(1) What is meant by alternating current? Write an expression for it.

Define its amplitude, time period and

frequency.
Ans: Alternating current: An alternating current is that current whose magnitude changes continuously
with time and direction reverses periodically. In contrast to it, a direct current is that current which flows
with a constant magnitude in the same direction, as shown in Fig.

We know that when a coil is rotated in a magnetic field, an alternating emf is induced in it, which is given
by the relation:
 = 0 sin t
Suppose this emf is applied to a circuit of resistance R. Then by ohm's law, the current in the circuit will be
ε ε
I   0 sin ωt or I  I0 sin ωt
R R
Thus the current in the circuit varies sinusoidally with time and is called alternating current.
Here I = instantaneous value of a.c. at any instant t
ε
I0  0 = peak or maximum value of a.c. and is called current amplitude.
R
Amplitude: The maximum value attained by an alternating current in either direction is called its amplitude
or peak value and is denoted by I0.
Time period: The time taken by an alternating current to complete one cycle of its variations is called its
time period and is denoted by T. This time is equal to the time taken by the coil to complete one rotation in
the magnetic field. As angular velocity of the coil is o> and its angular displacement in one complete cycle
is 2  , so
Angular displacement in a complete cycle
Time period 
Angular velocity
2π
or T
ω
Frequency: The number of cycles completed per second by an alternating current is called its frequency and
is denoted by f. The frequency of an alternating current is same as the frequency of rotation of the coil in the
magnetic field. Thus
1 ω
f  
T 2π
So an alternating current can be represented as
2π
I  I0 sin ωt  I0 sin ft  I0 sin t
T
Figure shows the variation of alternating current with time. It rises from 0 to maximum in one direction, then
falls to zero and then rises from 0 to maximum in the opposite direction and again falls to zero, thus
completing one full cycle.
The alternating current supplied to our houses has a frequency of 50 cps or 50 Hz.
As the alternating current is positive in one half cycle and equally negative in the other half cycle, so its
mean value over a complete cycle is zero. We can prove it mathematically also.
(2) Prove mathematically that the average value of alternating current over one complete cycle is zero.
Ans: Average value of a.c. over one complete cycle. The alternating current at any instant t is given by
I = I0 sin t
Assuming the current remains constant for a small time dt, then the amount of charge that flows through the
circuit in small time dt will be
dq = Idt = I0 sin t  dt
The total charge that flows through the circuit in one complete cycle of a.c.,
T
q   dq   I0 sin ωt dt
0

  cos ωt 
T T
I  2π 
I0     0 cos t 
 ω 0 2π / T  T 0
IT IT
  0 [cos 2π  cos 0]   0 [1  1]  0
2π 2π
The average value of a.c. over one complete cycle of a.c.,
q
Iaυ   0
T
Thus the average value of a.c. over a complete cycle of a.c. is zero.

(3) Ordinary moving coil galvanometer used for d.c. cannot be used to measure an alternating current even if
its frequency is low. Explain, why.
Ans: Ordinary moving coil galvanometer cannot be used to measure a.c: Ordinary moving coil
galvanometer is based on magnetic effect of current which, in turn, depends on direction of current. So it
cannot be used to measure a.c. During one half cycle of a.c., its pointer moves in one direction and during
next half cycle, it will move in the opposite direction. Now the average value of a.c. over a complete cycle is
zero. Even if we measure an alternating current of low frequency, the pointer, will appear to be stationary at
the zero position due to persistence of vision.
We can measure a.c. by using a hot-wire ammeter which is based on heating effect of current and this effect
is independent of the direction of current.
To measure a.c., we define the mean value of a.c. over half a cycle or its root mean square value.

(4) Define average value of a.c. over half a cycle. Establish the relationship between the 'average value'
and the 'peak value' of an alternating current.
Ans: Average value of a.c: It is defined as that value of direct current which sends the same charge in a
circuit in the same time as is sent by the given alternating current in its half time period. It is denoted by
Ia = Im
Relation between average value and peak value of a.c: The value of alternating current at any instant t is
given by
I = I0 sin t
This current can be assumed to remain constant for a small time dt. Then the amount of charge that flows
through the circuit in small time dt is given by
dq = 1  dt = I0 sin t. dt
The total charge that flows through the circuit, say in the first half cycle, i.e., from t = 0 to t = T/2 is given
by
T/2
 cos ωt 
T/2 T/2
q 0
dq  0
I0 sin ω t dt  I0  
 ω  0
 T/2
I0  2π 
 
cos t 
2π / T  T 0
I  2π 
  0 [cos π  cos 0]  ω 
2π  T
I IT
  0 [1  1]  0
2π π
 The average value of a.c. over the first half cycle is
Charge q 2q 2 I0T
Iaυ     
Time T/2 T T π
2
or Iaυ  I0  0.637 I0
π
Thus the mean or average value of an alternating current is 2/or 0.637 times its peak value. The similar
relation can be proved for the alternating emf, which is
2
ε aυ  ε 0  0.637 ε 0
π

(5) What is meant by RMS value or effective value of an alternating current? Derive a relation between it
and its peak value.
Ans: Root mean square or virtual or effective value of a.c: It is defined as that value of a direct current
which produces the same heating effect in a given resistor as is produced by the given alternating current
when passed for the same time. It is denoted by Irms, I or by Ieff
Relation between the effective and peak value of a.c: Suppose an alternating current I = I0 sin t be
passed through a circuit of resistance R. Then the amount of heat produced in small time dt will be
dH = I2R dt
If T is the time period of a.c., then heat produced in one complete cycle will be
T T
1 2
Ieff  I rms 
T0 I dt H   I 2 R dt
0

Let Ieff be the effective value of a.c. Then heat produced in time T must be
H  le2ff RT
T T
1
 l RT   R dt or I
2
eff
2
eff   I 2 dt
0
T0
T
1 2
T 0
But I dt is the mean of the squares of the instantaneous values of a.c. over one complete cycle, hence the

effective or virtual value of a.c. equals its root mean square value, i.e.,

T T

 I dt   I0 sin t dt
2 2 2
Now
0 0

1  cos 2t
T
 I02  dt
0
2
 sin 2t 
T
I2
 0  t  2 
2 0
2 
4π 
T
I0 1
 (T  0)  sin t 
2  2 T 0 
I02  1 
 T  2 (sin 4π  sin 0) 
2
 I02 I2T
 [T  0]  0
2 2
1 I02 T
Ieff or I rms  
T 2
or
1
Thus the effective or rms value of an a.c, is times its peak value.
2

