Chapter 9
Prepared by: Rexel Anne M. Constantino, RPm
❖ Learning can be defined in many ways, but most psychologists would
agree that it is a relatively permanent change in behavior that results
from experience.
❖ Learning involves acquiring new knowledge, skills, attitudes, or
behaviors through various processes like conditioning, reinforcement,
and observational learning.
❖ Ivan Pavlov was first to present classical conditioning.
❖ Classical conditioning involves presentations of a neutral stimulus
along with a stimulus of some significance, the "unconditioned
stimulus".
❖ Presentation of the significant stimulus evokes an innate response.
Pavlov called these the unconditioned stimulus (US)
and unconditioned response (UR), respectively.
❖ If the neutral stimulus was presented along with the unconditioned
stimulus, it would become a conditioned stimulus (CS).
❖ If the CS and the US are repeatedly paired, eventually the two stimuli
become associated and the organism begins to produce a behavioral
response to the CS. Pavlov called this the conditioned response (CR).
❖ Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental conditioning or Skinnerian conditioning, is a
method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior. Through operant
conditioning, behavior that is rewarded is likely to be repeated, while behavior that is punished is prone
to happen less.
❖ For example, when you are rewarded at work with a performance bonus for exceptional work, you will
want to continue performing at a higher level in hopes of receiving another bonus in the future.
Because this behavior was followed by a positive outcome, the behavior will likely be repeated.
❖ Operant conditioning was first described by psychologist B.F. Skinner. His theory was based on two
assumptions.
➢ First, the cause of human behavior is something in a person’s environment.
➢ Second, the consequences of a behavior determine the possibility of it being repeated. Behaviors
followed by a pleasant consequence are likely to be repeated and those followed by an unpleasant
consequence are less likely to be repeated.
❖ Skinner identified three types of responses that followed behavior:
✓ Neutral responses. They are responses from the environment that produce no stimulus other than
focusing attention. They neither increase nor decrease the probability of a behavior being repeated.
✓ Reinforcers. They are responses from the environment that increase the likelihood of a behavior being
BF Skinner repeated. They can either be positive or negative.
✓ Punishers. These are negative operants that decrease the likelihood of a behavior. Punishment weakens
behavior.
Bobo Doll
Experiment
demonstrated that children can learn aggressive
behaviors through observation and imitation.
❖ Observational learning is a process in which learning occurs through observing Specifically, children who observed an adult model
and imitating others. physically and verbally attacking a Bobo doll (an
inflatable clown doll) were more likely to imitate
❖ Albert Bandura's social learning theory suggests that in addition to learning those aggressive behaviors when given the
through conditioning, people also learn through observing and imitating the opportunity
actions of others
❖ As demonstrated in his classic Bobo Doll experiments, people will imitate the
actions of others without direct reinforcement. Four important elements are
essential for effective observational learning: attention, motor skills, motivation,
and memory.
❖ For example, a teen's older sibling gets a speeding ticket, with the unpleasant
results of fines and restrictions. The teen then learns not to speed when they take
up driving.
❖ Memory is the ability to store and retrieve information when people need
it. The four general types of memories are sensory memory, short-term ❖ Working Memory
memory, working memory, and long-term memory. Long-term memory can —Working memory is a type of memory that involves the
be further categorized as either implicit (unconscious) or explicit immediate and small amount of information that a person
(conscious). actively uses as they perform cognitive tasks. While some
view working memory as a fourth distinct type of memory,
❖ Short-term Memory
it can fall under the classification of short-term memory
— allows you to recall specific information about something for a brief period.
and, in many cases, is even used interchangeably.
Short-term memory is not as fleeting as sensory memory, but it’s also not as
permanent as long-term memory. Short-term memory is also known as
primary or active memory.
o Short-term memories only last an estimated 15 to 30 seconds. When you
read a line in a book or a string of numbers that you have to recall, that’s
your short-term memory at work.
o You can keep information in your short-term memory by rehearsing the
information. For example, if you need to recall a string of numbers, you
might keep repeating them to yourself until you input them. However, if
you are asked to recall those numbers about 10 minutes after inputting
them, you’d most likely be unable to.
❖ Long-term Memory
—We store a vast majority of our memories in our long-term Explicit memories can be:
memory. Any memory we can still recall after 30 seconds could be
classified as long-term memory. These memories range in ✓ Episodic memories are formed from particular episodes in your life.
significance, from recalling the name of a friendly face at your Examples of episodic memory include the first time you rode a bike
favorite coffee shop to important bits of information like a close or your first day at school.
friend’s birthday or your home address.
