Course Title Topics

RAD 311 Other Imaging Modality I (Ultrasound) 1. Nature of sound in diagnostic

ultrasound and generation.
2. Piezoelectric principles, effects
materials, and uses.
Lecturer: Mr. Eja-Egwu U.N

OBJECTIVES OF THIS STUDY

After studying this course, students should be able to:
_ Characterize the properties of an ultrasound transducer, including those that
influence the resonance frequency.
_ Explain the piezoelectric effect and its use in ultrasound transducers.
_ Describe the properties of an ultrasound beam.
_ Delineate the characteristics of focused ultrasound beams and various ultrasound probes and its
principle of operation.

NATURE OF SOUND IN DIAGNOSTICS

Sound is a mechanical disturbance or wave from a state of equilibrium that propagates through an elastic
material medium. A sound wave consists of multiple alternating compressions and rarefactions, or regions
of high pressure and low pressure, moving at a certain speed. As a mechanical wave, it requires a medium
for propagation and it has the properties of a wave. The properties and nature of sound varies with the
medium of propagation.
Type of sound waves:
1. Longitudinal: travels parallel to the direction of the material displacement. It occurs When the
atoms are set in vibration they move back and forth. This continuous back and forth motion results
in a high-pressure and a low-pressure region in the propagating medium. e.g sound in gases and air.
2. Transverse: travels perpendicular to the material displacement e.g sound in solid
Properties of sound:
Wavelength, period, frequency, amplitude and intensity.
Sound wave is represented by the sinusoidal curve, the pressure variation in a sound wave repeats itself
with multiple region of rarefaction and compression in space over a specific distance. This distance is
known as the wavelength of the sound, usually measured in metres and represented by λ. As the wave
propagates through the air, one full wavelength takes a certain time period to pass a specific point in space;
this period, represented by T, is usually measured in fractions of a second. In addition, during each one-
second time interval, a certain number of wavelengths pass a point in space known as the frequency of the
sound wave and is represented by f. The number of wavelengths passing per second is measured in hertz or
kilohertz.
With passage of the compressions and rarefactions that constitute the sound wave, there would occur a
fluctuation above and below atmospheric pressure. The magnitude of this fluctuation from equilibrium is
known as the amplitude of the sound wave; measured in pascals, or newtons per square metre, it is
represented by the letter A. The amplitude of a sound wave determines its intensity, which in turn is
perceived by the ear as loudness. Acoustic intensity is defined as the average rate of energy transmission
per unit area perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. Its relation with amplitude can be
written as ρ , where ρ is the equilibrium density of the air (measured in kilograms per cubic metre) and S is
the speed of sound (in metres per second). Intensity (I) is measured in watts per square metre, the watt
being the standard unit of power in electrical or mechanical usage.
Under these conditions a sound wave propagates in a linear manner—that is, it continues
to propagate through the air with very little loss, dispersion, or change of shape. However, when the
amplitude of the wave reaches about 100 pascals (approximately one one-thousandth the pressure of the
atmosphere), significant nonlinearities develop in the propagation of the wave.

Sound wave pattern

Effect of Amplitude on sound intensity

PRINCIPLES OF DIAGNOSTIC ULTRASOUND

The diagnostic ultrasound, also known as the sonography test, uses the principle of
“Doppler effect” or echoes to convert the reflected sound energy into images.

 During sonography, a transducer (probe) containing a piezoelectric crystal is placed

directly on the skin or inside a body opening (vagina or rectum).
 A thin layer of gel is applied to the skin directly above the organ to be scanned to
ensure close contact between the skin and the probe, thereby reducing acoustic
impedance and noise from air interface. Ultrasound waves are transmitted from the
transducer through the gel into the body.
 These short bursts of sound energy released into the body (by transmitter) hit the
desired organs and return to the probe as an echo, which is received by the
receiver. The probe then diverts echo to a biometer present in the system.
 The biometer converts the sound wave data into organ images.
 The image formed depends upon the echoes transmitted, received and time taken
for the sound to be reflected. In a diseased organ, the echoes reflected are different
compared with those in a healthy organ. Therefore, the image formed is different.