(6) Define the root mean square value of an alternating emf. Derive a relation between it and its peak value.
Ans: Root mean square value of an alternating emf: It is defined as that value of a steady voltage that
produces the same amount of heat in a given resistance as is produced by the given alternating emf when
applied to the same resistance for the same time. It is also called virtual or effective value of the alternating
emf. It is denoted by rms or eff or v.
Relation between the rms value and the peak value of an alternating emf. Suppose an alternating emf 
applied to a resistance R is given by
 = 0 sin cot
Heat produced in a small time dt will be
ε2 ε 02
dH  dt  sin 2 t dt
R R
Let T be the time period of the alternating emf. Then heat produced in time T will be
T
ε2
H   dH   sin 2 t dt
0
R
ε 02 (1  cos 2t) ε 02  sin 2t 
T T

  dt  t
R0 2 2R  2  0
ε 02  4π 
T
1
  (T  0)  sin 
2R  2 T 0 
ε 02  1 
  T sin(4π  sin 0) 
2R  2 
ε 2
εT2
or H  0 [T  0]  0
2R 2R
If rms is the root mean square value of the alternating emf, then the amount of heat produced by it in the
same resistance R in the time T will be
ε2 T
H  rms
R
From the above two equations, we get
ε 2rms T ε 02T

R 2R
ε0
or ε rms   0.707 ε 0
2

(7) Show that the voltage and current always vary in the same phase in an a.c. circuit containing
resistance only. Show the relationship graphically and draw a phasor diagram for it.
Ans: A.C. circuit containing resistance only: As shown in Fig., suppose a resistor of resistance R is
connected to a source of alternating emf 6 given by
 = 0 sin t …… (1)
 Such a circuit is known as a purely resistive circuit.
If I be the current in the circuit at instant t, then the potential drop across R will be IR. According to
Kirchhoff's loop rule,
Instantaneous emf of the source = Instantaneous p.d. across R
or 0 sin t = IR
ε
or I  0 sin t
R
or I  I0 sin t ........(2)
ε
where I0  0  the maximum or peak value of a.c.
R
From equations (1) and (2), we note that both  and I are functions of sin t. Hence the emf  and
current I are in same phase in a purely resistive circuit. This means that both  and I attain their zero,
minimum and maximum values at the same respective times. This phase relationship is shown graphically in
Fig. (a).
 
Figure (b) shows the phasor diagram for a resistive a.c. circuit. Both the phasors ε and I are in the
same direction, making same angle cot with x-axis. The phase angle between them is zero.

(8) A sinusoidal emf is applied to a circuit containing an inductor only. Show that the current lags behind the
voltage by /2 radian. Also derive an expression for the reactance of an inductor, when connected across an
a.c. source. Give its units.
Ans: A.C. circuit containing only an inductor: Fig. shows an inductor of inductance L connected to a
source of alternating emf  given by

 = 0 sin t ……. (1)

We assume that the inductor has negligible resistance. Thus the circuit is purely inductive a.c. circuit.
dI
As the alternating current flows through the inductor, a back emf L is set up which opposes the
dt
applied emf.
dI
 Net instantaneous emf  ε  L
dt
But this emf must be zero because there is no resistance in the circuit.
 dI dI
 εL  0 or ε  L 
dt dt
dI
or ε 0 sin t  L 
dt
ε
or dI  0 sin t  dt
L
ε
Integrating,  dI   L0  sin t  dt
ε
or I   0 cos t  constant
L
As the applied emf is sinusoidal, we expect the current also to be sinusoidal. Thus the average of
current I must be zero over a time period. Now the average of cos cof is zero over a time period, hence the
integration constant in the above equation must be zero.
Then
ε
I   0 cos t  I0 cos t
L
 I0 sin(π / 2  t) [ cos   sin(π / 2  )]
or I  I0 sin(t  π / 2) ......(2) [  sin   sin()]
ε
where I0  0  the peak value of a.c.
L
Phase relationship between  and I: On comparing equations (1) and (2), we find that the phase
angle of current I is /2 rad less than that of emf .
Thus in an inductive a.c. circuit, the voltage is ahead of the current in phase by 90° or the current
lags behind the voltage in phase by 90°. This means that the voltage  attains its maximum value (0) a
quarter of cycle (time T/4) earlier than the current I, or the current attains its peak value (I0) a quarter of
cycle later than the voltage . This phase relationship is shown graphically in Fig. (a).


Figure (b) shows the phasor diagram for an inductive a.c. circuit. The phasor ε makes an angle t
with x-axis in anticlockwise direction. As the current lags behind the emf in phase by /2 rad, so the current
 
phasor I makes an angle /2 rad with the phasor of ε in clockwise direction.
Inductive reactance: Comparing equation I0 = 0/L with the ohmic relation I0 = 0/R, we find that L
plays the same role here as the resistance R in resistive case. It is a measure of the effective resistance or
opposition offered by the inductor to the flow of a.c. through it. Such a non-resistive opposition to the flow
of current is called reactance. In this case, it is called inductive reactance and is denoted by XL.
 XL  L  2π fL
where f is the frequency of a.c. supply. The SI unit of inductive reactance is ohm ().
For a.c., XL  f
For d.c., f = 0, so XL = 0
Thus an inductor allows A.c. flow through it easily but opposes the flow of a.c. through it. Obviously,
 I0 ε0 ε ε
Irms    rms  rms
2 L 2 L X L
Variation of XL with frequency: As XL  f, so the graph of XL versus f is a straight line with a positive
slope. As f increases, XL also increases.

(9) Explain the effect of introducing a capacitor in A.c. and a.c. circuits.
Ans: Effect of a capacitor in a d.c. circuit: Fig. shows a capacitor of capacitance C connected to a
battery through a tapping key K. As the circuit is closed, electrons start flowing from the plate A to the
positive terminal of the battery and from the negative terminal to the plate B of a capacitor. The plates A and
B start acquiring positive and negative charges respectively. The capacitor gets progressively charged until
the potential difference across the plates A and B becomes equal to the p.d. across the terminals of the
battery. As soon as this happens, the charging of the capacitor stops. Thus, during the capacitor is being
charged, an electric current does flow through the rest of the circuit, as is clear from the momentary
deflection in the ammeter. The maximum charge on the capacitor plates will be q0 = CV0. Thus a capacitor
stops a d.c.

If a resistance R is also included in series with the capacitor, the process of charging of the capacitor gets
slowed down and the capacitor takes longer time to get fully charged. Fig. shows the variation of charge q
with time t. Clearly, the charge grows exponentially from zero to the maximum value q0. We may define the
time constant of the RC-circuit as the time in which the capacitor gets charged to 0.632 times the maximum
charge q0.

Effect of capacitor in an a.c. circuit: Fig. shows a capacitor of capacitor C connected to a source of
alternating emf. Due to the alternating voltage of the source, the capacitor gets charged in one direction in
the first half cycle, then discharged, and then charged in the opposite direction during the second half cycle
and again discharged and so on. As a result, there is a continuous, though alternating, current in the circuit.
Thus a capacitor provides an easy path for a.c.
(10) A sinusoidal emf is applied to a circuit containing a capacitor only. Show that the current leads the
voltage by /2 radian. Derive the expression for the reactance of a capacitor, when connected across an a.c.
source. Give its units.
Ans: A.C. circuit containing only a capacitor: As shown in Fig., consider a pure capacitor C connected
across a source of alternating emf  given by

 = 0 sin t …. (1)
Due to the continuous charging and discharging of the capacitor plates, a continuous but alternating current
exists in the circuit.
At any instant,
P.O. across the capacitor plates = Applied emf
i.e., V = = 0 sin t
Q
 But V
C
or Q = CV = C0 sin t
  Current at any instant is
dQ d
I  (Cε 0 sin t)  Cε 0 cos t
dt dt
or I  I0 cos t  I0 sin(t  π / 2)......(2)
ε
where I0  Cε 0  0  the current amplitude.
1/ C
Phase relationship between  and I: On comparing equations (1) and (2), we find that in a capacitive a.c.
circuit, the current leads the voltage or the voltage lags behind the current in phase by /2 radian. The phase
relationship between  and I is shown graphically in Fig. (a). We see that the current reaches its maximum
value earlier than the voltage by one-fourth of a period.


