GCEFORALL
Physics
Advanced Level
Energy Resources and
Environmental Physics
Table of contents
● Definition of Terms
● Energy Reserves and their sources
○ Fossil Fuels
○ Biofuels
● Pattern of energy consumption in Cameroon
● Energy conversion
● Solar energy
○ The solar constant
○ Solar panel
○ Photovoltaic cell
○ Advantages/Disadvantages of solar energy
● Hydroelectric power plants (HEP)
○ Generating of energy in HEP
○ Calculation of power in HEP
○ Advantages/Disadvantages of HEP
● Nuclear Energy
○ Nuclear fission
■ The Nuclear Reactor
■ Advantages/Disadvantages of U-235 as nuclear fuel
○ Nuclear fusion
■ Advantages/Disadvantages
Definition of Energy
Energy is the ability to do work. Work is done when energy is used.
Definition of Terms
● Energy Source: This is any material from which energy can be
tapped e.g Sun, uranium.
● Energy Resource: It is an energy source which is available in
commercial and economical scale e.g Hydroelectric power
plants (HEP).
● Primary Energy: These are naturally occurring sources of
energy e.g sun, wood.
● Secondary Energy: These are energy sources obtained from
processing primary energy sources e.g electrical energy from
solar panels or HEP.
● Functional Energy: This is energy available to the end user e.g
electricity, petrol.
● Renewable Energy Source: These are infinite sources of energy
which can be replenished after a period of time e.g sun.
● Non Renewable Energy Source: These are finite sources of
energy which can't be replenished after a period of time e.g
coal.
● Energy Formation: This is the process by which different forms
of energy are generated, transformed, and utilized within
environmental systems.
● Fissile Material: These are naturally occurring materials which
store large amounts of energy which are reduced when the
undergo nuclear fission e.g uranium
● Solar Energy: This is energy from the sun
● Wind Power: This is power obtained from moving air masses.
They are converted to practical energy using windmills
● Hydro Power: This is energy from flowing water masses.
Energy Reserves and their sources
An energy reserve is a store of energy from which individuals or
communities can derive energy. Examples include:
1. Fossil Fuels: These are energy formed from the decay of plant
and animal remains beneath the Earth's crust millions of years
ago. It originates from radiant energy that has been
transformed into chemical energy and stored over a long
period of time.
a. Coal: It comes from the remains of plants.
b. Oil and Gas: It is formed by excess pressure on the dead
remains of plants and animals beneath the Earth's crust.
2. Biofuel : This is a type of fuel derived from biomass; that is,
recently living organisms or their metabolic byproducts, such
as plants, algae, or animal waste. It's considered a renewable
energy source because the biomass used to create it can be
replenished relatively quickly.
Patterns of energy conversion in Cameroon
Cameroon is a principal consumer of primary fuel. About 75% of
Cameroon's energy is used for home cooking in the form of bio gas.
The 3 most most widely used sources of energy in Cameroon are:
● Biomass( wood, sawdust, charcoal)
● Fossil Fuels (petrol, oil, gas)
● Electricity
Emergy Source Uses Location
Solar Energy ● Drying cloths, Everywhere in
wood Cameroon
● Photosynthesis
by plants
● Generating
electricity with
solar panels
● Used in some
chemical
mechanisms
Hydroelectric ● Generating Lom Panga dam
Energy electricity for Edea Dam
home appliances
● Used by heavy
industries due to
high energy
output
Fossil Fuels ● Used in vehicles Bakassi Peninsula
● Source of income
through
exportation
● Local cooking
fuel e.g coal
Biomas ● Used in domestic
cooking gas
● Used in
greenhouses
Energy Conversion
The law of energy conversion: It states that “Energy can neither be
created nor destroyed but can be converted from one form to
another.”
A.SOLAR ENERGY
This is energy gooten from sunlight.
The Solar Constant
This is the amount of solar energy falling on one square meter at
right angles to the sun rays per second. This exists because not all of
the light from the sun reaches the earth. About 31% of solar radiation
are reflected into outer space.
Solar Constant (S) = 1372W/m²
This can be used to estimate the power output of the sun. Assuming
the earth is special with a radius r from the sun, then the total power
output of the sun can be calculated as:
Solar Constant (S)=Power(P)/Area (A)
=> P= S*A
A= 4πr²
=> P= S*4πr²
Example
Given that the mean distance from the earth to the sun is 1.5*10¹¹m,
and the power output of the sun is 4*10²⁶W, calculate the value of the
solar constant.
Solution
S= P/4πr²
=> S= 4*10²⁶W/4π(1.5*10¹¹m)² = 1414.7W/m²
Solar Panels
This is a device used to convert solar energy into functional energy.
Each panel is made up of a blackened surface which absorbs energy
directly from solar radiation. The solar panel has blackened copper
piping on a wooden box covered with a piece of glass.
The surface of the panel and copper piping are blacked because
black surfaces are absorbers of heat.
Solar panels are covered with false because glass is transparent and
it allows solar radiation to pass through.
Solar panels are connected in series so that one panel fits the next.
