Units and Measurement Sulaiman Notes --> Class 11

Chapter – 1 → UNITS AND MEASUREMENT

🔹 1.1 INTRODUCTION – Measurement & Units

• Measurement = Numerical value + Unit

(e.g. 10 m, where 10 = number and m = unit)
• Unit: Internationally accepted standard used to compare physical quantities.
• Types of Units:
o Fundamental (Base) Units:
For basic quantities like mass, length, time, etc.
(e.g. metre, kilogram, second)
o Derived Units:
Formed from base units for other quantities like velocity, force, etc.
(e.g. m/s, N = kg·m/s²)
• System of Units: Complete set of base + derived units
(e.g. SI system – internationally accepted)

Example Tip for Exams:

Speed = Distance / Time → Unit = m/s (derived from metre & second)

🔹 1.2 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI Units)

⚙️ Earlier Unit Systems:

System Length Mass Time

CGS centimetre gram second

FPS foot pound second
MKS metre kilogram second

🌍 SI (Système Internationale d’Unités):

• Adopted in 1971, revised in 2018 by BIPM.
• Globally accepted for scientific, industrial, commercial use.
• Decimal-based system → Easy conversions.

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Units and Measurement Sulaiman Notes --> Class 11

📏 7 SI Base Units:
Quantity SI Unit Symbol
Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Luminous intensity candela cd

Important: When using mole, you must specify the entity (atoms, molecules, ions, etc.)

➕ 2 Supplementary Units (Dimensionless):

• Plane angle (θ) → radian (rad)

arc length (𝑑𝑠)
𝜃= radius (𝑟)
• Solid angle (Ω) → steradian (sr)

area on sphere (𝑑𝐴)

Ω= radius2

Exam Tip: SI units = consistent + globally accepted + easy to convert (decimal system).

🔹 1.3 Significant Figures (SF)

🔹 What are Significant Figures?

• They include all certain digits + the first uncertain digit in a measured quantity.
• They show precision of a measurement.
Example:
• 1.62 s → SF = 3 (1 & 6 are certain, 2 is uncertain)
• 287.5 cm → SF = 4

📌 Rules for Counting Significant Figures

1. All non-zero digits are significant.
Example: 234 → 3 SF
2. Zeros between non-zero digits are significant.
Example: 204 → 3 SF

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Units and Measurement Sulaiman Notes --> Class 11

3. Leading zeros (before 1st non-zero digit) are not significant.

Example: 0.00340 → SF = 3 (3, 4, last 0)
4. Trailing zeros:
a. Without decimal → Not significant
Example: 12000 → 2 SF
b. With decimal → Significant
Example: 120.00 → 5 SF

🔹 SF & Change of Units

• Changing the unit does not change the number of significant figures.
Example:
o 2.308 cm = 0.02308 m = 23.08 mm → All have 4 SF

🔹 Use of Scientific Notation (Standard Form)

• Removes confusion of trailing zeros.
• Format:
𝑎 × 10𝑏 (1 ≤ 𝑎 ≤ 10)
• In this format, all digits in “a” are significant.

Example:
• 4.700 m = 4.700 × 10² cm → 4 SF
• 0.004700 km = 4.700 × 10⁻³ km → 4 SF
Order of Magnitude = Power of 10
e.g. Earth diameter ≈ 1.28 × 10⁷ m → Order = 7

🔹 Bonus Tips & Facts

• Zero before decimal (<1) is not significant:
0.01250 → 4 SF
• Exact numbers (like 2 in circumference 2πr) have infinite SF:
o They don’t limit precision.

Quick Summary Table:

Type of Number Rule Example SF Count
1. Leading zeros Not counted 0.00230 3
2. Captive zeros Counted 203 3
3. Trailing w/o decimal Not counted 2500 2
4. Trailing with decimal Counted 2500.0 5
5. Scientific notation All digits in base are SF 4.700 × 10³ 4
6. Exact numbers Infinite SF 2πr ∞
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Units and Measurement Sulaiman Notes --> Class 11

🔹 1.3.1 Rules for Arithmetic Operations with Significant Figures

✅ Multiplication & Division:

• Final answer must have the same number of significant figures as the number with least SF
among the inputs.
Example:
Mass = 4.237𝑔 (4 SF), Volume = 2.51𝑐𝑚3 (3 SF)})
4.237
Density = = 1.69𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 (Answer must have 3 SF)
2.51

✅ Addition & Subtraction:

• Final result should have the same number of decimal places as the input with the least
decimal places.
Example:
436.32 + 227.2 + 0.301 = 663.821 → 663.8g (1 decimal place)
Example:
0.307m−0.304m = 0.003m (Only 1 decimal place, so final answer: 0.003m=3×10-3

🔹 1.3.2 Rounding Off Significant Figures

🔹 Basic Rules:
• If the digit to be dropped is < 5, the last retained digit stays the same.
• If > 5, last digit is increased by 1.
• If the digit is 5, then:
o If preceding digit is even, it stays.
o If preceding digit is odd, it increases by 1.
Number Rounded (3 SF) Reason
2.746 2.75 6 > 5 → +1 to 4
1.743 1.74 3 < 5 → 4 unchanged
2.745 2.74 4 is even → stays
2.735 2.74 3 is odd → +1 → becomes 4

🔹 Important Tips:
• In multi-step problems, retain 1 extra digit in intermediate steps, and round off only at the
final step.
• Exact numbers (like π, 2, etc. in formulas) are considered to have infinite significant figures.
o e.g., π = 3.1415926... → use 3.14 or 3.142 in problems (as required).