Figure (b) shows the phasor diagram for a capacitive a.c. circuit. The phasor ε makes an angle t
with X-axis in anticlockwise direction. As the current leads the emf in phase by /2 rad, so the current
 
phasor I makes an angle /2 rad with phasor ε in anticlockwise direction.
Capacitive reactance: Comparing the relation,
ε
I0 
1/ C
ε 1
with the ohmic relation I0  0 , we find that the factor is the effective resistance or opposition
R C
offered by the capacitor to the flow of a.c. through it. It is called capacitive reactance and is denoted by XC.
1 1
Thus XC  
C 2πfC
The SI unit of capacitive reactance is ohm ().
 1
For a.c, X C 
f
For d.c., f = 0 XC  
Thus a capacitor allows a,c. to flow through it easily but offers infinite resistance to the flow of d.c.,
i.e, a capacitor blocks d.c. Obviously,
I ε0 ε ε
Irms  0   rms  rms
2 1/ C  2 1/ C XC
Variation of capacitive reactance with frequency.
Capacitive reactance,

1 1
XC  
C 2πfC
1
i.e., XC 
f
Thus the capacitive reactance varies inversely with the frequency. As f increases, XC decreases. Fig.
shows the variation of XC with f.

(11) An alternating emf is applied to a series combination of a resistor and a capacitor. Investigate the
phase relationship between current and emf. Find the impedance of the circuit.
Ans: A.C. circuit containing Land R in series: As shown in Fig. consider a resistor R and inductance L
connected in series to a source of alternating emf  given by

 = 0 sin t
 Let I be the current through the series circuit at any instant. Then
   
1. Voltage VR  R I across the resistance R will be in phase with current I . So phasors VR and
 
I are in same direction, as shown in Fig. The amplitude of VR is
V0R  I0 R
  
2. Voltage VL  X L I across the inductance L is ahead of current I in phase by /2 rad. So phasor
 
VL lies /2 rad anticlockwise w.r.t. the phasor I . Its amplitude is
V0L  I0 XL
where XL is the inductive reactance.
By parallelogram law of vector addition,
  
VR  VL  ε
Using Pythagorean theorem, we get
ε02  (V0R )2  (V0L )2  (I0R)2  (I0XL )2
 I02 (R 2  X2L )
ε0
or I0 
R  X L2
2

Clearly, R 2  X L2 is the effective resistance of the series LR-circuit which opposes or impedes the
flow of a.c. through it. It is called its impedance and is denoted by Z. Thus
Z  R 2  X2L  R 2  2 L2 [ X L  L]
The phase angle  between the resultant voltage and current is given by
V0L I0 XL X L L
¸ tan     
V0R I0 R R R
It is obvious from the phasor diagram that the current lags behind the emf by phase angle  so the
instantaneous value of current is given by
I  I0 sin(t  )

(12) An alternating emf is applied to a series combination of a resistor and a capacitor. Investigate the
phase relationship between current and emf. Find the impedance of the circuit.
Ans: A.C. circuit containing C and R in series: As shown in Fig., consider a resistor R and capacitor C
connected in series to a source of alternating emf  given by

 = 0 sin t
 Let I be the current through the series circuit at any instant. Then
  
1. Voltage VR  R I across the resistance R will be in phase with the current I . So phasors
  
VR and I are in same direction, as shown in Fig. The amplitude of VR is V0R  I0 R
  
2. Voltage VC  XC I across the capacitance C lags behind the current I in phase by /2 rad. So

phasor VC lies /2 clockwise w.r.t. the phasor I. Its amplitude is
V0C  I0 XC
 where XC is the capacitive reactance.

By parallelogram law of vector addition,

  
VR  VC  ε
Using Pythagorean theorem, we get
ε02  (V0R )2  (V0C )2  (I0R)2  (I0XC ) 2
 I02 (R 2  XC2 )
ε0
or I0 
R 2  X C2
Clearly, R 2  XC2 is the effective resistance of the series CR-circuit which opposes or impedes the
flow of current through it and is called its impedance and is ' denoted by Z. Thus
1  1 
Z  R 2  X C2  R 2  2 2  X C 
C  C 
The phase angle  between the resultant voltage and current is given by
V0C I0 XC XC I / C
tan   R   
V0 I0 R R R
It is again obvious from the phasor diagram that the current is ahead of emf by phase angle  so the
instantaneous value of current is given by
I  I0 sin(t  )

(13) Using phasor diagram, derive an expression for the impedance of a series LCR-circuit.
Ans: Series LCR-circuit: As shown in Fig., suppose a resistance R, an inductance L and capacitance C
are connected in series to a source of alternating emf  given by

 = 0 sin t
 Let I be the current in the series circuit at any instant. Then
    
1. Voltage VR  R I across the resistance R will be in phase with current I . So phasors VR and I

are in same direction, as shown in Fig. The amplitude of VR is
V0R  I0 R
  
2. Voltage VL  X L I across the inductance L is ahead of current I in phase by /2 rad. So phasor
 
VL lies /2 rad anticlockwise w.r.t. the phasor I . Its amplitude is
V0L  I0 XL
  
3. Voltage VC  XC I across the capacitance C lags behind the current I in phase by /2 rad. So
 
phasor VC lies /2 clockwise w.r.t. the phasor I . Its amplitude is

V0C  I0 XC
   
As VL and VC are in opposite directions, their resultant is (VL  VC ). By parallelogram law, the
   
resultant of VR and (VL  VC ) must be equal to the applied emf ε , given by the diagonal of the
parallelogram.

Using Pythagorean theorem, we get

ε 02  (V0R )2  (V0L  V0C )2
 (I0 R)2  (I0XL  I0XC ) 2
 I02 [R 2  (XL  XC )2 ]
ε0
or I0 
R 2  (X L  X C ) 2
Clearly, R 2  (X L  XC )2 is the effective resistance of the series LCR-circuit which opposes or
impedes the flow of current through it and is called its impedance. It is denoted by Z and its SI unit is ohm
(). Thus
2
 1 
Z  R  (X L  X C )  R   L 
2 2 2

 C 
The relationship between the resistance R, inductive reactance XL, capacitive reactance XC and the
impedance Z is shown in Fig. The right angled OAP is called the impedance triangle.

