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 THE AMERICAN
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

VOLUME I
 YU,

Me Graw HillBook @ hne

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 THE AMERICAN
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
VOLUME I

BY

RAYMOND FOSS BACON, PueD.,

DIRECTOR OF THH MELLON INSTITUTE OF INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH

AND

WILLIAM ALLEN HAMOR, M. A.,

ABSISTANT DIRECTOR OF THE MELLON INSTITUTE OF
INDUSTRIAL RESEARCH

WITH SPECIAL CHAPTERS BY

F. G. CLAPP, ROSWELL H. JOHNSON,

J. P. CAPPEAU, anv L. G. HUNTLEY

First Epirion

Firra IMPRESSION

McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY, Inc.

NEW YORK: 370 SEVENTH AVENUE
LONDON: 6 & 8 BOUVERIE ST., E. C. 4
EOL
 Copyricnt, 1916, BY THE
McGraw-Hiit Book Company, Ine.

First printing, August, 1916

Second printing, January, 1917
Third printing, January, 1918
Fourth Printing, June, 1919
Fifth Printing, March, 1920

THE MAPLE PRESS YORK PA

 Vif

LIBRARY
COLLEGE OF PUGET SOUND
TACOMA, WasH,

‘PETROLEUM IS A PRICELESS RESOURCE, FOR IT CAN NEVER

BE REPLACED .... TO INDUSTRY, AGRICULTURE,
COMMERCE, AND THE PLEASURES OF LIFE
PETROLEUM IS NOW ESSENTIAL.”

FRANKLIN K. LANE

IO616
 Mats es
aie de ety

ee ea |
_ os!
 PREFACE
The purpose of the authors in preparing this work has been to
produce a treatise which would present a comprehensive survey
of the American petroleum industry, distinctly modern in every
respect, and suitable not only as a general reference work for
those engaged in the industry but also as a text-book for students
of petroleum engineering. For these reasons, the subject matter
is essentially descriptive, without, however, omitting the theo-
retical considerations necessary for the proper understanding of
the subjects included.
While it is by no means a composite work, the authors have
been fortunate in securing the collaboration of authorities, as
writers on subjects with which they are especially qualified to
treat. The names of Messrs. F. G. Clapp, E. E. Greve, Roswell
H. Johnson, J. P. Cappeau, and L. G. Huntley are a guarantee
that no pains have been spared to make the work a faithful record
of the present knowledge of the American petroleum industry.
Six of the eighteen chapters constituting the treatise have been
prepared with the full codperation of these experts; the other
twelve chapters deal with such subjects as are within the knowl-
edge and experience of the authors, and it has not therefore been
necessary to arrange for their preparation by others. It must
be mentioned here, however, that Mr. George H. Taber, Vice-
President of the Gulf Refining Company, Pittsburgh, Pa., and
a recognized authority on petroleum technology, has critically
read the entire manuscript and has made numerous valuable
suggestions, especially on the treatment of the subject of refinery
technology. It is areal pleasure for the authors to acknowledge
their deep indebtedness to Mr. Taber and to Mr. Wesley A.
Looney, General Manager of the Gulf Refining Company, for
their mature advice, helpful criticisms and courteous interest.
The acknowledgments of the authors are also due to the various
refiners of petroleum and to the manufacturers of refinery equip-
ment who have supplied descriptive information, engineering
data and photographs; and to the Director of the United States
Geological Survey and the Director of the Bureau of Mines for
vil
viil PREFACE

their kind concurrence. F. W. Clarke’s monumental work, “The

Data of Geochemistry”? (Bulletin 616 of the United States
Geological Survey), has been freely drawn from in the produc-
tion of Chapter I; while ““The Mineral Resources of the United
States” has been an invaluable repository of needed statistical
information. The publications of the Bureau of Mines which
have been used in the preparation of this work, are mentioned
in place. Report No. 291 of the Mines Branch, Canada Depart-
ment of Mines, has been of real aid in the composition of Chap-
ter VI.
The authors ask the indulgence of the reader for any errors or
omissions that occur in the present volumes. In a work of this
character, covering so large and progressive a field, an early re-
vision will probably be desirable, and the authors will accord-
ingly be grateful for any suggestions with this end in view that
may be submitted to them. Comparatively little space is de-
voted to the geology and production of crude petroleum; for
further information on these subjects, the reader is referred to
Johnson and Huntley’s “Principles of Oil antl Gas Production”
(New York, 1916). Then, too, the law relating to oil properties -
has been purposely omitted: this subject is considered at length
in G. Bryan’s “‘Law of Petroleum and Natural Gas,’ 1898, and
in W. W. Thornton’s ‘Law relating to Oil and Gas,” 1904; oil-
land law is discussed by G. O. Smith in Trans. Am. Inst. Min.
Eng., 48 (1915), 443; and M. W. Ball has considered the placer
law as applied to petroleum in idem, 451.
No list of the abbreviations of the titles of the technical period-
icals cited has been prepared for the reason that the standard
journal list of the American Chemical Society has been followed
(see Chemical Abstracts, December 20, 1915).
Raymonp Foss Bacon,
Wituiam ALLEN Hamor.
THe Meuion Instrrure or INpusrrRiIAL RESEARCH,
PitTTsBURGH, Pa.,
June 1, 1916.
 CONTENTS
VOLUME I
PREFACE

CHAPTER I
THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM .
The Composition of Petroleum.
The Synthesis of Petroleum .
Petrologenesis .

