Chapter 2

Basic Set Theory

A set is a Many that allows itself to can be written:

be thought of as a One.
- Georg Cantor {2n : n is an integer}

The opening and closing curly braces denote a set, 2n

This chapter introduces set theory, mathematical in-
specifies the members of the set, the colon says “such
duction, and formalizes the notion of mathematical
that” or “where” and everything following the colon
functions. The material is mostly elementary. For
are conditions that explain or refine the membership.
those of you new to abstract mathematics elementary
All correct mathematics can be spoken in English.
does not mean simple (though much of the material
The set definition above is spoken “The set of twice
is fairly simple). Rather, elementary means that the
n where n is an integer”.
material requires very little previous education to un-
The only problem with this definition is that we
derstand it. Elementary material can be quite chal-
do not yet have a formal definition of the integers.
lenging and some of the material in this chapter, if
The integers are the set of whole numbers, both pos-
not exactly rocket science, may require that you ad-
itive and negative: {0, ±1, ±2, ±3, . . .}. We now in-
just you point of view to understand it. The single
troduce the operations used to manipulate sets, using
most powerful technique in mathematics is to adjust
the opportunity to practice curly brace notation.
your point of view until the problem you are trying
to solve becomes simple. Definition 2.1 The empty set is a set containing
Another point at which this material may diverge no objects. It is written as a pair of curly braces with
from your previous experience is that it will require nothing inside {} or by using the symbol ∅.
proof. In standard introductory classes in algebra,
trigonometry, and calculus there is currently very lit- As we shall see, the empty set is a handy object.
tle emphasis on the discipline of proof. Proof is, how- It is also quite strange. The set of all humans that
ever, the central tool of mathematics. This text is weigh at least eight tons, for example, is the empty
for a course that is a students formal introduction to set. Sets whose definition contains a contradiction or
tools and methods of proof. impossibility are often empty.

Definition 2.2 The set membership symbol ∈ is

2.1 Set Theory used to say that an object is a member of a set. It
has a partner symbol ∈
/ which is used to say an object
A set is a collection of distinct objects. This means is not in a set.
that {1, 2, 3} is a set but {1, 1, 3} is not because 1
appears twice in the second collection. The second Definition 2.3 We say two sets are equal if they
collection is called a multiset. Sets are often specified have exactly the same members.
with curly brace notation. The set of even integers
23
24 CHAPTER 2. BASIC SET THEORY

Example 2.1 If S ∩ T = {1, 3, 5},

S = {1, 2, 3} S ∩ U = {2, 3, 5}, and

then 3 ∈ S and 4 ∈ / S. The set membership symbol T ∩ U = {3, 4, 5}

is often used in defining operations that manipulate
sets. The set
Definition 2.6 If A and B are sets and A ∩ B = ∅
T = {2, 3, 1}
then we say that A and B are disjoint, or disjoint
is equal to S because they have the same members: 1, sets.
2, and 3. While we usually list the members of a set
Definition 2.7 The union of two sets S and T is
in a “standard” order (if one is available) there is no
the collection of all objects that are in either set. It
requirement to do so and sets are indifferent to the
is written S ∪ T . Using curly brace notion
order in which their members are listed.
S ∪ T = {x : (x ∈ S) or (x ∈ T )}
Definition 2.4 The cardinality of a set is its size.
For a finite set, the cardinality of a set is the number The symbol or is another Boolean operation, one that
of members it contains. In symbolic notation the size is true if either of the propositions it joins are true.
of a set S is written |S|. We will deal with the idea Its symbolic equivalent is ∨ which lets us re-write the
of the cardinality of an infinite set later. definition of union as:
S ∪ T = {x : (x ∈ S) ∨ (x ∈ T )}
Example 2.2 Set cardinality
For the set S = {1, 2, 3} we show cardinality by writ-
Example 2.4 Unions of sets.
ing |S| = 3 Suppose S = {1, 2, 3}, T = {1, 3, 5}, and U =
{2, 3, 4, 5}.
We now move on to a number of operations on sets. Then:
You are already familiar with several operations on S ∪ T = {1, 2, 3, 5},
numbers such as addition, multiplication, and nega-
tion. S ∪ U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, and

Definition 2.5 The intersection of two sets S and T ∪ U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}