Special Cases
1. When XL > XC, or VL > VC we see from Fig. that emf is ahead of current by phase angle  which
is given by
X  XC R
tan   L or cos  
R Z
The instantaneous current in the circuit will be
 I = I0 sin (t - )
 The series LCR-circuit is said to be inductive,
2. When XL < XC or VL < VC, we see from Fig. that current is ahead of emf by phase angle  which
is given by

XC  X L R
tan   or cos  
R Z
The instantaneous current in circuit will be
I = I0 sin (t + )
The series LCR-circuit is said to be capacitive.
3. When XL = XC or VL = VC,  = 0, the emf and current will be in the same phase. The series LCR-
circuit said to be purely resistive.
It may also be noted that
ε I ε ε
I0  0 or 0  0 or Irms  rms
Z 2 2Z Z

(14) Define the terms susceptance and admittance. Give their units.
Ans: Susceptance: The reciprocal of the reactance of an a.c. circuit is called its susceptance. Its SI unit is
ohm-l or mho.
Admittance: The reciprocal of the impedance of an a.c. circuit is called its admittance, Its SI unit is ohm-1
or mho.
(15) What do you mean by the resonance condition of a series LCR-circuit? Calculate its resonant
frequency.
Ans: Resonance condition of a series LCR-circuit: A series LCR-circuit is said to be in the resonance
condition when the current through it has its maximum value.
The current amplitude I0 for a series LCR-circuit is given by
ε0
I0 
2
 1 
R   L 
2

 C 
Clearly, I0 becomes zero both for   0 and   ∞. The value of I0 is maximum when
1 1
L   0 or  
C LC
2
 1 
Then impedance, Z  R   L 
2
 R
 C 
Clearly the impedance is minimum. The circuit is purely resistive. The current and voltage are in the
same phase and the current in the circuit is maximum. This condition of the LCR-circuit is called resonance
condition. The frequency at which the current amplitude I0 attains a peak value is called natural or resonant
frequency of the LCR-circuit and is denoted by fr.
1 1
Thus r  2πf r  or f r 
LC 2π LC
The current amplitude at resonant frequency will be
ε
I0  0
R

(16) Give some of the important characteristics of the series resonant circuit.
Ans: Characteristics of series resonant circuit:
1. Resonance occurs in a series LCR-circuit when
XL = XC
1
2. Resonant frequency, f r 
2π LC
3. The impedance is minimum and purely resistive.
4. The current has a maximum value of (0/R) at resonant condition.
5. The power dissipated in the circuit is maximum and is equal to ε 2rms / R
6. The current is in phase with the voltage or the power factor is unity (cos  = 1 when  = 0).
7. Series resonance can occur at all values of resistance R.
8. The voltage across R is equal to the applied emf.
9. The voltages across L and C are equal and have a phase difference of 180° and so their resultant is zero.
10. The voltages across L and C are very high as compared to the applied voltage. Hence a series LCR-
circuit is used to obtain a large magnification of a.c. voltage.
11. The series resonant circuit is also called an acceptor circuit. When a number of frequencies are fed to it,
it accepts only one frequency fr and rejects the other frequencies. The current is maximum for this
frequency.

(17) What do you mean by sharpness of resonance in a series resonant circuit? Find expression for Q-
factor of the circuit.
Ans: Sharpness of resonance: Q-Factor: Fig. shows the variation of current amplitude I0 in a series
LCR-circuit with angular frequency , for three different values of R. The current amplitude has a peak at
1
the resonant frequency r  and falls to zero in either direction. The resonant frequency is
LC
independent of R, but the sharpness of peak depends on R. The peak is higher for smaller values of R. Thus
the resonance is sharp for small R and a flat one for large R. The sharpness of resonance is measured by a
coefficient called the quality or Q-factor of the circuit.

The Q-factor of a series resonant circuit is defined as the ratio of the resonant frequency to the
difference in two frequencies taken on both sides of the resonant frequency such that at each frequency, the
1
current amplitude becomes times the value at resonant frequency.
2
Mathematically, the Q-factor can be expressed as
 r  Resonant frequency
Q  r 
2  1 2Δ Bandwidth
1
where 1 and 2 are the frequencies at which the current falls to times its resonant value, as
2
shown in and we have used
1  r  Δ; 2  r  Δ

The frequency range 2 - 1 = 2 is called bandwidth. The larger the value of Q-factor, the smaller
is the value of 2  or the bandwidth and sharper is the peak in the current. Q-factor is a dimensionless
quantity.
Expression for Q-factor: Clearly at r, the impedance is equal to R, while at 1 and 2 its value is 2 R.
2
 1 
 Z  R 2   L    2R
 C 
2
 1  1
or R   L 
2
  2R or L 
2
 R
 C  C
We can write
1
1L   R ......(1)
1C
1
and 2 L   R ......(2)
2C
Adding (1) and (2), we get
1    2 
(1  2 )L   1 0
C  12 
1
or 12 
LC
Subtracting (1) from (2), we get
1    1 
(2  1 )L   2   2R
C  12 
 1 
or (2  1 )  L    2R
 C12 
 1 
or (2  1 )(L  L)  2R  12 
 LC 
R  r L
or 2  1   Q r   r ......(3)
L 2Δ 1  2 R
The above equation can also be written as
 LI Voltage drop across L (or C)
Q  r rms 
R Irms Applied voltage
 = Voltage magnification
Thus the Q-factor of a series LCR-circuit may also be defined as the ratio of the voltage drop across the
inductance (or capacitance) at resonance to the applied voltage.
1
As r 
LC
1 1
 2r  or r L 
LC r C
Using the above relations, we get
1 1 L
Q 
r CR R C
From equation (3), we see that if Q-factor is large i.e., if R is low or L is large, the band width 2  is small.
This means that the resonance is sharp or the series resonant circuit is more selective.

(18) Describe the use of a series resonant circuit in the tuning of a radio receiver.
Ans: Tuning of a radio receiver: The tuning circuit of a radio or TV is an example of LCR resonant
circuit. Signals are transmitted by different stations at different frequencies. These frequencies are picked up
by the antenna and corresponding to these frequencies, a number of voltages appear across the series LCR-
circuit. But maximum current flows through the circuit for that a.c. voltage which has frequency equal to
1
fr  . If Q-value of the circuit is large, the signals of the other stations will be very weak. By
2π LC
changing the value of the adjustable capacitor C, the signal from the desired station can be tuned in.

(19) What is a choke coil? Explain its action in a.c. circuits. Why is it preferred to resistance in a.c.
circuits?
Ans: Choke coil: A choke coil is simply an inductor with large inductance which is used to reduce current
in a.c. circuits without much loss of energy.
Principle: The working of a choke is based on the fact that when a.c. flows through an inductor,
current lags behind the emf by a phase angle of /2 rad.
Construction: It is made of thick insulated copper wire wound closely in a large number of turns
over a soft-iron laminated core. Choke coil offers a large reactance XL = 2f L to the flow of a.c. and hence
current is reduced. Laminated core reduces losses due to eddy currents.
Working: As shown in Fig., a choke is put in series across an electrical appliance of resistance R
and is connected to an a.c. source. This forms an LR-circuit.
Average power dissipated per cycle in the circuit is
R
Pav  Veff Ieff cos   Veff Ieff 
R 2  2 L2
Inductance L of the choke coil is very large so that R << L. Then
R
Power factor, cos   0
L
 i.e., Average power dissipated by the coil is very small. As Z  R 2  2 L2 is large, so current is
reduced without appreciable wastage of power.
Preference of choke coil over the ohmic resistance: A choke coil reduces current in a.c. circuit
without consuming any power. When an ohmic resistance is used, current reduces but energy losses occur
due to heating. So a choke coil is preferred.
Uses: The most common use of choke coil is in the fluorescent tubes with a.c. mains. If the tube is
connected directly across 220 V source, it would draw large currents which would damage the tube. With
the use of choke coil, the voltage is reduced to an appropriate value, without wasting any power. Choke coils
are also used in various electronic circuits, mercury lamp and in sodium vapour lamp.

