EVOLUTION

 Evolution :
To unroll / unfold / reveal the hidden potentialities
Orderly change in life form from one condition to other
Term evolution was given by Herbert Spencer
 According to Darwin - “Descent with modification”
 Evolutionary biology :
The study of history of life forms i.e. the changes in flora and fauna that have occured over millions of
years on earth.
Universe 
 It is a cluster of galaxies (stars, gaseous cloud, dusty cloud)

Note
1 Light Year : Distance travelled by light in 1
year
 Universe is so vast
Stellar distance
 Considering the size of universe earth is indeed
a speck
Measure  Stellar distance : Distance between planets,
in
stars and galaxies
Light Year When we see stars we apparently are peeping
into the past.

 Origin of Universe :
 Big Bang Theory was given by George Lemaitre
13.8billion years ago  Universe
4.5 bya  Earth

500 million years after the Earth formation or 4 b.y.a  Lifee

 Origin of life is considered a unique event in the history of universe.

 Big Bang Theory :

Most accepted theory to explain ‘ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE’ (took place around 13.8 Billion years ago)

Hot, dense
state
Single huge Gas Cloud Galaxy Solar System
Explosion (13.8 BYA) (H, He are formed) (Stars + Clouds of (Earth Originated - 4 .5 BYA)
Unimaginable in Physical Dust & Gases)
Terms
 Origin of Earth :
There was no atmosphere on early Earth.

Conditions on Primitive Earth :

'UV' rays from Sun NH3 + O 2 N2 + H 2O (i) High temperature
split (ii) Volcanic storms
2H2O 2H2 + O2
water
CH4 + O2 CO2 + H 2O (iii) Lightening
It was never free as molecular O2 (iv) Unstable radioactive elements
Being lighter it escaped (v) UV rays
It reacted with gases like CH4, N H3 &
released CO,2 N 2, H2O etc.
(vi) Reducing atmosphere containing
CH4, NH3 etc

Evolution
Human Evolution
Origin of life

5 theories
Organic Evolution 8 Evidences

4 theories
 ORIGIN OF LIFE :
Theories :
1. Theory of Special Creation : By Father Saurez (Mythology based)
Three Connotations (statements)
All living creatures on earth were created as such
• Diversity of life forms on earth was same since its creations and will be same in future
• Earth is 4000 yr old
Disprove :
 Darwin and Wallace: Explained that there are different life forms present in different period of life

time
 Fossils and Dating: Carbon dating of diff. fossils revealed that earth is not thousands year old but it
is billion years ago
2. Theory of Catastrophism : Given by Cuvier, according to which after a gap of certain period (called
age), the world undergoes a catastrophe (sudden calamity) which kills almost all the living organisms
and then God creates a new generation or new life from inorganic matter.
3. Cosmic Panspermia Theory : Favourite theory of Astronomers
Early Greek thinkers   They had a thought that life came from outside of earth / space and
they called that unit of life (spore or factor)
Disprove :
They were not having any strong evidences of it
Maggots = larva of House fly
3. Theory of Spontaneous Generation / Abiogenesis / Autogenesis
 Few Greek philosophers  Life originates from dead, decaying and rotten material e.g.

A) Raw Meat 
 Raw Meat

Raw meat kept in open vessel maggots appeared

B) Sweat Soaked Shirt


 Wheat
Wheat
Mice developed
C) Nile River + sunlight  frog, fishes, crocodile developed
4. Theory of Biogenesis : Given by Harvey and Huxley
 Stated : “Omnis Vivum ex ovo or vivo” (New life originates from pre-existing life)
 Disproveabiogenesis
Supported by :

Raw Meat Raw Meat

i) F. Redi 

Covered No Maggots developed
vessel in Raw Meat
ii) Spallanzani
Open
Covered
by lid

Microbial Microbial
growth growth
(a) (b)
Broth
Broth
(meat based)
(meat based)

Open

Open

Microbial
Broth heated


growth
(c)
Broth after
cooling

Burner
 Covered
by lid

No microbial
growth

(d) 
 Broth after cooling
Broth heated

Burner

iii) Louis Pasteur  Swan neck flask experiment

Air entered easily
e.g. (spores in air)

Microorganisms / Spore
in atmosphere Microbial growth
Broth
(A) Broken Neck (Life comes from life)

Spores trapped here in

Broth / killed yeast and
the swan neck
sugar syrup

‘Heat’ So that no pre-existing life is there Broth / killed yeast and sugar syrup
Flask Swan neck No microbial growth
(B) ‘Swan’ Neck
Hence, Proved Life comes from Pre-Existing Life

Draw back : They were not able to explain the Origin of Life
5. Oparin - Haldane Theory (Modern Theory) :
 
