Chapter five

Turing Machine

Turing machine was invented in 1936 by Alan Turing. It is an accepting device which accepts
Recursive Enumerable Language generated by type 0 grammar.

There are various features of the Turing machine:

1. It has an external memory which remembers arbitrary long sequence of input.

2. It has unlimited memory capability.
3. The model has a facility by which the input at left or right on the tape can be read easily.
4. The machine can produce a certain output based on its input. Sometimes it may be required
that the same input has to be used to generate the output. So, in this machine, the distinction
between input and output has been removed. Thus, a common set of alphabets can be used
for the Turing machine.

Formal definition of Turing machine

A Turing machine can be defined as a collection of 7 components:

Q: the finite set of states

∑: the finite set of input symbols
T: the tape symbol
q0: the initial state
F: a set of final states
B: a blank symbol used as a end marker for input
δ: a transition or mapping function.

The mapping function shows the mapping from states of finite automata and input symbol on the
tape to the next states, external symbols and the direction for moving the tape head. This is known
as a triple or a program for turing machine.

1. (q0, a) → (q1, A, R)
That means in q0 state, if we read symbol 'a' then it will go to state q1, replaced a by X and move
ahead right(R stands for right).

Example:

Construct TM for the language L ={0n1n} where n>=1.

Solution:

We have already solved this problem by PDA. In PDA, we have a stack to remember the previous
symbol. The main advantage of the Turing machine is we have a tape head which can be moved
forward or backward, and the input tape can be scanned.

The simple logic which we will apply is read out each '0' mark it by A and then move ahead along
with the input tape and find out 1 convert it to B. Now, repeat this process for all a's and b's.

Now we will see how this turing machine work for 0011.

The simulation for 0011 can be shown as below:

Now, we will see how this turing machine will works for 0011. Initially, state is q0 and head points
to 0 as:

The move will be δ(q0, 0) = δ(q1, A, R) which means it will go to state q1, replaced 0 by A and
head will move to the right as:

The move will be δ(q1, 0) = δ(q1, 0, R) which means it will not change any symbol, remain in the
same state and move to the right as:
The move will be δ(q1, 1) = δ(q2, B, L) which means it will go to state q2, replaced 1 by B and
head will move to left as:

Now move will be δ(q2, 0) = δ(q2, 0, L) which means it will not change any symbol, remain in the
same state and move to left as:

The move will be δ(q2, A) = δ(q0, A, R), it means will go to state q0, replaced A by A and head
will move to the right as:

The move will be δ(q0, 0) = δ(q1, A, R) which means it will go to state q1, replaced 0 by A, and
head will move to right as:
The move will be δ(q1, B) = δ(q1, B, R) which means it will not change any symbol, remain in the
same state and move to right as:

The move will be δ(q1, 1) = δ(q2, B, L) which means it will go to state q2, replaced 1 by B and
head will move to left as:

The move δ(q2, B) = (q2, B, L) which means it will not change any symbol, remain in the same
state and move to left as:

Now immediately before B is A that means all the 0?s are market by A. So we will move right to
ensure that no 1 is present. The move will be δ(q2, A) = (q0, A, R) which means it will go to state
q0, will not change any symbol, and move to right as:

The move δ(q0, B) = (q3, B, R) which means it will go to state q3, will not change any symbol,
and move to right as:
The move δ(q3, B) = (q3, B, R) which means it will not change any symbol, remain in the same
state and move to right as:

The move δ(q3, Δ) = (q4, Δ, R) which means it will go to state q4 which is the HALT state and
HALT state is always an accept state for any TM.

The same TM can be represented by Transition Diagram:

Basic Model of Turing machine

The turning machine can be modelled with the help of the following representation.

1. The input tape is having an infinite number of cells, each cell containing one input symbol and
thus the input string can be placed on tape. The empty tape is filled by blank characters.

2. The finite control and the tape head which is responsible for reading the current input symbol.
The tape head can move to left to right.