(20) Define power for an a.c. circuit. Derive an expression for the average power of a series LCR-circuit
connected to an a.c. source. Discuss the various special cases.
Ans: Power in an a.c. circuit: The rate at which electric energy is consumed in an electric circuit is called
its power. In a d.c. circuit, power is given by the product of voltage and current. But in an a.c. circuit, both
voltage 6 and current J vary sinusoidally with time and are generally not in phase. So for an a.c. circuit, we
define instantaneous power as the product of the instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current.
Suppose in an a.c. circuit, the voltage and current at any instant are given by
 = 0 sin t and I = I0 sin (t - )
 where  is the phase angle by which the voltage  leads the current I.
The instantaneous power is given by
P  εI  ε0 I0 sin t  sin(t  )
εI
 0 0 [2sin t  sin(t  )]
2
ε 0 I0
 [ cos   cos(2t  )]
2
[ 2sin Asin B  cos(A  B)  cos(A  B)]
Average power dissipated per cycle
εI
= Average of 0 0 [cos   cos(2t  )]
2
The second cosine term [cos (2t - )] is time-dependent. Its average over a cycle is zero.
εI
 Pav  0 0 cos 
2
ε 0 I0
or Pav    cos 
2 2
R
or Pav  ε rms Irms cos   ε rms Irms 
Z
Special Cases
1. Pure resistive circuit: Here the voltage and current are in same phase, i.e.,  = 0 and cos  = 1.
ε 2rms
 Pav  ε rms  Irms 1  ε rms  I rms 
R
π π
2. Pure inductive circuit: Here the voltage leads the current in phase by ,i.e.,  
2 2
 π
 Pav  ε rms  Irms cos 0
2
Thus the average power consumed in an inductive circuit over a complete cycle is zero.
π π
3. Pure capacitive circuit: Here the voltage lags behind the current in phase by ,i.e.,   
2 2
 π
 Pav  ε rms  Irms cos     0
 2
Thus the average power consumed in a capacitive circuit over a complete cycle is also zero.
4. Series LCR-circuit: For a series LCR-circuit, Pav  ε rms Irms cos , where
X  XC
  tan 1 L . Sometimes, (i) may have a non-zero value for series LR-, LC-and LCR-circuits. So
R
power is consumed in such circuits, but only in the resistor R.
5. Power dissipated at resonance in LCR-circuit: At resonance, XL = XC, and  = 0, So cos  = 1,
and Pav  ε rms Irms . That is, maximum power is dissipated in the circuit (through R) at resonance.

(21) What do you mean by power factor of an a.c. circuit? Write an expression for it. When is the value of
the power factor of an a.c. circuit minimum and maximum?
Ans: Power Factor: The average power of an a.c. circuit is given by
Pav  ε rms  Irms cos 
Average power
= Virtual emf  Virtual current  cos 
 The product rms  Irms does not give the actual power and is called apparent power. It gives actual or
true power only when multiplied by factor cos . The factor cos  is called the power factor of an a.c. circuit.
 True power = Apparent power x power factor
Thus power factor may be defined as the ratio of the true power to the apparent power of an a.c.
circuit. Its value varies from 0 to 1. The power factor of a series LCR-circuit is given by
R R
cos   
Z R 2  (L  1/ C)2
For a purely inductive or capacitive circuit,  = 90°.
 Power factor = cos 90° = 0.
Thus the power factor assumes the minimum value for a purely inductive or capacitive circuit.
For a purely resistive circuit,  = 0°.
 Power factor = cos 0° = 1.
Thus the power factor assumes the maximum value for a purely resistive circuit.

(22) What is wattless current? When is the current in an a.c. circuit wattless?
Ans: Wattless current: The current in a.c. circuit is said to be wattless if the average power consumed in
the circuit is zero. The average power of an a.c. circuit is given by
Pav  ε rms Irms cos 

Figure shows the phase angle  between rms and Irms. The current Irms can be resolved into two
components:
(a) Component Irms cos  along rms. As the phase angle between Irms cos  and rms is zero, therefore
 Pav  ε rms (Irms cos ) cos 0  ε rms I rms cos 
π
(b) Component Irms sin  normal to rms. As the phase angle between Irms sin  and rms and rms is ,
2
therefore
π
Pav  ε rms (Irms sin )  cos 0
2
We call the component Irms sin  as the idle or wattless current because it does not consume any
power in a.c. circuit. This happens in a purely inductive or capacitive circuit in which the voltage and
π π
current differ by a phase angle of , i.e.,    , so that
2 2
Pav  ε rms Irms cos ( π / 2)  0
Thus the current in the circuit has no power. It flows sometimes along the voltage and sometimes
against the voltage, so that the net work done per cycle is zero. For example, when the secondary of a
transformer is open, the current in the primary is almost wattless.

2
(23) Prove that an ideal resistor dissipates power of Vrms / R in an a.c. circuit.
Ans: Average power associated with resistor: In case of a pure resistor, the voltage and current are
always in same phase. So we can write the instantaneous values of voltage and current as follows:
V = V0 sin t and I = I0 sin t
Work done in small time dt will be
dW = P dt = VI dt = V0 I0 sin2 t dt
VI
 0 0 (1  cos 2t)dt
2
The average power dissipated per cycle in the resistor will be
T
W 1
T T 0
Pav   dW

 sin 2t 
T T
VI VI
 0 0  (1  cos 2 t) dt  0 0  t  2 
2T 0 2T 0

V0 I0 V0 I0 V02
 [(T  0)  0]  
2T 2 2R
VI V 2  V0 
or Pav  0 0  Vrms Irms  rms   Vrms 
2 2 R  2 

(24) Derive an expression for the energy stored in an' inductor.

Ans: Energy stored in an inductor: When an inductor is connected to a source of emf, the current starts
growing through it. An induced emf is set up in the inductor which opposes the growth of current through it.
The external source has to expend energy in building up the current through the inductor against the induced
emf. This energy is stored in the inductor as magnetic field energy.
Let I be the current through the inductor L at any instant t. The current rises at the rate dI/dt. So the
induced emf is
dI
ε  L
dt
The work done against the induced emf in small time dt is
dI
dW  P dt  εI dt  L  I dt  LI dI
dt
The total work done in building up the current from 0 to I0 is
 I0
 I2 
I0
1
W   dW   LI dI  L    LI 02
0  2 0 2
This work done is stored as the magnetic field energy U in the inductor.
1
 U  LI02
2
(25) Prove that an ideal inductor connected to an a.c. source does not dissipate any power.
Ans: Average power associated with an inductor: When a.c. is applied to an ideal inductor, current lags
behind the voltage in phase by /2 radian. So we can write the instantaneous values of voltage and current as
follows:
V = V0 sin t
 π
 and I  I0 sin  t  
 2
π 
  I0 sin   t   I0 cos t
2 
Work done in small time dt is
dW  P dt  V0 I0 sin t cos t dt
VI
  0 0 sin 2t dt
2
The average power dissipated per cycle in the inductor is
T
W 1
T T 0
Pav   dW
T
V0 I0
2T 0
 sin 2 dt

V I  cos 2t 
T T
VI  4π 
 0 0    0 0 cos t 
2T  2  0 4T  T 0
VI VI
 0 0 cos 4π  cos 0  0 0 1  1
4T 4T
=0
Thus the average power dissipated per cycle in an inductor is zero.