✓ Semantic memories are general facts and bits of information
—There is no limit to how much our long-term memory can hold you've absorbed over the years. For instance, when you recall a
and for how long. We can further split long-term memory into two random fact while filling in a crossword puzzle, you pull it from your
main categories: explicit and implicit long-term memory. semantic memory.
❖ Explicit Long-term Memory ❖ Implicit Long-term Memory
—Explicit long-term memories are memories we consciously and —We are not as deliberate with forming implicit memories as we are
deliberately take time to form and recall. Explicit memory holds with explicit ones. Implicit memories form unconsciously and might
information such as your best friend’s birthday or your phone affect the way a person thinks and behaves.
number. It often includes major milestones in your life, such as
childhood events, graduation dates, or academic work you learned —Implicit memory often comes into play when we are learning motor
in school. skills like walking or riding a bike. If you learned how to ride a bike
when you were 10 and don't pick it up again until you are 20, implicit
memory helps you remember how to ride it.
✓ Each different type of memory we have is important, and they all have various functions. Your short-term memory allows you to
process and understand the information in an instant. When you read a paragraph in a book and understand it, that’s your short-
term memory at work.
✓ Your most treasured and important memories are held in your long-term memory. Your long-term memory facilitates how to walk,
talk, ride a bike, and engage in daily activities. It also allows you to recall important dates and facts.
✓ In your day-to-day activities, you are bound to find yourself relying on your long-term memory the most. From waking up and
brushing your teeth to getting on the right bus to commute to work, recalling all of these steps is facilitated by your long-term
memory.
✓ Some studies have found proof for a distinction in memory. For instance, the short-term memory and long-term memory differ in
capacity. Short-term memories fade away if you don’t repeat them, while long-term memories can be kept for a whole lifetime, even
when you haven’t thought about them in a couple of years. Forgetting something that was in short-term memory means you have
really forgotten it. When you forget something that was in long-term memory and you get hints, you might remember it again.
However, the distinction between these two is not clear.
❖ Refers to the loss of memory. It can be a symptom of other Other forms of amnesia include:
conditions or happen by itself.
✓ Post-traumatic amnesia. This is amnesia you develop after an
❖ Amnesia comes from ancient Greek and means, “forgetfulness.” injury. It can involve multiple forms of amnesia.
But it’s more than that. Forgetfulness is misplacing your keys or
not remembering to do something while running errands. ✓ Transient global amnesia. This is a short-lived condition that
Amnesia involves being unable to remember significant events or involves both anterograde and retrograde amnesia. It almost
details from your life. always lasts less than 24 hours.
Types of Amnesia: ✓ Infantile amnesia. This is amnesia from when you were a baby.
Almost everyone has this. Remembering things from infancy is
✓ Anterograde: This kind of memory loss means you can’t form new rare.
memories. This word partly comes from the Latin word “ante,”
which means before. In this context, a person can’t store ✓ Dissociative amnesia. This is amnesia that happens because of a
memories moving forward. mental health-related cause. Traumatic events, abuse and other
severe sources of psychological distress can cause it. Experts
✓ Retrograde: This kind of memory loss means you lose memories suspect it’s a defense mechanism your brain uses to protect you
from your past. The word partly comes from the Latin word from what you experience.
“retro,” which means backward. In this context, a person loses
already-stored memories, so they experience memory loss
looking backward.
❖ Neurological causes of amnesia all involve damage to your brain or o Most people with amnesia have normal short-term and working
disruptions in brain activity. The possible causes include the memories.
following:
o The ability to safe long-term information is impaired or even
✓ Alcohol intoxication (this can temporarily block the formation of doesn’t take place. The episodic memory also deteriorates.
new memories, causing a “blackout”). Episodic memories are memories of single events.
✓ Alzheimer’s disease.
✓ Brain aneurysms o Imagining future events is to memorize past similar events and to
✓ Brain tumors (including cancerous and noncancerous growths). modify them. People who have amnesia therefore cannot imagine
✓ Cerebral hypoxia (brain damage from lack of oxygen). future events.
✓ Drugs and medications (especially certain sedatives and anesthesia
medications), including nonmedical drug use. o Explicit memory consists of the deliberate recall of information.