3. A finite set of states through which machine has to undergo.

4. Finite set of symbols called external symbols which are used in building the logic of turing
machine.

Language accepted by Turing machine

The turing machine accepts all the language even though they are recursively enumerable.
Recursive means repeating the same set of rules for any number of times and enumerable means a
list of elements. The TM also accepts the computable functions, such as addition, multiplication,
subtraction, division, power function, and many more.

Example:

Construct a turing machine which accepts the language of aba over ∑ = {a, b}.

Solution:

We will assume that on input tape the string 'aba' is placed like this:

The tape head will read out the sequence up to the Δ characters. If the tape head is readout 'aba'
string then TM will halt after reading Δ.

Now, we will see how this turing machine will work for aba. Initially, state is q0 and head points
to a as:
The move will be δ(q0, a) = δ(q1, A, R) which means it will go to state q1, replaced a by A and
head will move to right as:

The move will be δ(q1, b) = δ(q2, B, R) which means it will go to state q2, replaced b by B and
head will move to right as:

The move will be δ(q2, a) = δ(q3, A, R) which means it will go to state q3, replaced a by A and
head will move to right as:

The move δ(q3, Δ) = (q4, Δ, S) which means it will go to state q4 which is the HALT state and
HALT state is always an accept state for any TM.

The same TM can be represented by Transition Table:

States A b Δ

q0 (q1, A, R) – –

q1 – (q2, B, R) –

q2 (q3, A, R) – –
 q3 – – (q4, Δ, S)

q4 – – –

The same TM can be represented by Transition Diagram:

Examples of TM

Example 1:

Construct a TM for the language L = {0n1n2n} where n≥1

Solution:

L = {0n1n2n | n≥1} represents language where we use only 3 character, i.e., 0, 1 and 2. In this, some
number of 0's followed by an equal number of 1's and then followed by an equal number of 2's.
Any type of string which falls in this category will be accepted by this language.

The simulation for 001122 can be shown as below:

Now, we will see how this Turing machine will work for 001122. Initially, state is q0 and head
points to 0 as:
The move will be δ(q0, 0) = δ(q1, A, R) which means it will go to state q1, replaced 0 by A and
head will move to the right as:

The move will be δ(q1, 0) = δ(q1, 0, R) which means it will not change any symbol, remain in the
same state and move to the right as:

The move will be δ(q1, 1) = δ(q2, B, R) which means it will go to state q2, replaced 1 by B and
head will move to right as:

The move will be δ(q2, 1) = δ(q2, 1, R) which means it will not change any symbol, remain in the
same state and move to right as:

The move will be δ(q2, 2) = δ(q3, C, R) which means it will go to state q3, replaced 2 by C and
head will move to right as:
Now move δ(q3, 2) = δ(q3, 2, L) and δ(q3, C) = δ(q3, C, L) and δ(q3, 1) = δ(q3, 1, L) and δ(q3,
B) = δ(q3, B, L) and δ(q3, 0) = δ(q3, 0, L), and then move δ(q3, A) = δ(q0, A, R), it means will go
to state q0, replaced A by A and head will move to right as:

The move will be δ(q0, 0) = δ(q1, A, R) which means it will go to state q1, replaced 0 by A, and
head will move to right as:

The move will be δ(q1, B) = δ(q1, B, R) which means it will not change any symbol, remain in the
same state and move to right as:

The move will be δ(q1, 1) = δ(q2, B, R) which means it will go to state q2, replaced 1 by B and
head will move to right as:

The move will be δ(q2, C) = δ(q2, C, R) which means it will not change any symbol, remain in the
same state and move to right as:

The move will be δ(q2, 2) = δ(q3, C, L) which means it will go to state q3, replaced 2 by C and
head will move to left until we reached A as:
immediately before B is A that means all the 0's are market by A. So we will move right to ensure
that no 1 or 2 is present. The move will be δ(q2, B) = (q4, B, R) which means it will go to state q4,
will not change any symbol, and move to right as:

The move will be (q4, B) = δ(q4, B, R) and (q4, C) = δ(q4, C, R) which means it will not change
any symbol, remain in the same state and move to right as:

The move δ(q4, X) = (q5, X, R) which means it will go to state q5 which is the HALT state and
HALT state is always an accept state for any TM.