(26) Derive an expression for the energy stored in a capacitor.

Ans: Energy stored in a capacitor: Consider a capacitor of capacitance C. Suppose the displacement of
charge q from one plate to another sets up a potential difference V between its plates. Then
q
V
C
Suppose now a small additional charge dq be displaced from one plate to another. Then work done is
q
dW  V dq  dq
C
 Total work done in displacing a charge q from one plate to another is
q q
q 1 q2
W   dW   dq 
0 0
C 2C
This energy is stored as the electrostatic energy U in the capacitor.
1 q2 1
 U  CV 2 [ q  CV]
2C 2

(27) Prove that an ideal capacitor connected to an a.c. source does not dissipate any power.
Ans: Average power associated with a capacitor: When an a.c. is applied to a capacitor, the current
leads the voltage in phase by /2 radian. So we write the expressions for instantaneous voltage and current
as follows:
V = V0 sin t
 π
and I  I0 sin  t    I0 cos t
 2
Work done in the circuit in small time dt will be
dW  Pdt  VI dt  V0I0 sin t cos t dt
VI
 0 0 sin 2t dt
2
The average power dissipated per cycle in the capacitor is
T T
W 1 VI
Pav    dW  0 0  sin 2t dt
T T0 2T 0
 cos 2t 
T
VI
 0 0   2 
2T 0
T
V0 I0  4π 
  cos t 
4T  T 0
VI
  0 0  cos 4π  cos 0
4T
VI
  0 0 [1  1]  0
4T
Thus the average power dissipated per cycle in a capacitor is zero.

(28) What are LC-oscillations? Explain qualitatively, how these oscillations are produced.
Ans: LC-Oscillations: When a charged capacitor is allowed to discharge through a non-resistive inductor,
electrical oscillations of constant amplitude and frequency are produced. These oscillations are called LC-
oscillations.
Qualitative explanation for the production of LC-oscillations: Fig. (a) shows a capacitor with
initial charge q0, connected to an ideal inductor. The electrical energy stored in the charged capacitor is
1 q 02
UE  . As there is no current in the circuit, the energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor is
2C
zero.
As the circuit is closed [Fig. (b)], the capacitor begins to discharge itself through the inductor,
causing a current I. As the current 7 increases, it builds up magnetic field around the inductor. A part of
1
electric energy of the capacitor gets stored in the inductor in the form of magnetic energy, U B  LI 2
2
At a later instant [Fig. (c)], the capacitor gets fully discharged and p.d. across its plates becomes
1
zero. The current reaches its maximum value I0, the energy stored in the magnetic field is LI02 . Thus the
2
entire electrostatic energy of the capacitor has been converted into the magnetic field energy of the inductor.
After the discharge of the capacitor is complete, the magnetic flux linked with the inductor
decreases, inducing a current in the same direction (Lenz's law) as the earlier current, as shown in Fig. (d).
The current thus persists, though with decreasing magnitude, and charges the capacitor in the opposite
direction. The magnetic energy of the inductor begins to change into the electrostatic energy of the
capacitor.
 This process continues till the capacitor is fully charged [Fig. (e)]. But it is charged with a polarity
1 q 02
opposite to that in its initial state [Fig. (a)]. Thus the entire energy is again stored as in the electric field
2 C
of the capacitor.
The capacitor begins to discharge again, sending current in opposite direction [Fig. (f)]. The energy
is once again transferred to the magnetic field of the inductor. Thus the process repeats in the opposite
direction [Fig. (g) and (h)]. The circuit eventually returns to the initial state [Fig. (a)].

Thus the energy of system continuously surges back and forth between the electric field of the
capacitor and the magnetic field of the inductor. This produces electrical oscillations of a definite frequency
f0. These are called LC-oscillations. If there is no loss of energy, the amplitude of the oscillations remains
constant as shown in Fig. Such oscillations are called undamped oscillations.
However, the LC-oscillations are usually damped due to the following reasons:
 1. Every inductor has some resistance. This causes energy loss as heat. The amplitude of oscillations
goes on decreasing and the oscillations finally die out.
2. Even if the resistance were zero, the total energy of the system would not remain constant. It is
radiated away in the form of electromagnetic waves. In fact the working of radio and TV transmitters is
based on such radiations.

(29) Show that when a capacitor is discharged through an inductor of negligible resistance, the discharge
is oscillatory and simple harmonic. Calculate its frequency.

Ans: Mathematical treatment of LC-oscillations: As shown in Fig., suppose a capacitor of capacitance

C, initially charged to q0, be connected to an inductor of inductance L. As the circuit is closed, the charge on
the capacitor begins to decrease, giving rise to a current in the circuit.

As q decreases, I increases, so
dq
I
dt
Induced emf across the inductor at any instant
dI
 L
dt
q
P.O. across the capacitor at that instant 
C
According to Kirchhoff's loop rule,
dI q
L   0
dt C
d 2q q  dq dI d 2q 
L 2   0     
dt 2 
or I ,
dt C  dt dt
d 2q 1
or  q0
dt 2 LC
d 2q
or  02q  0
dt 2
1
where 0  . This is a linear differential equation of second order. It has a general solution of
LC
the form:
q = A cos 0t + B sin 0t
 At t = 0, q = q0, so
q0 = A cos 0 + B sin 0
or A = q0
 dt
Also,  0 A sin 0 t  0 Bcos 0 t
dq
dq
At t = 0, q = q0 (maximum) and so 0
dt
 0  0 Asin 0  0Bcos 0
or B=0
Hence q = q0 cos 0t
dq
 and I  0q 0 sin 0 t
dt
Thus the charge on the capacitor plates oscillates simple harmonically with time with angular
frequency,
1
0 
LC
 1
Frequency of oscillation, f 0  0 
2π 2π LC

(30) Show that in the free oscillations of an LC circuit, the sum of energies stored in capacitor and the
inductor is constant in time.
Ans: Conservation of Energy In LC-Oscillations: Just as the sum of potential and kinetic energies
remains constant in SHM, the sum of energies stored in the capacitor and inductor remains constant during
LC-oscillations. At any instant, the electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor is
1 q2
UE  
2 C
The magnetic energy stored in the inductor at any instant is
1
U B  LI 2
2
If there is no (resistive) loss of energy, then the total energy of the LC-circuit at any instant will be
1 q2 1 2
U  U E  U B    LI
2 C 2
dq
But q  q 0 cos 0 t and I    q 0 sin 0 t
dt
1 2 1
U   q 0 cos 2 0 t  L02q 02 sin 2 0 t
2C 2
1 2 1 1 2 2
  q 0 cos 2 0 t  L q 0 sin 0 t
2C 2 LC
1 q2 1 q2
  0 cos2 0 t  sin 2 0 t    0
2 C 2 C
1
 CV02  Initial energy, as expected
2

(31) Give and explain the mechanical analogy of LC-oscillations.