Russia England
 Oparin, Haldane proposed that the first form of life could have come from pre-existing non-
living organic molecules (e.g. RNA, protein, etc.) and that formation of life was preceded by
chemical evolution.
Biological Evolution
pre-existing non-living organic molecules first form of life
Biogeny

Note
Oparin Theory was published in his book 'ORIGIN OF LIFE'
• First Life Originated in sea water
Inorganic • Water is essential for ORIGIN OF LIFE
constituents

(i) Chemical Evolution (Chemogeny)

 Now, the water of oceans became a rich mixture of macromolecules/complex organic compounds.
Haldane called it Hot dilute soup/pre biotic soup.
 We have no clear idea about how the first self -replicating metabolic capsule of life arose,
but we consider it to be a result of some mutations in the nucleic acids.
Evidences of Chemical Evolution
(i) Harold Urey and Stanley Miller Experiment
 Miller : Created similar conditions at lab
scale which were thought to be on primitive
earth.
He took CH4, NH3, H2 were in 2 : 1 : 2 ratio
and water vapour at 800oC in a large
flask
 He created electric discharge by using two
tungsten electrodes as source of energy.
He observed the formation of simple amino
acids like glycine, alanine, and aspartic
acid.
 In similar experiments other scientists
observed, formation of sugars, nitrogen
bases, pigment and fats.
The control experiment/ apparatus comprised similar
arrangement except that it was devoid of energy source.

(ii) Evidences from meteorites :

 Analysis of meteorite contents also revealed similar compounds (carbides, nitraides etc.)
indicating that similar processes are occurring elsewhere in space.

This version of abiogenesis, i.e., the first form of life arose slowly through evolutionary forces
from non-living molecules is accepted by majority

(B) Biogeny – Biological Evolution

 To form a cellular form of life
isolated molecule from surrounding

replicating molecule

i) Origin of Protobionts : 4 B.Y.A.

Macromolecules which were synthesized abiotically in primitive oceans later came together and
formed large colloidal drop like structures named as protobionts.
Properties of protobionts
(a) Partially isolated
(b) Extrinsic growth
(c) Could not reproduce
(d) Exhibit simple metabolism
(e) Non-living
Note
Oparin : coacervates
Artificial protobionts (without lipid membrane)
synthesised in lab
Sydney Fox : microsphere
(microscopic protenoid
bodies with a lipid membrane)

ii) Origin of Eobionts : 1st non-cellular form 

 3 B.Y.A.

Non -Replicating Nucleic Acid 

Mutation
 Self - Replicating Nucleic Acid.

Self - Replicating Nucleic Acid + proteins 

 Nucleoproteins

 Nucleoproteins were the first sign of life

 1st form of Life : Eobiont – non-cellular
 Altman (1980) discovered that some RNA molecules have enzymatic activity, called as ribozymes.
It means at the time of origin of life, RNA molecule could carry out all the basic processes of life
(replication, protein formation enzymatic activity etc) without the help of either protein or DNA. Hence
this concept is called as RNA World.

(iii) Origin of first cellular form (Prokaryotes) : 2 B.Y.A.

RNA 
mutation
 DNA

Ribozymes & Proteins 

Organized
Ribosomes
Protocell  became more complex and efficient to use materials available in surrounding medium
 The first living beings were single celled bacteria like prokaryotes with naked DNA.

(a) Chemoheterotrophic producing energy from dissolved organic comp in primitive ocean
(anaerobic)
mutation

(b) Chemoautotrophic – producing energy by

(Chemo-oxidation)
mutation

inorganic compound Organic compound

(hydrothermal vents)

(c) Photoautotrophs -
Sunlight
anaerobic / anoxygenic – CO2 + H2 S Glucose + Sulphur
bacteriochlorophyll
Eg. Sulphur bacteria
mutation

chlorophyll
aerobic / oxygenic CO2 + H2 S Glucose + O2
sunlight
Eg. Cyanobacteria (BGA)

Oxygen Revolution : O2
Liberated
 H O2  
 atmosphere becoming oxidizing
2
BGA
Due to O2, chemicals oxidised (CH4, NH3) 
 (CO2, H2O etc.)

Ozone appeared which absorbs ultraviolet radiation

 Anaerobic bacteria 
Adapted
aerobic bacteria (producing 20 times more energy)

4. Origin of Eukaryotic Cell : 1.5 B.Y.A.

Nucleus, mitochondria, and other cell organelles developed in the cell and the cell became metabolically
more active.
 These free living unicellular eukaryotic organisms originated about 1.5 billion years ago in the
primitive ocean
  Abiotic synthesis of biomolecules is studied under following headings :
1. Chemogeny : Synthesis of organic molecules by chemical reactions.
2. Biogeny : Formation of self replicating biomolecules in broth (primordial hot soup or warm little
pond).