The same TM can be represented by Transition Diagram:

Example 2:

Construct a TM machine for checking the palindrome of the string of even length.

Solution:

Firstly we read the first symbol from the left and then we compare it with the first symbol from
right to check whether it is the same.

Again we compare the second symbol from left with the second symbol from right. We repeat this
process for all the symbols. If we found any symbol not matching, we cannot lead the machine to
HALT state.

Suppose the string is ababbabaΔ. The simulation for ababbabaΔ can be shown as follows:

Now, we will see how this Turing machine will work for ababbabaΔ. Initially, state is q0 and head
points to a as:
We will mark it by * and move to right end in search of a as:

We will move right up to Δ as:

We will move left and check if it is a:

It is 'a' so replace it by Δ and move left as:

Now move to left up to * as:

Move right and read it

Now convert b by * and move right as:

Move right up to Δ in search of b as:

Move left, if the symbol is b then convert it into Δ as:

Now move left until * as:

Replace a by * and move right up to Δ as:

We will move left and check if it is a, then replace it by Δ as:

It is 'a' so replace it by Δ as:

Now move left until *

Now move right as:

Replace b by * and move right up to Δ as:

Move left, if the left symbol is b, replace it by Δ as:

Move left till *

Move right and check whether it is Δ

Go to HALT state

The same TM can be represented by Transition Diagram:

Example 3:

Construct a TM machine for checking the palindrome of the string of odd length.

Solution:

Firstly we read the first symbol from left and then we compare it with the first symbol from right
to check whether it is the same.

Again we compare the second symbol from left with the second symbol from right. We repeat this
process for all the symbols. If we found any symbol not matching, we lead the machine to HALT
state.

Suppose the string is 00100Δ. The simulation for 00100Δ can be shown as follows:

Now, we will see how this Turing machine will work for 00100Δ. Initially, state is q0 and head
points to 0 as:
Now replace 0 by * and move right as:

Move right up to Δ as:

Move left and replace 0 by Δ and move left:

Now move left up to * as:

Move right, convert 0 by * and then move right as:

Moved right up to Δ
Move left and replace 0 by Δ as:

Move left till * as:

Move right and convert 1 to * as:

Move left

Since it is *, goto HALT state.

The same TM can be represented by Transition Diagram:

Example 4:

Construct TM for the addition function for the unary number system.

Solution:

The unary number is made up of only one character, i.e. The number 5 can be written in unary
number system as 11111. In this TM, we are going to perform the addition of two unary numbers.

For example

2 + 3
i.e. 11 + 111 = 11111

If you observe this process of addition, you will find the resemblance with string concatenation
function.

In this case, we simply replace + by 1 and move ahead right for searching end of the string we will
convert last 1 to Δ.

Input: 3+2

The simulation for 111+11Δ can be shown as below:

Move right up to + sign as:

Convert + to 1 and move right as:

Now, move right

Again move right

Now Δ has encountered, so just move left as:

Convert 1 to Δ

Thus the tape now consists of the addition of two unary numbers.

The TM will look like as follows:

Here, we are implementing the function of f(a + b) = c. We assume a and b both are non zero
elements.

Example 5:

Construct a TM for subtraction of two unary numbers f(a-b) = c where a is always greater than b.

Solution: Here we have certain assumptions as the first number is greater than the second one. Let
us assume that a = 3, b = 2, so the input tape will be:
We will move right to - symbol as perform reduction of a number of 1's from the first number. Let
us look at the simulation for understanding the logic:

Move right up to - as:

Move right and convert 1 to * as:

Now move left

Again move left

Convert 1 to * and move right-hand

Now move right till 1

Convert 1 to * and move left

Convert 1 to * and move

Move right till Δ as:

Now we are in the HALT state.