Ans: Mechanical analogy for LC-oscillations: The LC-oscillations are similar to the oscillations of a
mass-spring system. In the LC-system, the energy alternates between electrostatic and magnetic forms while
in the mass-spring system, it alternates between potential and kinetic forms. The capacitor acts like a spring
while the inductor acts like an inertial mass. The charge corresponds to displacement and the current corres-
ponds to velocity.
The displacement x of oscillating mass satisfies the differential equation:
 d2 x k
2
 02 x  0, where 0 
dt m
The charge q of the capacitor satisfies a similar equation:
d 2q 1
2
 02q  0, where 0 
dt LC
Clearly, x corresponds to q.
For a mechanical system,
dv d2x
Fm m 2
dt dt
For an electrical system,
dI d 2q
ε  L  L 2
dt dt
On comparing the above two equations, we see that L is analogous to mass m i.e., L is a measure of
resistance to change in current.
1
Again, in case of LC system, 0 
LC
k
In case of mass-spring system, 0 
m
1
Obviously, is analogous to k. The force constant k is the force required to produce unit
C
1  V
displacement while    is the potential difference required to store a unit charge.
C q 
Table: Analogies between Mechanical and Electrical Quantities
Mechanical System Electrical System
Mass m Inductance L
Displacement x Charge q
Velocity
dx
v Current
dt
dq
I
dt
Force constant k Reciprocal capacitance
1
C
1 1
Mechanical energy E  kx 2  mv 2 Electromagnetic energy
2 2
1 q2 1 2
U  LI
2C 2

(32) What is a transformer? Explain the principle, construction, working and theory of a transformer.
How is current affected in a transformer? What are the various energy losses in a transformer? How can they
be reduced?
Ans: Transformer: A transformer is an electrical device for converting an alternating current at low
voltage into that at high voltage or vice versa. If it increases the input voltage, it is called step up transformer
and if it decreases the input voltage, it is called step down transformer.
Principle: It works on the principle of mutual induction, i.e., when a changing current is passed through one
of the two inductively coupled coils, an induced emf is set up in the other coil.
Construction: A transformer essentially consists of two coils of insulated copper wire having different
number of turns and wound on the same soft iron core.
The coil P to which electric energy is supplied is called the primary and the coil from which energy is drawn
or output is obtained is called the secondary. To prevent energy losses due to eddy currents, a laminated core
is used. Because of high permeability of soft iron, the entire magnetic flux due to the current in the primary
coil practically remains in the iron core and hence passes fully through the secondary. This also prevents the
stray currents being generated in the conductors lying around and the consequent power loss.
Two types of arrangements are generally used for winding of primary and secondary coils in a trans-
former:
1. Core type: In the core type transformers, the primary and secondary coils are wound on separate
limbs of the core so that the core is largely surrounded by the coils. Many of the modem transformers are of
closed core type as shown in Fig. (a)

2. Shell type: In the shell type transformers, the primary and secondary coils are wound one over
another on the same limb of the iron core. The coils are very largely surrounded by the iron core. Trans-
formers used in radio and TV transmitters and receivers are of shell type, as shown in Fig. (b).
Working: As the alternating current flows through the primary, it generates an alternating magnetic
flux in the core which also passes through the secondary. This changing flux sets up an induced emf in the
secondary, also a self-induced emf in the primary. If there is no leakage of magnetic flux, then flux linked
with each turn of the primary will be equal to that linked with each turn of the secondary.
Theory: Consider the situation when no load is connected to the secondary, i.e., its terminals are
open. Let N1 and N2 be the number of turns in the primary and secondary respectively. Then
d
Induced emf in the primary coil, ε1   N1
dt
d
Induced emf in the secondary coil, ε 2   N 2
dt
where  is the magnetic flux linked with each turn of the primary or secondary at any instant. Thus
ε2 N2

ε1 N1
 Let  be the emf applied to the primary. By Lenz's law, self-induced emf 1 opposes  in the primary
coil.
 Resultant emf in the primary  ε  ε1
This emf sends current I1 through the primary coil of resistance R.
 ε  ε1  RI1
But R is very small, so the term RI1 can be neglected.
Then  = 1
 Thus 1 may be regarded as input emf and 2 as the output emf.
ε 2 Output emf N 2
  .......(1)
ε1 Input emf N1
The ratio N2/N1, of the number of turns in the secondary to that in the primary, is called the turns
ratio of the transformer. It is also called transformation ratio.
In a step up transformer, N2 > N1 i.e., the turns ratio is greater than 1 and therefore 2 > 1. The
output voltage is greater than the input voltage.
In a step down transformer, N2 < N1 i.e., the turns ratio is less than 1 and therefore 2 < 1. The
output voltage is less than the input voltage.
It may be noted that equation (1) has been derived by using the following three assumptions:
1. The primary resistance and current are small.
2. The same flux links both with the primary and secondary windings as the flux leakage from the
core is negligibly small.
3. The terminals of the secondary are open or the current taken from it is small.
Currents in primary and secondary: Assuming the transformer to be ideal one so that there are no
energy losses, then
Input power = Output power or ε1I1  ε 2 I2 where I1 and I2 are the currents in the primary and
secondary, respectively.
I ε N
Hence 1  2  2 ......(2)
I2 ε1 N1
Thus a step up transformer steps up the voltage, but steps down the current exactly in the same ratio.
Similarly, a step down transformer steps down the voltage but steps up the current exactly in the same ratio.
The efficiency of a transformer is defined as
Power output
η 100% ......(3)
Power input
The efficiency of real transformers is fairly high (90-99%) though not 100%.
Energy losses in transformers: The main causes for energy loss in transformers are as follows:
1. Copper loss: Some energy is lost due to heating of copper wires used in the primary and
secondary windings. This power loss (= I2R) can be minimised by using thick copper wires of low
resistance.
2. Eddy current loss: The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core which
leads to some energy loss in the form of heat. This loss can be reduced by using laminated iron core.
3. Hysteresis loss: The alternating current carries the iron core through cycles of magnetisation and
demagnetisation. Work is done in each of these cycles and is lost as heat. This is called hysteresis loss and
can be minimised by using core material having narrow hysteresis loop.
4. Flux leakage: The magnetic flux produced by the primary may not fully pass through the
secondary. Some of the flux may leak into air. This loss can be minimised by winding the primary and
secondary coils over one another.
 5. Humming loss: As the transformer works, its core lengthens and shortens during each cycle of the
alternating voltage due to a phenomenon called magnetostriction. This gives rise to a humming sound. So
some of the electrical energy is lost in the form of humming sound.
(33) State some of the important uses of transformers.
Ans: Some uses of transformers:
1. Small transformers are used in radio receivers, telephones, loud speakers, etc.
2. In voltage regulators for TV, refrigerators, air-conditioners, computers, etc.
3. In stabilised power supplies.
4. A step-down transformer is used for obtaining large current for electric welding.
5. A step-down transformer is used in induction furnace for melting metals.
6. A step-up transformer is used for the production of X-rays.
7. In the transmission of electric energy from the generating stations to the consumers.