✓ Epilepsy and seizures (especially temporal lobe epilepsy). On the contrary, implicit memory refers to the influence of
✓ Head injuries like concussions or traumatic brain injuries (TBIs). previous experience on behavior, which a person is not
✓ Infections (especially ones that cause encephalitis like herpes necessarily aware of.
simplex virus).
✓ Other degenerative brain diseases, like Parkinson’s disease or o Most people with amnesia have better implicit than explicit
multiple sclerosis (MS). memory.
✓ Stroke.
✓ Toxins and poisons like carbon monoxide poisoning or heavy metal
poisoning.
✓ Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome (this is a severe vitamin B1
deficiency that happens with long-term alcohol use disorder).
✓ People with damage to their hippocampus have a diminished declarative memory.
✓ Declarative memory is the ability to memorize in words.
✓ Procedural memory refers to motor skills and habits.
✓ People with damage to the hippocampus usually have impaired declarative memory but good procedural memory.
✓ The hippocampus seems to be the more important area for declarative memory, as the basal ganglia is more important for
procedural memory.
✓ Nevertheless, most tasks combine different kinds of memory systems. The hippocampus seems to also be important for spatial
memory, and it can even grow after extensive learning experiences. It is suggested that the hippocampus is also related to
remembering the details and the context of an event.
✓ Thinking of recent memories activates the hippocampus, when it comes to older memories the answer is less straightforward.
Memories with strong emotional content are more easily consolidated – this is due to secretion of cortisol.
❖ Confabulation is a memory phenomenon where
❖ Korsakoff’s syndrome is a brain damage characterized by memory loss, individuals spontaneously fill in memory gaps with false
confusion and melancholy. or distorted memories, believing them to be true.
✓ It is caused by prolonged thiamine (B1 vitamin) defiance. ❖ A common example is someone with dementia
✓ People with Korsakoff’s syndrome have problems in reasoning their recounting a detailed story about an event from their
memories. past that never actually occurred, but they believe it to
✓ They also tend to confabulate (fill their memory gaps by guessing). be true.
✓ Korsakoff’s syndrome can especially be found in heavy alcoholics,
because alcoholics often don’t get enough vitamins in their body. The ❖ Confabulation is often described as "honest lying"
brain needs thiamine to metabolize glucose, which is the brain’s most because the person is not intentionally lying but rather
important fuel. genuinely believes their false memory.
✓ A too low level of vitamin B1 will result in diminishing neurons in the
dorsomedial thalamus. This is the most important source of input for the ❖ A person with a memory gap might create a story to
prefrontal cortex. explain how they got a bruise, even if they can't
remember the actual event.
❖ Alzheimer’s disease is another reason for memory loss. People with Alzheimer’s disease have better procedural than declarative memory.
❖ Their memory and alertness are different on different days and times. The conclusion that can be drawn is that their neurons don’t function
properly. The disease develops gradually, until memory loss, confusion, hallucinations and sleeplessness come into play.
❖ Genes play an especially important part in the early-onset Alzheimer’s disease.
❖ Other than the main areas related to memory processing, almost the entire cortex and several subcortical areas are important for memory.
Researchers found that a gene on chromosome 21 is related to early on-set Alzheimer.
❖ Genes don’t control the whole disease, but when you understand these genes, you might also understand the underlying causes of the
disease.
❖ The genes that are responsible for the disease, enable the amyloid beta protein to accumulate in and out of neurons. This protein will come
into the brain and damage the functions of glia and neurons. The damaged structures will group together in so-called plaques.
❖ The more plaques a person has, the more the cerebral cortex, the hippocampus and other areas will diminish. Alzheimer is also
characterized with an abnormal amount of tau protein. Tau produces tangles, which are structures that have been formed from
degenerated structures within neural cell bodies.
❖ Myth: Only older adults develop Alzheimer's.
❖ Reality: Age is a significant risk factor, but
Alzheimer's isn't exclusive to the elderly.
Early-onset Alzheimer's reminds us of the
❖ At this time, there isn’t a cure for Alzheimer’s disease. A commonly used importance of recognizing symptoms across
medicine is something that stimulates certain receptors, which enhances all age groups.
excitement.
❖ Myth: Memory loss is a normal part of aging.