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Units and Measurement Sulaiman Notes --> Class 11

🔹 1.3.3 Rules for Determining Uncertainty in Results

Understanding uncertainty (or error) is essential in measurements, especially when multiple
quantities are involved.

✅ (1) Multiplication or Division: Use Relative/Percentage Error

If:
• 𝑙 = 16.2 ± 0.1 cm
0.1
Relative error = × 100 = 0.6%
16.2
• 𝑏 = 10.1 ± 0.1 cm
0.1
Relative error = × 100 = 1.0%
10.1
Total % error in area = 0.6% + 1.0% = 1.6%
𝐴 = 𝑙 × 𝑏 = 16.2 × 10.1 = 163.62 𝑐𝑚2
Error in area = 1.6% of 163.62 = 2.6 𝑐𝑚2
⇒ 𝐴 = 164 ± 3 𝑐𝑚2
Final result = Round off to reflect precision of input values.

✅ (2) Addition or Subtraction: Use Decimal Place Rule

• Rule: Final result should retain least number of decimal places among inputs.
Example:
12.9 g (1 decimal place) − 7.06 g (2 decimal places) = 5.84 g ⇒ 5.8 g𝑔}}
Use decimal places, not SFs, for + / −.

✅ (3) Relative Error Depends on the Value

Even if absolute error is same, relative error changes with the value.
Example:
• 1.02 ± 0.01 g

0.01
× 100 = 0.98% ≈ 1%
1.02

• 9.89 ± 0.01 g

0.01
× 100 = 0.1%
9.89
So, smaller numbers with same absolute error have higher % error.

✅ (4) Multi-Step Calculations: Keep One Extra Digit

• Always retain 1 more digit in intermediate steps than the final significant figure requirement.
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Why?
To avoid rounding-off errors building up and distorting the final result.
Example:
• 1/9.58 = 0.1044 → accurate
but 1/0.104 = 9.62 → Wrong
If you had used 0.1044 instead of rounded 0.104, you'd retrieve 9.58 correctly.

✨ Final Golden Rules Recap:

Operation Type Rule to Apply

Multiplication/Division Use least significant figures

Addition/Subtraction Use least decimal places

Absolute Error
Relative Error × 100%
Measured Value
Multi-step Problems Retain 1 extra digit till final step

🔹 1.4 Dimensions of Physical Quantities

🔸 What are Dimensions?

• Dimensions describe the nature of a physical quantity.
• Any derived physical quantity (like speed, volume, force) can be expressed in terms of base
quantities.
• These base quantities form the dimensional formula.

✅ SI Base Quantities & Their Symbols:

Quantity Symbol Dimension
Length l [L]
Mass m [M]
Time t [T]
Electric current I [A]
Thermodynamic temperature T [K]
Luminous intensity — [cd]
Amount of substance — [mol]

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Units and Measurement Sulaiman Notes --> Class 11

🔸 Dimensional Formula
• The expression showing powers of base dimensions to represent a physical quantity.
Represented as:
[Quantity] = [𝐿𝑎 𝑀𝑏 𝑇 𝑐 𝐴𝑑 𝐾 𝑒 𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝑓 𝑐𝑑 𝑔 ]

🔹 Examples:
📌 Volume:
• Formula: Length × Breadth × Height
• Each is [L] → [Volume] = [𝐿]3 = [𝐿3 𝑀0 𝑇 0 ]
📌 Speed / Velocity / Average Velocity / Final Velocity / Initial Velocity:
Distance
• Formula: = 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
Time
[𝐿]
• [Velocity] = [𝑇] = [𝐿𝑇 −1]
📌 Acceleration:
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑦
• Formula: Acceleration = 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
[𝐿𝑇 −1 ]
• [Acceleration] = = [𝐿𝑇 −2 ]
[𝑇]

📌 Force:
• Formula: Mass × Acceleration
• [Force] = [𝑀] × [𝐿𝑇 −2] = [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2]

Key Points:
• Dimensions ignore numerical values (e.g., 3 m/s and 9 m/s have same dimension).
• All physical quantities of the same nature have the same dimensions.
• Zero dimension → When the quantity is independent of that base quantity (e.g., volume has
zero dimension in [M] and [T]).

🔔 Why Are Dimensions Useful?