(34) Explain the use of transformers in long distance transmission of electric power.
Ans: Use of transformers in long distance transmission of electric power: The most important
application of transformers is in the transmission of electrical power from a power station to far away areas
where it is actually used. Following are the disadvantages of transmitting the electrical power at low voltage:
1. Large length of transmission cables have appreciable resistance. Hence a large amount of energy
2
(I Rt) will be lost as heat during transmission.
2. Large voltage drop (IR) occurs along the line wire. Hence the voltage at the receiving station will
be much smaller than that at the generating station.
3. To carry large currents and to keep the resistance of transmission wires low, thick wires have to be
used. The cost of installing thick wires will be extremely high.
Thus the long distance power transmission at low voltage and high current is neither efficient nor
economical. If I is the current in the cable, and R its resistance, the power wasted in the cable is I2R. The
power loss can be reduced by reducing I or R. The power supplied by the generator is given by P = VI,
where V is the voltage across its terminals. Since I = P/V, for a given amount of power P, the power loss is
less if I is less or V is high.
In actual practice, as shown in Fig., a typical power station generates 1000 kW at 6600 volts. This
voltage is first stepped up to 132000 volts before transmission. Transmission lines from different power
stations in a region deliver power to a common regional pool, called the grid. From the grid, the power is fed
to the cities at 33000 V, the stepping down is done outside the city. Then again at a sub-station, the supply is
stepped down to 6600 V. For domestic purposes, the voltage is again stepped down to 220 V.

(35) With the help of a labelled diagram, explain the principle, construction and working of an a.c.
generator. Derive the expression for the induced emf and current.
Ans: A.C. Generator: A generator or dynamo is a device which converts mechanical energy into
electrical energy. Actually, the name generator is a misnomer because it does not generate any energy. It just
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
An a.c. generator is the one which produces a current that alternates or changes its direction regularly
after a fixed interval of time, i.e., it is a device which converts mechanical energy into alternating form of
electrical energy. The present form of a.c. generator is due to Nikola Tesla, the great Yugoslav scientist who
built it in the year 1888.
Principle: The working of an a.c. generator is based on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
When a closed coil is rotated in a uniform magnetic field with its axis perpendicular to the magnetic field,
the magnetic flux linked with the coil changes and an induced emf and hence a current is set up in it.

Construction: It essentially consists of the following main parts:

1. Field magnet: It is a permanent magnet of the horse shoe shape in a small dynamo (magneto) or it
is a powerful electromagnet in a large dynamo. It produces a strong magnetic field in the region between its
pole-pieces.
2. Armature: It consists of a rectangular coil PQRS having a large number of turns of insulated
copper wire wound on a soft iron cylindrical core. The core is laminated one to avoid losses due to eddy
currents. The soft iron core concentrates the lines of force to increase the flux density R. The armature can
be rotated in the magnetic field of the field magnet about an axis perpendicular to field B.
3. Slip rings: The two ends of the armature coil are connected to two coaxial brass rings S1 and S2
called slip rings. The rings are rigidly fixed to same shaft which is used to rotate the coil. The slips are
insulated from each other as well as from the shaft. As the armature coil rotates, the slip rings also rotate
about the same axis of rotation.
4. Brushes: Two graphite or flexible metallic rods called brushes are lightly pressed against the two
slip rings. The brushes B1 and B2 remain fixed in their positions and maintain sliding contacts with the
rotatable slip rings S1 and S2 respectively. It is through these brushes that the current induced in the armature
coil is fed to the external circuit by means of line wires.
5. Source of energy: The armature coil is rotated about its axis with the help of turbine or any other
device connected to it. It is the rotational kinetic energy of the turbine which is ultimately converted into
electrical energy by the a.c. generator.
Working: As the armature coil rotates, the magnetic flux linked with it changes and so an induced
current flows through it. Suppose initially the coil PQRS be in the vertical position and it is rotated in the
clockwise direction. The side PQ moves downward and SR moves upward. According to Fleming's right
hand rule, the induced current flows from Q to P and from S to R. So during the first half rotation of the coil,
the induced current flows in the direction SRQP, with brush bi acting as positive terminal and brush R, as
negative terminal. During the second half-rotation, the side PQ moves upward and SR moves downward.
The direction of induced current is reversed, i.e., it flows along PQRS, so that the brush B^ now functions as
the positive terminal and brush Bl as the negative terminal. Thus the direction of current in the external
circuit is reversed after every half cycle. Hence alternating current is produced by the generator. Such a
generator which generates alternating current is called an a.c. generator or an alternator.
Expression for induced emf, Let
N = number of turns in the coil
A = face area of each turn
B = magnitude of the magnetic field

 = angle which normal to the coil makes with field B at any instant t
 = the angular velocity with which coil rotates
Then the magnetic flux linked with the coil at any instant t will be
 = NBA cos  = NBA cos t
By Faraday's flux rule, the induced emf is given by
d d
ε     (NBA cos t)  NBA sin t
dt dt
or  = 0 sin t
 where 0 = NBA . When a load of resistance R is connected across the terminals, a current I flows
in the external circuit.
ε ε sin t
I  0  I0 sin t
R R
ε
where I0  0 . Both current and voltage vary sinusoidally with time. The power dissipated in the
R
load is supplied by the agent in rotating the coil in the magnetic field.
Hydroelectric power station: In a hydroelectric power station, water is stored in a dam at a height,
from where it falls into giant waterwheels or turbines. These turbines are connected to the loops of wires in
a.c. generators. The kinetic energy of the falling water thus gets converted into rotational energy of the
turbines and ultimately into electrical energy supplied by the generator.
Thermal power station: In a thermal power station, steam is produced by boiling water using coal
or oil as fuel. The turbines coupled to the loops of a.c. generators are rotated by steam rushing past them and
thus electrical energy is generated.
Nuclear power plant: In a nuclear power plant, a nuclear fuel is used instead of coal to generate
electrical energy.

(36) Write some advantages and disadvantages of a.c. over d.c.

Ans: Advantages of a.c. over d.c:
1. The generation of a.c. is more economical than d.c.
2. The alternating voltage can be easily stepped up or stepped down by using a transformer.
3. The alternating currents can be reduced by using a choke coil without any significant wastage of
energy.
4. The alternating currents can be transmitted to distant places without any significant line loss.
5. Also a.c. can be easily converted into d.c. by using rectifiers.
6. A.C. machines are simple and robust and do not require much attention during their use.
Disadvantages of a.c. over d.c:
1. Peak value of a.c. is high (I0  2Irms ). It is dangerous to work with a.c.
2. In phenomena like electroplating, electro-refining, electrotyping, etc; a.c. cannot be used.
3. A.C. is transmitted more from the surface of conductor than from inside. This is called skin effect.
Therefore, several fine insulated wires (and not a single thick wire) are required for the transmission of a.c.