❖ A reason for not having found a cure, is that by the time we have found
out that someone has Alzheimer’s disease, it’s already too late to reverse ❖ Reality: While some forgetfulness can be
the damage. It’s therefore important to find a way to find out that expected as we age, the memory loss
someone has Alzheimer early on. associated with Alzheimer's is different. It's
crucial to distinguish between typical age-
❖ Amnesia usually involves short-term memory loss that doesn't affect your related changes and symptoms of AD.
thinking skills. “Dementia” is an umbrella term for various types of
memory loss, including Alzheimer's, that affect thinking ability, memory, ❖ Myth: A healthy lifestyle can definitively
and reasoning. Alzheimer’s disease is the most common type of dementia. prevent Alzheimer's.
❖ Dementia is a term used to describe a group of symptoms affecting ❖ Reality: Healthy living can reduce risk by
memory, thinking and social abilities. In people who have dementia, the increasing resilience, even for those
symptoms interfere with their daily lives. Dementia isn't one specific genetically predisposed. However, it's
disease. Several diseases can cause dementia. Dementia generally important to understand there's no foolproof
involves memory loss prevention method against Alzheimer's.
❖ The basal ganglia are a group of brain structures linked together, ❖ The basal ganglia play a critical role in the learning and
handling complex processes that affect your entire body. consolidation of motor and cognitive skills, whereas
neocortical regions may be more important for processing
❖ While best known for their role in controlling your body’s ability to move, skills after they have been automatized
experts now know they also play a role in several other functions, such as
learning, emotional processing and more. ❖ Procedural memory is memory of how to perform a task.
The steps of a task, such as a bee working a complicated
❖ Decision-making flower to obtain nectar or a monkey opening a difficult fruit,
—another job of the basal ganglia is processing how you evaluate goals and are remembered in detail and in order.
risks. It also processes signals that affect your emotions and your
motivation. That means it also plays a role in learning and forming habits, ❖ Procedural memories are formed by trial and error and can
planning and carrying out tasks, and more. be modified and improved over time.
❖ Reward and addiction ❖ Procedural memory is the process of retrieving information
—Because the basal ganglia involve processes like emotions, motivation and necessary to perform learned skills. These skills may be
habits, they also affect how you learn and how you feel in response to movement based, such as tying a shoe or riding a bicycle, or
things happening around you. they may be perceptual in nature, such as learning to read
—That includes feeling good (reward) about something you do, or feeling mirror-reversed text.
the need to avoid something.
—Because of the involvement of your brain’s processes with rewards, habits
and motivation, the basal ganglia also have a role in illnesses like addiction.
❖ Our memory has three basic functions: encoding, storing, and ❖ Hebbian Synapse
retrieving information. —In 1949, Donald Hebb proposed a pioneering theory in the field of
synaptic plasticity and memory. This theory proposed that “Neurons
➢ Encoding is the act of getting information into our memory that fire together, wire together.” The neuronal connections that fired
system through automatic or effortful processing. together are strengthened, so that those neurons are activated
➢ Storage is retention of the information, and together during memory recall.
➢ Retrieval is the act of getting information out of storage and into
conscious awareness through recall, recognition, and relearning. —Hebbian Learning explains how neurons adapt and form stronger
connections through repeated use. Each time a memory is recalled or
❖ Memory is an information processing system; therefore, we often an action is repeated, the neural pathways involved become more
compare it to a computer. Memory is the set of processes used to robust as they fire together, making that action or memory more
encode, store, and retrieve information over different periods of intuitive or easy to reproduce.
time.
❖ Despite substantial interest in the subject, there still isn't a ❖ Fluid vs. Crystallized Intelligence
consensus among experts about the components of intelligence —Psychologist Raymon Cattell, along with his student John Horn,
or whether accurate measurements of intelligence are even created the theory of fluid vs. crystallized intelligence.
possible.
➢ Fluid intelligence involves the ability to solve new problems
❖ Although contemporary definitions of intelligence vary without relying on knowledge from previous experiences.
considerably, experts generally agree that intelligence involves —According to the theory, a person's fluid intelligence declines as they
mental abilities such as logic, reasoning, problem-solving, and get older.
planning. Specifically, current definitions tend to suggest that
intelligence is the ability to: ➢ Crystallized intelligence on the other hand, increases with age—
this type of intelligence is based on concrete facts and experiences
✓ Learn from experience: The acquisition, retention, and use of
knowledge is an essential component of intelligence.
✓ Recognize problems: To use knowledge, people first must identify
the problems it might address.
✓ Solve problems: People must then use what they have learned to
come up with solutions to problems.
❖ Research on intelligence plays a significant role in many areas,
including educational program funding, job applicant screening,
and testing to identify children who need additional academic
help.