T is the collection of all objects that are in both sets.
It is written S ∩ T . Using curly brace notation
When performing set theoretic computations, you
S ∩ T = {x : (x ∈ S) and (x ∈ T )} should declare the domain in which you are working.
In set theory this is done by declaring a universal set.
The symbol and in the above definition is an ex- Definition 2.8 The universal set, at least for a
ample of a Boolean or logical operation. It is only given collection of set theoretic computations, is the
true when both the propositions it joins are also true. set of all possible objects.
It has a symbolic equivalent ∧. This lets us write the
formal definition of intersection more compactly: If we declare our universal set to be the integers then
{ 21 , 32 } is not a well defined set because the objects
S ∩ T = {x : (x ∈ S) ∧ (x ∈ T )} used to define it are not members of the universal
set. The symbols { 21 , 23 } do define a set if a universal
set that includes 12 and 23 is chosen. The problem
Example 2.3 Intersections of sets arises from the fact that neither of these numbers are
Suppose S = {1, 2, 3, 5}, integers. The universal set is commonly written U.
T = {1, 3, 4, 5}, and U = {2, 3, 4, 5}. Now that we have the idea of declaring a universal
Then: set we can define another operation on sets.
2.1. SET THEORY 25

2.1.1 Venn Diagrams notation for not is ¬. There is not much savings in
space as the definition of compliment becomes
A Venn diagram is a way of depicting the relationship
between sets. Each set is shown as a circle and circles S c = {x : ¬(x ∈ S)}
overlap if the sets intersect.
Example 2.6 Set Compliments
Example 2.5 The following are Venn diagrams for
the intersection and union of two sets. The shaded
parts of the diagrams are the intersections and unions (i) Let the universal set be the integers. Then the
respectively. compliment of the even integers is the odd inte-
gers.
(ii) Let the universal set be {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, then the
compliment of S = {1, 2, 3} is S c = {4, 5} while
the compliment of T = {1, 3, 5} is T c = {2, 4}.
(iii) Let the universal set be the letters {a, e, i, o, u, y}.
Then {y}c = {a, e, i, o, u}.
The Venn diagram for Ac is
A∩B

Ac
A∪B

Notice that the rectangle containing the diagram is We now have enough set-theory operators to use them
labeled with a U representing the universal set. to define more operators quickly. We will continue to
give English and symbolic definitions.
Definition 2.9 The compliment of a set S is the
Definition 2.10 The difference of two sets S and
collection of objects in the universal set that are not
T is the collection of objects in S that are not in T .
in S. The compliment is written S c . In curly brace
The difference is written S − T . In curly brace nota-
notation
tion
S c = {x : (x ∈ U) ∧ (x ∈
/ S)} S − T = {x : x ∈ (S ∩ (T c ))},
or alternately
or more compactly as
S − T = {x : (x ∈ S) ∧ (x ∈
/ T )}
S c = {x : x ∈
/ S}
Notice how intersection and complementation can be
however it should be apparent that the compliment of
used together to create the difference operation and
a set always depends on which universal set is chosen.
that the definition can be rephrased to use Boolean
operations. There is a set of rules that reduces the
There is also a Boolean symbol associated with the number of parenthesis required. These are called op-
complementation operation: the not operation. The erator precedence rules.
26 CHAPTER 2. BASIC SET THEORY