PIEZOELECTRICITY

The word piezoelectric originates from the Greek word piezein, which literally means to squeeze or press.
Piezoelectricity is the process of using crystals to convert mechanical energy into electrical energy, or vice
versa.
Regular crystals are defined by their organized and repeating structure of atoms that are held together by
bonds, this is called a unit cell. Most crystals, such as iron have a symmetrical unit cell, which makes them
useless for piezoelectric purposes. There are other crystals that get lumped together as piezoelectric
materials. The structure in these crystals are not symmetrical but they still exist in an electrically neutral
balance. However, if you apply mechanical pressure to a piezoelectric crystal, the structure deforms, atoms
get pushed around, and suddenly you have a crystal that can conduct an electrical current. If you take the
same piezoelectric crystal and apply an electric current to it, the crystal will expand and contract,
converting electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Polarization Of Piezoelectric Crystal
Types of Piezoelectric Materials

There are a variety of piezoelectric materials that can conduct an electric current, both man-made and
natural. The most well known, and the first piezoelectric material used in electronic devices is the quartz
crystal. Other naturally occurring piezoelectric materials include cane sugar, Rochelle salt, topaz,
tourmaline, and even bone.

Quartz crystal.
As piezoelectric technology started to take off after World War I we began developing man-made materials
to rival the performance of quartz. Man-made piezoelectric materials include:

PZT is made from lead zirconate titanate and can produce more voltage than quartz with the same amount
of mechanical pressure.

PZT piezo ceramics is used in ultrasonic sensors.

Barium Titanate is a ceramic piezoelectric material that was discovered during World War II and is known
for its long lasting durability.
Lithium Niobate is a material that combines oxygen, lithium, and nobium together in a ceramic material
that performs similar to barium titanate.

How Piezoelectricity Works

The most unique trait of this effect is that it works two ways. You can apply mechanical energy or
electrical energy to the same piezoelectric material and get an opposite result.

Applying mechanical energy to a crystal is called a direct piezoelectric effect and works like this:

1. A piezoelectric crystal is placed between two metal plates. At this point the material is in perfect
balance and does not conduct an electric current.
2. Mechanical pressure is then applied to the material by the metal plates, which forces the electric
charges within the crystal out of balance. Excess negative and positive charges appear on opposite
sides of the crystal face.
3. The metal plate collects these charges, which can be used to produce a voltage and send an
electrical current through a circuit.

Indirect piezoelectric effect. It works like this:

1. In the same situation as the example above, we have a piezoelectric crystal placed between two
metal plates. The crystal’s structure is in perfect balance.
2. Electrical energy is then applied to the crystal, which shrinks and expands the crystal’s structure.
3. As the crystal’s structure expands and contracts, it converts the received electrical energy and
releases mechanical energy in the form of a sound wave.

The inverse piezoelectric effect is used in a variety of applications. Take a speaker for example, which
applies a voltage to a piezoelectric ceramic, causing the material to vibrate the air as sound waves.

Other Application Of Piezoelectricity Today

In today’s world of electronics piezoelectricity is used everywhere. Asking Google for directions to a new
restaurant uses piezoelectricity in the microphone. There’s even a subway in Tokyo that uses the power of
human footsteps to power piezoelectric structures in the ground. You’ll find piezoelectricity being used in
these electronic applications:
Actuators

Actuators use piezoelectricity to power devices like knitting and braille machinery, video cameras, and
smartphones. In this system, a metal plate and an actuator device sandwiches together a piezoelectric
material. Voltage is then applied to the piezoelectric material, which expands and contracts it. This
movement causes the actuator to move as well.

Speakers & Buzzers

Speakers use piezoelectricity to power devices like alarm clocks and other small mechanical devices that
require high quality audio capabilities. These systems take advantage of the inverse piezoelectric effect by
converting an audio voltage signal into mechanical energy as sound waves.

Drivers

Drivers convert a low voltage battery into a higher voltage which can then be used to drive a piezo device.
This amplification process begins with an oscillator which outputs smaller sine waves. These sine waves
are then amplified with a piezo amplifier.