 Organic Evolution
 Dolo’s Law – evolution is irreversible process
 Unit of evolution – population
 Raw material of evolution – variations
 1st step of evolution – speciation (formation of new species)

Inorganic (non living) Progressive

Evolution Evolution
Organic (living) Reterogressive

Theories of Organic Evolution

1. LAMARCKISM / Theory of use/disuse of organ or Theory of Inheritance of Acquired
Characters
 Change in environment force the organism to either develop a new organ or modify the existing
organ.
 The more we use the organ, the more it develops and the less we use it. it dissapears.
 These character that one acquires during the life time is also passed on to the next generation.
He gave the examples of Giraffes who in an attempt to forage leaves on tall trees had to adapt by

elongation of their necks.

 Slowly over years, they came to acquire long necks.
Note : Lamarck was a French naturalist who gave lamarckism.

Diagram showing elongation of neck in giraffe according to Lamarckism

 Environmental Changes

Need for new structures Examples :

1. Long neck and forelimbs
Development of new structure of giraffe:
2. Aquatic birds stretched their
toes and developed web.
Organ of use Organ of disuse 3. Snakes lost their legs.

Inheritance of Degeneration of
acquired characters the structure

Origin of new species

Criticism of Lamarckism :
Disproved the Lamark’s theory, inheritance of acquired characteristics.
(1) Weismann's Theory of Continuity of Germplasm :
Weismann cut off the tails of rats for as many as 22 generations and allowed them to breed, but
tailless or reduced tailed rats were never born.
On the basis of this experiment Weismann proposed the theory of continuity of germplasm.
According to this theory :
Protoplasm

Somatoplasm Germplasm
Continuity of Germplasm
Variation in Variation in variations influencing the
somatoplasm germplasm germ cells are only inherited
but the somatoplasm is not
transmitted to the next generation
Not inherited to Inherited to
next generation next generation
(2) Boring of ear pinna and nose in Indian women is never inherited to the next generations.
(3) Chinese women used to wear iron shoes in order to have small feet, but they still have normal feet.
Neo-Lamarckism :
"Changing environment may create some physical and chemical changes in somatoplasm of organisms,
which may affect their germplasm also and such acquired characters can inherit."
Many experiments were done to support this but they were not convincing and satisfactory
2. Darwinism/Theory of Natural Selection :
 Darwin travelled by H.M.S. Beagle ship,
 Journey  S. America, S. Africa, Australia & Galapagos Islands (Galapagos means tortoise)

 Duration  5 years (27 Dec. 1831 – 02 Oct. 1836)

 Darwin was influenced by two books-

(i) "Principles of population" of Malthus

(ii) "Principles of geology" of Charles Lyell
Alfred Wallace, a naturalist who worked in Malay Archipelago had also come to similar conclusions
around the same time and he sent his conclusions to Darwin in form of a chart.

Darwin publised his book : 'On the origin of species by means of Natural selection' (1859)

According to this Theory :

1. Population have a tendency to grow exponentially but it does not as the NATURAL RESOURCES are
limited.

2. Struggle for existence : Size of population is stable exept seasonal fluctuation.

3. Variations and Heredity : Members of a population vary in characteristics (in fact no two
individuals are alike) i.e. population has built in variation in characteristics.
 Those characteristics which enable some to survive better in natural conditions (climate, food,
physical factors, etc.) are called adaptive or useful variations while others are called as non- adaptive
or harmful variations.
The novelty and brilliant insight of Darwin was, he asserted that variations, which are heritable and
which make resource utilisation better for few (adapted to habitat better) will enable only those to
reproduce and leave more progeny.

4. Natural selection/ Survival of the fittest : Those who are better fit in an environment would be
selected by nature and leave more progeny than others. Darwin called it natural selection and implied it
as a mechanism of evoltuion.

The fitness, according to Darwin, refers ultimately and only to reproductive fitness

Sexual selection : It is observed that all adult individuals of a population don't have equal chances
of mating; some males with better phenotype are preferred by females.

5. Origin of New species : As a result of heritable variations and natural selection there would
be a change in population characteristic and hence new forms appears to arise
Note
According to this theory all organs of an individual produce which are minute
particles carrying information about the organs. The pangenes travelling thourgh the blood stream will
ultimately reach the gametes, so that each gamete will have pangenes for each of the different organs.
After zygote formation, the pangenes tend to form the same orgnas from which these pangenes were
produced.

Criticism of Darwinism :
1. Darwin didn't have the knowledge of genetics and he had no satisfactory explanation for the cause,
origin and inheritance of variations.
2. This theory only explained the survival of fittest but was unable to explain the arrival of fittest
3. Darwin was unable to explain why in a population only a few individuals develop useful variations
and others have harmful variations.
4. Criticism of Darwinism was based on sexual selection. Why only females have the right of selection
for mating?
5. Darwin couldn't explain the existence of vestigial organs.
6. Darwin was unable to differentiate the somatic and germinal variations.