunities are realized effectively.

5.5 SUMMARY

The findings highlight the intersection of economic activities, environmental risks and
community responses within the Rosa area. While partial improvements suggest progress, the
persistence of critical challenges like water contamination and deforestation underscores the
need for more coordinated, effective strategies informed by both EKC and HEI frameworks.
The following chapter will conclude the research and proffer recommendations.

CHAPTER SIX

SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter will summarize the research as presented and discussed in the preceding
chapters. The chapter will also draw the conclusion and recommendations basing on the
research findings in regards to small-scale artisanal mining in Rosa area. Recommendations
propose to change artisanal small-scale mining into sustainable mining.
6.2 SUMMARY

The research investigated the impacts of small-scale artisanal mining in Rosa, Chiweshe
Communal Lands, Zimbabwe, identifying significant ecological challenges caused by
unregulated mining practices. Artisanal mining, while economically vital for local
communities, has resulted in deforestation, soil erosion, and air pollution, posing
considerable risks to biodiversity, agricultural productivity and human health. The study
aimed at assessing these impacts and evaluating the effectiveness of existing regulatory
measures. The research mainly focused on bridging the gap between economic benefits and
ecological preservation.

Grounded in the Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) and Human-Environment Interaction

(HEI) theories, the research contextualizes the findings within broader environmental and
developmental frameworks. The EKC theory suggests that environmental degradation
increases during early economic growth stages but eventually declines with rising income
levels and environmental awareness. Rosa’s situation, however, reflects the early stages of
this curve, where significant ecological harm occurs due to limited regulatory oversight and
unsustainable resource exploitation. Meanwhile, the HEI theory highlights the reciprocal
relationship between human activity and the environment, illustrating how artisanal mining
has altered ecosystems, disrupted water flows, degraded soil quality and reduced forest cover.
The feedback loop created by human-interactions is evident in the study’s findings, as
environmental degradation also negatively affects the socio-economic conditions of the Rosa
community.

The study employed a mixed-methods approach combining quantitative and qualitative data
to provide a well-rounded perspective. Data was gathered through questionnaires, interviews
and focus group discussions with the Ward Natural Resource Monitors (WNRMs) and local
residents. The WNRMs were purposively selected because of their paramount information in
regards to ecological issues affecting Rosa area, while local residents were conveniently
sampled. This comprehensive methodology allowed the research to capture detailed insights
into the environmental impacts of mining in the region.

The findings revealed a range of environmental challenges attributed to artisanal mining.

Deforestation and land degradation were identified as significant issues, with vegetation
cleared for mining activities, leaving land prone to erosion and reducing biodiversity. Water
pollution emerged as another critical concern, with the use of mercury and other chemicals
contaminating local water sources, impacting both aquatic ecosystems and human health.
Soil pollution and air quality deterioration were also highlighted, with heavy metals and dust
contributing to further environmental decline. The findings revealed that despite the adoption
of strategies like waste management and land reclamation by certain mining syndicates,
challenges such as water body pollution and air pollution persist, and regulatory enforcement
remains weak.

The study however emphasized the need for robust mitigation strategies, including alternative
livelihoods for miners, environmental education, community-led management, and stricter
enforcement of regulations. Both focus groups comprising of Rosa residents and WNRMs
identified opportunities for sustainable practices such as eco-tourism, agricultural
development, collaboration with NGOs, and financing conservation projects. Empowering
local communities to adopt sustainable practices and enforcing environmental laws more
rigorously are vital steps toward mitigating mining-related degradation.

6.3 CONCLUSION

The study established that small-scale artisanal mining in Rosa has caused extensive
environmental harm, including deforestation, land degradation, water and air pollution, and
soil erosion. These impacts pose serious risks to agricultural productivity, biodiversity and
community health. Despite partial improvements in land reclamation by certain mining
syndicates, critical issues like water contamination and air pollution persist, emphasizing the
need for more effective interventions.

The research highlighted that while the Mines and Minerals Act exists to regulate mining
activities, its enforcement has proven inadequate in mitigating environmental impacts. Weak
regulatory mechanisms have allowed ongoing degradation, highlighting the gap between
policy formulation and implementation. Strengthening enforcement and empowering local
institutions are crucial to achieving meaningful environmental protection.

The study attested that addressing mining-related environmental challenges requires a

multifaceted approach that integrates policy enforcement, community engagement,
sustainable livelihood alternatives and technological advancements. A singular focus on
regulation or policing is insufficient, instead, comprehensive strategies involving
rehabilitation programs, eco-friendly mining practices, and partnerships with non-
governmental organizations can pave way for meaningful environmental improvements.
The research validated the importance of local engagement in promoting sustainable mining
practices. While external regulations are necessary, grassroots involvement through
traditional leadership, environmental committees, and awareness campaigns- plays a
fundamental role in shaping conservation efforts. Strengthening community-led initiatives
can ensure long-term ecological protection while balancing economic needs.

6.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

Basing on the findings of the research on small-scale artisanal mining in Rosa area, the
researcher recommends the following:

6.4.1 TO THE WARD NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGERS

 Use advanced tools and technology, such as Geo-Positioning Systems (GPS)

mapping and drones, to monitor changes in land use and environmental
degradation more efficiently.
 Organize workshops and seminars for miners, focusing on eco-friendly
techniques and safer chemical usage.
 Advocate for the adoption of greener mining methods, such as reduced
chemical usage and mechanized equipment that minimizes land disturbance.
 Establish environmental committees within the Rosa community to enable
grassroots participation in conservation efforts.

6.4.2 TO THE ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AGENCY

 Ensure strict implementation of the Mines and Mining Act by increasing

monitoring and inspection of mining activities.
 Set up EMA offices in Rosa to provide on-the-ground support, ensuring timely
monitoring and enforcement of environmental regulations.
 Implement large-scale reforestation programs to restore deforested areas and
improve biodiversity.
 Promote skill development initiatives to help miners diversify their sources of
livelihood, reducing pressure on natural resources.

6.4.3 TO THE COMMUNITIES

 Participate actively in environmental campaigns and share knowledge on

conservation within households and the wider community.
  Work closely with traditional leaders, WNRMs and other stakeholders to
ensure adherence to environmental guidelines.
 Explore and adopt alternative income-generating activities such as agriculture,
eco-tourism or small-scale businesses, to reduce reliance on artisanal mining.
 Report illegal mining activities and violations of environmental laws to
authorities, ensuring accountability for harmful practices.

6.5 AREAS FOR FURTHER STUDY

The study interrogated the effects of artisanal mining using Rosa area as a case study.
Therefore, further researches may focus on viable alternative livelihood options for
communities reliant on artisanal mining, as well as to problematize technological feasibility
for small-scale operations in Rosa.