Diagram of a solar panel
Energy flow diagram of a solar panel
Photovoltaic cell
Solar cells are made up of thin silicon p-n junction diodes, usually
reverse biased.
When sunlight falls on a p-n junction, am emf is generated. The size
of the emf depends on the intensity of the incident radiation.
Advantages of solar energy
● It is free
● I'm is renewable
● It is non pollutant
Disadvantages
● It is not available at night
● It is very expensive to extract since building solar plants are
costly
B.HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS (HEP)
This is a system designed to convert mechanical energy from
flowing water into electrical energy.
The main features of HEPs are reservoirs and generating units.
Generation of Energy in HEPs
Diagram of HEP
● Water in dams have gravitational potential energy. As they fall
through the penstock, the potential energy is converted into
kinetic energy.
● As the water goes down, it strikes the turbines and the kinetic
energy of the water is converted into mechanical energy
causing the turbines to rotate.
● The shaft is connected to a generator so that as the turbine
rotates, its mechanical energy is converted into electrical
energy.
● The electrical energy produced is stepped up by a step-up
transformer, and it is transferred through thick high-tension
cables to a terminal station which steps down the voltage and
distributes it to the end users.
The energy flow diagram of HEP
Calculation of power of HEP
Let h= the height of the reservoir above the turbines, V= the average
volume of water discharged per unit time, ρ= density of water
The mass m of water discharged per unit time = ρV
Potential Energy (PE)= mgh
=> PE=ρVgh
The power delivery to the system is equal to the loss of Gravitational
PE per second
Hence Power(P)= ρVgh/t
Advantages
● Non pollutant
● HEPs are cheap to operate
● It is a potential source of large amounts of energy.
Disadvantages
● High initial cost of construction
● Dams may cause floods
● Climate change may cause rivers to start up hence reducing
the power output of HEPs
C.NUCLEAR ENERGY
This is energy released from the nuclei of atoms. Nuclear energy is
released in 2 ways namely nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
1. Nuclear Fission: This is the splitting of a heavy nucleus into 2
or more daughter nuclei. A typical fission reaction is the
bombardment of U-235 with a thermal neutron
235
U + 10n →14150Ba + 9236Kr + 3 10n + energy
92
● Thermal neutron: This is a neutron with a KE of the same
order of magnitude as the atoms and molecules at room
temperature, and which will provoke fission when it penetrates
a heavy nucleus.
Nuclear Chain reaction
This is a reaction in which a product of 1 reaction initiates a
further reaction giving more products which in turn causes
other reactions.
The Nuclear Reactor
A nuclear reactor uses 235U as fuel. It principal consists of the
following parts:
● The moderator: It is usually made up of graphite or heavy
water. It is used to slow down neutrons so that they are more
likely to collide with U atoms.
● Coolant: It is usually liquid CO2 or water. It is used to carry
away heat generated in the reactor core.
● Control rods: They are made up of materials such as Boron and
Silver. They absorb some of the neutrons so that the reaction
does not go out of control.
● Fuel: Modern reactors use either natural Uranium or enriched
Uranium as fuel as it is a good source of nuclear energy.
● Concrete shield: It surrounds the vessels and prevents the
escaping of its ionizing radiation from reaching the operator
(workers).
Diagram of a nuclear reactor
● In a nuclear reactor plant, nuclear energy is converted to
electrical energy of the fission fragment which is converted
into internal energy in the core.
● This energy is transferred in the form of heat by the cooling
fluid (liquid or gas), to heat the water flowing through the heat
exchanger.
● The internal energy of the water in the heat exchanger is
converted into the KE of the steam.
The KE is transferred to drive the turbines which spin the rotor of the
generator to produce electricity.
Energy flow diagram of a nuclear reactor
Advantages of Uranium as a source of energy
● Fission of U-235 is a huge source of electrical power
● Nuclear reactors can produce radioisotopes which have many
biological, industrial and medical uses.
● Nuclear reactors require smaller land space than HEP.
Disadvantages
● Uranium is scarce and expensive
● Nuclear waste is difficult to dispose of and can cause
environmental hazards.
● A failure of the coolant can cause an explosion, releasing
radioactive material which is dangerous to humans and other
living organisms.
2. Nuclear Fusion: This is a reaction in which small light nuclei
combine to form a more massive and stable nucleus with the
release of energy. Example
2
1H + 21H → 32He + 10n + energy
● Deuterium (21H) is a heavy atom of Hydrogen whose nucleus is
called Deuteron. The fission of 2 Deuteron forms an isotope of
He which is accompanied with the release of large quantities of
energy.
● H fusion is the principal source of solar energy. The 2 nuclei of
H atoms normally repair each other. The temperature of the sun
is high enough to force them together for fusion to occur.
Advantages of Nuclear fusion
● The raw materials for nuclear fusion are abundantly available.
● Waste products are not radioactive.
● Produces more energy than nuclear fission.
Disadvantages
● It is expensive to construct
● It requires materials which can withstand high temperatures
(about 108k) for fusion to occur.
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Created on 9:16 pm on 31/02/2025
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