(i) Other things being equal, operations are per- Another important tool for working with sets is the
formed left-to-right. ability to compare them. We have already defined
what it means for two sets to be equal, and so by
(ii) Operations between parenthesis are done first, implication what it means for them to be unequal.
starting with the innermost of nested parenthe- We now define another comparator for sets.
sis.
(iii) All complimentations are computed next. Definition 2.12 For two sets S and T we say that
S is a subset of T if each element of S is also an
(iv) All intersections are done next. element of T . In formal notation S ⊆ T if for all
x ∈ S we have x ∈ T .
(v) All unions are performed next.
(vi) Tests of set membership and computations, If S ⊆ T then we also say T contains S which
equality or inequality are performed last. can be written T ⊇ S. If S ⊆ T and S 6= T then we
write S ⊂ T and we say S is a proper subset of T .
Special operations like the set difference or the
symmetric difference, defined below, are not included Example 2.9 Subsets
in the precedence rules and thus always use paren- If A = {a, b, c} then A has eight different subsets:
thesis. ∅ {a} {b} {c}
Example 2.7 Operator precedence
Since complementation is done before intersection {a, b} {a, c} {b, c} {a, b, c}
the symbolic definition of the difference of sets can be Notice that A ⊆ A and in fact each set is a subset of
rewritten: itself. The empty set ∅ is a subset of every set.
S − T = {x : x ∈ S ∩ T c }
We are now ready to prove our first proposition.
If we were to take the set operations Some new notation is required and we must intro-
duce an important piece of mathematical culture. If
A ∪ B ∩ Cc we say “A if and only if B” then we mean that either
and put in the parenthesis we would get A and B are both true or they are both false in any
given circumstance. For example: “an integer x is
(A ∪ (B ∩ (C c ))) even if and only if it is a multiple of 2”. The phrase
“if and only if” is used to establish logical equiva-
Definition 2.11 The symmetric difference of lence. Mathematically, “A if and only if B” is a way
two sets S and T is the set of objects that are in one of stating that A and B are simply different ways
and only one of the sets. The symmetric difference is of saying the same thing. The phrase “if and only
written S∆T . In curly brace notation: if” is abbreviated iff and is represented symbolically
S∆T = {(S − T ) ∪ (T − S)} as the double arrow ⇔. Proving an iff statement is
done by independently demonstrating that each may
Example 2.8 Symmetric differences be deduced from the other.
Let S be the set of non-negative multiples of two that
are no more than twenty four. Let T be the non- Proposition 2.1 Two sets are equal if and only if
negative multiples of three that are no more than each is a subset of the other. In symbolic notation:
twenty four. Then
(A = B) ⇔ (A ⊆ B) ∧ (B ⊆ A)
S∆T = {2, 3, 4, 8, 9, 10, 14, 15, 16, 20, 21, 22}
Proof:
Another way to think about this is that we need num-
bers that are positive multiples of 2 or 3 (but not both) Let the two sets in question be A and B. Begin by
that are no more than 24. assuming that A = B. We know that every set is
2.1. SET THEORY 27

a subset of itself so A ⊆ A. Since A = B we may where it is false. It is thus possible for a false mathe-
substitute into this expression on the left and obtain matical statement to be “true most of the time”. In
B ⊆ A. Similarly we may substitute on the right and the next chapter we will develop the theory of prime
obtain A ⊆ B. We have thus demonstrated that if numbers. For now we will assume the reader has a
A = B then A and B are both subsets of each other, modest familiarity with the primes. The statement
giving us the first half of the iff. “Prime numbers are odd” is false once, because 2 is a
Assume now that A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A. Then prime number. All the other prime numbers are odd.
the definition of subset tells us that any element of The statement is a false one. This very strict defini-
A is an element of B. Similarly any element of B tion of what makes a statement true is a convention
is an element of A. This means that A and B have in mathematics. We call 2 a counter example. It is
the same elements which satisfies the definition of set thus necessary to find only one counter-example to
equality. We deduce A = B and we have the second demonstrate a statement is (mathematically) false.
half of the iff. 2
A note on mathematical grammar: the symbol 2 in- Example 2.10 Disproof by counter example
dicates the end of a proof. On a paper turned in by a Prove that the statement A ∪ B = A ∩ B is false.
student it is usually taken to mean “I think the proof
ends here”. Any proof should have a 2 to indicate its Let A = {1, 2} and B = {3, 4}. Then A ∩ B = ∅
end. The student should also note the lack of calcu- while A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4}. The sets A and B form a
lations in the above proof. If a proof cannot be read counter-example to the statement.
back in (sometimes overly formal) English then it is
probably incorrect. Mathematical symbols should be
used for the sake of brevity or clarity, not to obscure Problems
meaning.
Problem 2.1 Which of the following are sets? As-
Proposition 2.2 De Morgan’s Laws Suppose sume that a proper universal set has been chosen and
that S and T are sets. DeMorgan’s Laws state that answer by listing the names of the collections of ob-
jects that are sets. Warning: at least one of these
(i) (S ∪ T )c = S c ∩ T c , and items has an answer that, while likely, is not 100%
certain.
(ii) (S ∩ T )c = S c ∪ T c .
(i) A = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 19}
Proof:
(ii) B = {A, E, I, O, U }
c
Let x ∈ (S ∪ T ) ; then x is not a member of S or √
T . Since x is not a member of S we see that x ∈ (iii) C = { x : x < 0}
S c . Similarly x ∈ T c . Since x is a member of both
these sets we see that x ∈ S c ∩ T c and we see that (iv) D = {1, 2, A, 5, B, Q, 1, V }
(S ∪ T )c ⊆ S c ∩ T c . Let y ∈ S c ∩ T c . Then the
(v) E is the list of first names of people in the 1972
definition of intersection tells us that y ∈ S c and
phone book in Lawrence Kansas in the order
y ∈ T c . This in turn lets us deduce that y is not a
they appear in the book. There were more than
member of S ∪ T , since it is not in either set, and
35,000 people in Lawrence that year.
so we see that y ∈ (S ∪ T )c . This demonstrates that
S c ∩ T c ⊆ (S ∪ T )c . Applying Proposition 2.1 we get (vi) F is a list of the weight, to the nearest kilogram,
that (S ∪ T )c = S c ∩ T c and we have proven part (i). of all people that were in Canada at any time in
The proof of part (ii) is left as an exercise. 2 2007.
In order to prove a mathematical statement you must
prove it is always true. In order to disprove a mathe- (vii) G is a list of all weights, to the nearest kilogram,
matical statement you need only find a single instance that at least one person in Canada had in 2007.
28 CHAPTER 2. BASIC SET THEORY