• To check unit consistency of equations.
• To derive relationships between physical quantities (dimensional analysis).
• To convert from one unit system to another.

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Units and Measurement Sulaiman Notes --> Class 11

Final Tip for Exams:

Always remember dimensional formulas for:
• Volume → [L³]
• Density → [M L⁻³]
• Velocity → [L T⁻¹]
• Acceleration → [L T⁻²]
• Force → [M L T⁻²]
• Pressure → [M L⁻¹ T⁻²]
• Energy → [M L² T⁻²]

🔹 1.5 DIMENSIONAL FORMULAE & DIMENSIONAL EQUATIONS

🔸 What is a Dimensional Formula?

It shows which base quantities (like [M], [L], [T]) and to what powers they are involved in defining a
physical quantity.
Notation: Use square brackets →

✳️ Examples:
Quantity Dimensional Formula
Volume [𝑀0 𝐿3 𝑇 0 ]
Speed [𝑀0 𝐿1 𝑇 −1 ]
Acceleration [𝑀0 𝐿1 𝑇 −2 ]
Force [𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −2 ]
Mass density [𝑀1 𝐿−3 𝑇 0 ]

🔸 What is a Dimensional Equation?

It is the equation that relates a physical quantity to its dimensional formula.

✳️ Examples:
[V] = [M0L3T0] (Volume)
[v] = [M0L1T−1] (Velocity)
[F] = [M1L1T−2] (Force)
[ρ] = [M1L−3T0] (Density)

Why Are These Important?

• To check correctness of equations (dimensional consistency).
• To derive new relations (dimensional analysis).
• To convert units across systems.
• No need to remember formulas—just use dimensions!

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Units and Measurement Sulaiman Notes --> Class 11

🔹 1.6 Dimensional Analysis and Its Applications

Dimensional analysis is a powerful tool for:
• Checking correctness of equations (dimensional consistency)
• Deriving relationships between physical quantities
• Converting between unit systems

🔸 Key Principle: Homogeneity of Dimensions

Only quantities with same dimensions can be added, subtracted, or equated.
You cannot add velocity to force or subtract temperature from current.

🔸 1.6.1 Checking Dimensional Consistency of Equations

✅ Rule:
An equation is dimensionally correct only if dimensions of all terms on both sides are the same.
Used to check validity of derived formulas quickly.
Does NOT guarantee correctness of a formula—only necessary, not sufficient.

✳️ Example:
Check if:
1
𝑥 = 𝑥0 + 𝑣0 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 ---> is dimensionally correct?
Term Dimensions
x, x0 [L]
v0t [L T-1] × [T] = [L]
at2 [L T−2] × [T²] = [L]
All terms have dimensions of [L] ⇒ Equation is dimensionally consistent

⚠️ Limitations of Dimensional Analysis:

• Cannot tell exact numerical constants (e.g. ½, π)
• Cannot distinguish dimensionless quantities
o e.g., sinθ, logx, exp(x) – arguments must be dimensionless
• Doesn’t work for equations involving trig/log/exponential functions unless argument is
dimensionless

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Units and Measurement Sulaiman Notes --> Class 11

Pro Tip:
You can treat dimensions like algebra:
• Multiply, divide, cancel them like variables
• Don't mix dimensions in addition/subtraction

🔸 1.6.2 Deducing Relations Among Physical Quantities

✅ Method of Dimensions:
Used to derive the form of a physical formula when the dependence on other variables is known.

🔹 General approach:
If a physical quantity Q depends on a,b,c like this:
𝑄 = 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑎𝑥 ⋅ 𝑏𝑦 ⋅ 𝑐 𝑧
Use dimensional formulae of each to equate LHS & RHS dimensions. Solve for x, y, z.
Note: You cannot find value of constant k (it may be ½, 2, π, etc.)

✳️ Example:
Time period T of a pendulum depends on:
• Length l
• Acceleration due to gravity g
Assume:
𝑇 = 𝑘 ⋅ 𝑙 𝑥 ⋅ 𝑔𝑦
Now plug in dimensions:
• [𝑇] = [𝐿]𝑥 ⋅ [𝐿𝑇 −2 ]𝑦
• [T] = [𝐿𝑥+𝑦 ][𝑇 −2𝑦 ]
Equating both sides:
• Time: 1 = –2y → y = –½
• Length: 0 = x + y → x = ½
➡ Final expression:
𝑙
𝑇 = 𝑘 ⋅ √𝑔

Here k=2π in actual derivation, but dimensional analysis doesn’t give constants

⚠️ Important:
• Dimensional analysis is good for checking form, not finding exact equations.
• Only works for multiplicative (product) relations, not additions or functions.

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🔔 Summary Checklist for Exams:

Use Dimensional Analysis to… Can't Use for…
Check if an equation is dimensionally Find constants (like ½, π, e, log)
correct
Derive relations among physical Work with trig, log, or exponential
quantities terms
Convert units across systems Identify quantities with same
dimensions

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