Thus we get 1 on the input tape as the answer for f(3-2).

The Turing machine will look like this:

Introduction to Undecidability

In the theory of computation, we often come across such problems that are answered either 'yes'
or 'no'. The class of problems which can be answered as 'yes' are called solvable or decidable.
Otherwise, the class of problems is said to be unsolvable or undecidable.

Undecidability of Universal Languages:

The universal language Lu is a recursively enumerable language and we have to prove that it is
undecidable (non-recursive).

Theorem: Lu is RE but not recursive.

Proof:

Consider that language Lu is recursively enumerable language. We will assume that Lu is recursive.
Then the complement of Lu that is L`u is also recursive. However, if we have a TM M to accept
L`u then we can construct a TM Ld. But Ld the diagonalization language is not RE. Thus our
assumption that Lu is recursive is wrong (not RE means not recursive). Hence we can say that Lu is
RE but not recursive. The construction of M for Ld is as shown in the following diagram:
Undecidable Problem about Turing Machine

In this section, we will discuss all the undecidable problems regarding turing machine. The
reduction is used to prove whether given language is desirable or not. In this section, we will
understand the concept of reduction first and then we will see an important theorem in this regard.

Reduction

Reduction is a technique in which if a problem P1 is reduced to a problem P2 then any solution of

P2 solves P1. In general, if we have an algorithm to convert an instance of a problem P1 to an
instance of a problem P2 that have the same answer then it is called as P1 reduced P2. Hence if P1
is not recursive then P2 is also not recursive. Similarly, if P1 is not recursively enumerable then
P2 also is not recursively enumerable.

Theorem: if P1 is reduced to P2 then

1. If P1 is undecidable, then P2 is also undecidable.

2. If P1 is non-RE, then P2 is also non-RE.

Proof:

1. Consider an instance w of P1. Then construct an algorithm such that the algorithm takes
instance w as input and converts it into another instance x of P2. Then apply that algorithm
to check whether x is in P2. If the algorithm answer 'yes' then that means x is in P2,
similarly we can also say that w is in P1. Since we have obtained P2 after reduction of P1.
Similarly if algorithm answer 'no' then x is not in P2, that also means w is not in P1. This
proves that if P1 is undecidable, then P1 is also undecidable.
 2. We assume that P1 is non-RE but P2 is RE. Now construct an algorithm to reduce P1 to
P2, but by this algorithm, P2 will be recognized. That means there will be a Turing machine
that says 'yes' if the input is P2 but may or may not halt for the input which is not in P2. As
we know that one can convert an instance of w in P1 to an instance x in P2. Then apply a
TM to check whether x is in P2. If x is accepted that also means w is accepted. This
procedure describes a TM whose language is P1 if w is in P1 then x is also in P2 and if w
is not in P1 then x is also not in P2. This proves that if P1 is non-RE then P2 is also non-
RE.

Empty and nonempty languages:

There are two types of languages empty and non empty language. Let Le denotes an empty
language, and Lne denotes non empty language. Let w be a binary string, and Mi be a TM. If L(Mj)
= Ф then Mi does not accept input then w is in Le. Similarly, if L(Mj) is not the empty language,
then w is in Lne. Thus we can say that

Le ={M|L(M)=Ф}
Lne = {M | L(M) ≠ Ф}

Both Le and Lne are the complement of one another.

Post Correspondence Problem

In this section, we will discuss the undecidability of string and not of Turing machines. The
undecidability of the string is determined with the help of Post's Correspondence Problem (PCP).
Let us define the PCP.