Problem 2.2 Suppose that we have the set U = Problem 2.5 Find an example of an infinite set that
{n : 0 ≤ n < 100} of whole numbers as our has a finite complement, be sure to state the universal
universal set. Let P be the prime numbers in U , set.
let E be the even numbers in U , and let F =
{1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89}. Describe the following Problem 2.6 Find an example of an infinite set that
sets either by listing them or with a careful English has an infinite complement, be sure to state the uni-
sentence. versal set.

(i) E c , Problem 2.7 Add parenthesis to each of the follow-

ing expressions that enforce the operator precedence
(ii) P ∩ F , rules as in Example 2.7. Notice that the first three de-
scribe sets while the last returns a logical value (true
(iii) P ∩ E, of false).
(iv) F ∩ E ∪ F ∩ E c , and (i) A ∪ B ∪ C ∪ D
c
(v) F ∪ F . (ii) A ∪ B ∩ C ∪ D
Problem 2.3 Suppose that we take the universal set (iii) Ac ∩ B c ∪ C
U to be the integers. Let S be the even integers, let
T be the integers that can be obtained by tripling any (iv) A ∪ B = A ∩ C
one integer and adding one to it, and let V be the set
Problem 2.8 Give the Venn diagrams for the fol-
of numbers that are whole multiples of both two and
lowing sets.
three.
(i) A − B (ii) B − A (iii) Ac ∩ B
(i) Write S, T , and V using symbolic notation.
(iv) A∆B (v) (A∆B)c (vi) Ac ∪ B c
(ii) Compute S ∩ T , S ∩ V and T ∩ V and give sym-
bolic representations that do not use the symbols
S, T , or V on the right hand side of the equals U
sign.
A 3 B
Problem 2.4 Compute the cardinality of the follow- 1 2
ing sets. You may use other texts or the internet.

(i) Two digit positive odd integers. 7

5 6
(ii) Elements present in a sucrose molecule.
0
(iii) Isotopes of hydrogen that are not radioactive.
4
(iv) Planets orbiting the same star as the planet you
are standing on that have moons. Assume that C
Pluto is a minor planet.
(v) Elements with seven electrons in their valence
Problem 2.9 Examine the Venn diagram above.
shell. Remember that Ununoctium was discov-
ered in 2002 so be sure to use a relatively recent Notice that every combination of sets has a unique
number in common. Construct a similar collection
reference.
of four sets.
(vi) Subsets of S = {a, b, c, d} with cardinality 2.
Problem 2.10 Read Problem 2.9. Can a system of
(vii) Prime numbers whose base-ten digits sum to ten. sets of this sort be constructed for any number of sets?
Be careful, some have three digits. Explain your reasoning.