Sensors

Sensors are used in a variety of applications such as microphones, amplified guitars, and medical imaging
equipment. A piezoelectric microphone is used in these devices to detect pressure variations in sound
waves, which can then be converted to an electrical signal for processing.

Power

One of the simplest applications for piezoelectricity is the electric cigarette lighter. Pressing the button of
the lighter releases a spring-loaded hammer into a piezoelectric crystal. This produces an electrical current
that crosses a spark gap to heat and ignite gas. This same piezoelectric power system is used in larger gas
burners and oven ranges.

Motors
Piezoelectric crystals are perfect for applications that require precise accuracy, such as the movement of a
motor. In these devices, the piezoelectric material receives an electric signal, which is then converted into
mechanical energy to force a ceramic plate to move.
Piezoelectricity and the Future

What does the future hold for piezoelectricity? The possibilities abound. One popular idea that inventors
are throwing around is using piezoelectricity for energy harvesting. Imagine having piezoelectric devices in
your smartphone that could be activated from the simple movement of your body to keep them charged.

Thinking a bit bigger, you could also embed a piezoelectric system underneath highway pavement that can
be activated by the wheels of traveling cars. This energy could then be used light stoplights and other
nearby devices. Couple that with a road filled with electric cars and you’d find yourself in net positive
energy situation.

Piezoelectric Materials and Applications in summary:

1. Piezoelectric Material (Future source of electricity)

2. Discovered in 1880 by French physicists Jacques and Pierre Curie in quartz crystals. The word
originates from the greek word “piezein”, which means “to press”. If certain crystals were
subjected to mechanical strain, they became electrically polarized and the degree of polarization
was proportional to the applied strain. Examples -- Quartz, Barium titanate, tourmaline e.t.c.
3. Animated representation of Piezoelectric Effect
4. Piezoelectric behaviour can be manifested in two distinct ways- 1. ‘Direct’ piezoelectric effect 2.
‘Converse’ piezoelectric effect Types Of Piezoelectricity
5. Direct piezoelectric effect • The electrical response to mechanical stimulation is called the direct
piezoelectric effect. • The devices based on this effect can be used to detect strain, movement, force,
pressure or vibration by developing appropriate electrical responses, as in the case of force and
acoustic or ultrasonic sensors.
6. Converse Piezoelectric Effect • The mechanical response to electrical stimulation is called the
converse piezoelectric effect i.e. when the piezoelectric material placed in an electric field they
becomes strained. • This property can be used to generate strain, movement, force, pressure or
vibration through the application of suitable electric field on piezoelectric material.
7. Piezoelectricity Piezoelectricity is the ability of certain materials (piezoelectric materials) to
produce a voltage when subjected to mechanical stress. Piezoelectric materials also show the
opposite effect, where application of an electrical field creates mechanical stress (size modification)
in the crystal.
8. The effect is explained by the displacement of ions in crystals that have a nonsymmetrical unit
cell. When the crystal is compressed, the ions in each unit cell are displaced, causing the electric
polarization of the unit cell. Because of the regularity of crystalline structure, these effects
 accumulate, causing the appearance of an electric potential difference between certain faces of the
crystal. When an external electric field is applied to the crystal, the ions in each unit cell are
displaced by electrostatic forces, resulting in the mechanical deformation of the whole crystal.
INTERNAL WORKING
9. Piezoelectric Material • To exhibit piezoelectricity two main necessary conditions are –
1. Crystal should have Ionic or partially Ionic bonds.
2. Its structure should have no centre of symmetry.
Piezoelectric materials are usually divided into two groups-
I. Hard Piezoelectric Materials I
I. Soft Piezoelectric Materials
The antonyms “hard” and “soft” doped piezoelectric materials refer to the ferroelectric properties,
i.e. the mobility of the dipoles or domains and hence also to the polarization/depolarization
behaviour.
10. Some naturally occurring crystals:
1. Quartz
2. Sucrose (table sugar)
3. Tourmaline-group minerals
4. Rochelle salt
5. Berlinite (AlPO4), a rare phosphate mineral that is structurally identical to quartz
6. Topaz
7. Lead titanate (PbTiO3). Although it occurs in nature as mineral macedonite, it is synthesized for
research and applications. Many materials, both natural and synthetic, exhibit piezoelectricity:
11. Other natural materials Biological materials exhibiting piezoelectric properties include: 1. Tendon
2. Silk 3. Wood (due to piezoelectric texture) 4. Enamel 5. Dentin 6. DNA 7. Dry Bone 8. Viral
proteins, including those from bacteriophage. One study has found that thin films of M13
bacteriophage can be used to construct a piezoelectric generator sufficient to operate a liquid crystal
display.
12. Some synthetic piezo crystals:
1. Barium titanate (BaTiO3)—Barium titanate was the first piezoelectric ceramic discovered.
2. Lead zirconate titanate (Pb[ZrxTi1−x]O3 , 0≤x≤1)—more commonly known as PZT, the
most common piezoelectric ceramic in use today.
3. Gallium orthophosphate (GaPO4)
4. Langasite (La3Ga5SiO14)
5. Potassium niobate (KNbO3)
6. Lithium niobate (LiNbO3)
 7. Lithium tantalate (LiTaO3)
8. Sodium tungstate (Na2WO3)
9. Ba2NaNb5O5
10. Pb2KNb5O15
11. Zinc oxide (ZnO),
12. Ceramics and polycrystalline thin film.
13. Principles of Application
1. Energy Conversion Mechanism - An externally applied electric field causes a change in the
dielectric polarization in the material which in turn causes an elastic strain. The generating action
takes place when an elastic strain causes a change in the polarization that induces a charge on the
electrodes.
2. Transducer Operating Environment - • The acoustic properties of the medium (air, water or ice)
are very important in the design of transducers. • Transducers must also withstand the severe effects
of sea water, biological activity, hydrostatic pressure, and extreme temperature conditions.
14. Three (3) Conversion Criteria – The following are the general performance criteria for the
transducers-
i. Linearity - The output of the transducer is a linear function of the input.
ii. Reversibility - The transducer must convert energy in either direction.
iii. Passivity - All the output energy from the transducer is obtained from the input energy -
electrical or acoustical.
15. Application Of Piezoelectric Material:
i. Mechanical to Electrical Conversion - 1. Phonograph cartridges 2. Microphones 3.
Vibration sensors 4. Accelerometers 5. Photoflash actuators 6. Gas igniters 7. Fuses •
ii. Electrical to Mechanical Conversion – 1. Valves 2. Micropumps 3. Earphones and
speakers 4. Ultrasonic cleaners 5. Emulsifiers 6. Sonic transducers. Piezoelectric
material can be used by the application of both “direct” as well as “converse”
piezoelectric effect-
16. Piezoelectric device in various fields Optics, Photonics and Measuring Technology • Image
stabilization • Scanning microscopy • Auto focus systems • Interferometry • Fiber optic alignment
& switching • Fast mirror scanners • Adaptive and active optics • Laser tuning • Mirror positioning
• Holography • Stimulation of vibrations Disk Drive • MR head testing • Pole tip recession • Disk
spin stands • Vibration cancellation Microelectronics • Nano-metrology • Wafer and mask
positioning • Critical Dimensions measurement • Microlithography • Inspection systems • Vibration
cancellation Precision Mechanics and Mechanical Engineering • Vibration cancellation • Structural
deformation • Out-of-roundness grinding, drilling, turning • Tool adjustment • Wear correction •
 Needle valve actuation • Micro pumps • Linear drives • Piezo hammers • Knife edge control in
extrusion tools • Micro engraving systems • Shock wave generation Life Science, Medicine,
Biology • Patch-clamp drives • Gene technology • Micro manipulation • Cell penetration • Micro
dispensing devices • Audiophysiological stimulation • Shock wave generation
17. Sonar First practical application of piezoelectric devices used during WORLD WAR 1 in 1917
18. Daily use of piezoelectric device Piezoelectric Igniters - Commercially, most common use is as gas
lighters. These are capable of producing a spark.
19. Medical Use • Industrially, piezoelectric devices are mainly used in for imaging as transducers,
mostly in medicine e.g. used to produce ultrasound.