"The Post's correspondence problem consists of two lists of string that are of equal length over the
input. The two lists are A = w1, w2, w3, .... , wn and B = x1, x2, x3, .... xn then there exists a non
empty set of integers i 1, i2 , i3, .... , in such that,
w1, w2, w3, .... wn = x1, x2, x3, .... xn"

To solve the post correspondence problem we try all the combinations of i1, i2, i3, .... , in to find
the w1 = x1 then we say that PCP has a solution.

Example 1:

Consider the correspondence system as given below

A = (b, bab3, ba) and B = (b3, ba, a). The input set is ∑ = {0, 1}. Find the solution.

Solution:
A solution is 2, 1, 1, 3. That means w2w1w1w3 = x2x1x1x3

The constructed string from both lists is bab3b3a.

Example 2:

Does PCP with two lists x = (b, a, aba, bb) and y = (ba, ba, ab, b) have a solution?

Solution: Now we have to find out such a sequence that strings formed by x and y are identical.
Such a sequence is 1, 2, 1, 3, 3, 4. Hence from x and y list

Example 3:

Obtain the solution for the following system of posts correspondence problem. A = {100, 0, 1}, B
= {1, 100, 00}

Solution: Consider the sequence 1, 3, 2. The string obtained from A = babababb. The string
obtained from B = bababbbb. These two strings are not equal. Thus if we try various combination
from both the sets to find the unique sequence, we could not get such a sequence. Hence there is
no solution for this system.

Example 4:

Obtain the solution for the following system of posts correspondence problem, X = {100, 0, 1}, Y
= {1, 100, 00}.

Solution: The solution is 1, 3, 1, 1, 3, 2, 2. The string is

X1X3X1X1X3X2X2 = 100 + 1 + 100 + 100 + 1 + 0 + 0 = 1001100100100

Y1Y3Y1Y1Y3Y2Y2 = 1 + 00 + 1 + 1 + 00 + 100 + 100 = 1001100100100

Chomsky Hierarchy

Chomsky Hierarchy represents the class of languages that are accepted by the different machine.
The category of language in Chomsky's Hierarchy is as given below:

1. Type 0 known as Unrestricted Grammar.

2. Type 1 known as Context Sensitive Grammar.
3. Type 2 known as Context Free Grammar.
4. Type 3 Regular Grammar.
This is a hierarchy. Therefore every language of type 3 is also of type 2, 1 and 0. Similarly, every
language of type 2 is also of type 1 and type 0, etc.

Type 0 Grammar:

Type 0 grammar is known as Unrestricted grammar. There is no restriction on the grammar rules
of these types of languages. These languages can be efficiently modeled by Turing machines.

For example:

1. bAa → aa
2. S → s

Type 1 Grammar:

Type 1 grammar is known as Context Sensitive Grammar. The context sensitive grammar is used
to represent context sensitive language. The context sensitive grammar follows the following rules:

o The context sensitive grammar may have more than one symbol on the left hand side of
their production rules.
o The number of symbols on the left-hand side must not exceed the number of symbols on
the right-hand side.
o The rule of the form A → ε is not allowed unless A is a start symbol. It does not occur on
the right-hand side of any rule.
o The Type 1 grammar should be Type 0. In type 1, Production is in the form of V → T

Where the count of symbol in V is less than or equal to T.

For example:

1. S → AT
2. T → xy
3. A → a

Type 2 Grammar:

Type 2 Grammar is known as Context Free Grammar. Context free languages are the languages
which can be represented by the context free grammar (CFG). Type 2 should be type 1. The
production rule is of the form

1. A → α
Where A is any single non-terminal and is any combination of terminals and non-terminals.

For example:

1. A → aBb
2. A → b
3. B → a

Type 3 Grammar:

Type 3 Grammar is known as Regular Grammar. Regular languages are those languages which
can be described using regular expressions. These languages can be modeled by NFA or DFA.

Type 3 is most restricted form of grammar. The Type 3 grammar should be Type 2 and Type 1.
Type 3 should be in the form of

1. V → T*V / T*

For example:

1. A → xy