CHAPTER II
Tur GroLocy or PreTroLteum, By F. G. Cuarpp.
Surface Indications of Petroleum. Sut
Geological Age of Formations Producing Beproleunt ;
Character of Formations Containing Petroleum
Stratigraphic Relations of Petroleum .
Structural Relations of Petroleum
Movements of Oil in the Strata
Types of Geologic Structure.
Classification of Petroleum Brcenendintions

CHAPTER III
THe DIsTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM IN THE UNITED STATES
The General Distribution of Petroleum .
The Geographical Distribution of Petroleum in the United Giates.

CHAPTER IV
Tur PHysicaAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM
The Physical Properties of Petroleum.
The Analytical Characteristics of oe Pepoleunr, ‘

CHAPTER v
Tuer History OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES.
The Early History of American Petroleum
Petroleum vs. Oil from Coal. .. .
The Development of the Petroleum Tncuainy
The Transportation of Petroleum _—s
Statistics of Production .
Exports of Petroleum.
Imports of Petroleum. ;
The Standard Oil Company.
The Standard Oil Group .
Other Large Petroleum Companies .
The National Petroleum Association .
1x
x CONTENTS

CHAPTER VI
Paas
Om Writ TECHNOLOGY . . . rE OS” belo. Erte
A General Description of the Operston oe Drilling tes lc oe Pee
Drilling Methods and Appliances. . .. . a ee ay keA)
Notes on General Drilling Operations. ........... . 821
Cost of Drilling . . . 20 ew re ae mt: Pater? Bia) ic, Cts
The Torpedoing of Oil Wells. RO Spee eer otha
Gementing Wells.0s. 08. a ee oo oe a 9
Handling Oil” .acgeee he ee tee eg ene

CHAPTER VII
Tue VALUATION OF O11 PROPERTIES, By RoswEett H. JOHNSON. . . 345
Qutliy. ys eee a ON ae” ein rene rena: ere me ae OL)
Income. . id t e ane e Loan sot se) elt eOOe
The Method of Valuation Be ME alLe Wie) ey ants 5 OMY

CHAPTER, VIII
Soms ComMMERCIAL Factors INVOLVED IN THE APPRAISEMENT OF PE-
TROLEUM PROPERTINS, BY J. P. Cappmau ........ . . 368

CHAPTER Ix

PossisLE CAUSES OF THE DECLINE oF Orn WELLS AND SUGGESTED

MetHops oF ProLtoneina Yreutp, By L. G. Hunthry. ... . 374
Causes of Declining Yield. . . -. . AS. & ees
Decline Due to the Formation of Waxy Sncteat 2 ht geese CHT!
Decline Due to the Exhaustion of the Gaseous Hydrocarbons . . 379
Decrease in the Quantity of Oil Draining by Gravitation into the
Area Influenced by a Well. .... . Sg aiehl)
Decrease of Oil Supply on account of N ay Development: . . 885
Decrease Due to Encroachment of Salt Water Under High Pressure 388
Decrease Due to Flooding by Nonencroaching Salt Water’. . . 391
Decrease Due to Flooding by Fresh Water ......... . 392
Decline Due to the Drilling of Neighboring Wells . .... . . 396
Decrease Due to Poor Management. .-. <a) s.55. se
Cleaning ‘Welle. 4. < sadces. fag dee ers viernes oh, ane
Comelision o8r gi. xo, wei an toe 9) en tte ieee ee

CHAPTER X

EFFICIENCY IN THE PRODUCTION oF PETROLEUM, BY RosweLL H.

JOHNSON . . eer weer es | kG Sor CRO
Efficient Production rar ree te eg to tm eNO
Wiser Utilization of Oil, . 2% « 42. . = eee

CHAPTER XI
THE CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FRoM Natrurau Gas ..... . 437
For InpEx see Volume II (page 925),
 THE AMERICAN
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
VOLUME I
CHAPTER I
THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM
THE COMPOSITION OF PETROLEUM
Petroleum! is a naturally occurring liquid of great economic
importance—the most valuable of the bitumens. It is, like
natural gas and asphaltum, an extremely complex mixture of
compounds of carbon and hydrogen. Moreover, it contains
many widely varying substances in small amounts—sulphur
compounds, products of oxidation, nitrogenous substances,
etc.—whose exact nature is not always clearly defined.”
1 An early use of the word petroleum is found in the Wardrobe Account,
21-23 Epw. III., 383, which contains this entry: “‘Delivered to the King
in his chamber at Calais: 8 lb. petroleum.” WN. and Q., (7), 5, 248. The
word petroleum was used by Konrap Kyuser in 1646 (FuLtpHaus, Petro-
leum, 5, 633). It is derived from the Latin petra, rock + oleum, oil.
Petroleum has been legally defined as follows (KirR vs. Permerson, Pa.
St., 41, 361): “Petroleum or rock oil is essentially composed of carbon
and hydrogen, and is a liquid inflammable substance or bitumen exuding
from the earth. It is collected in various parts of the world, on the surface
of the water, in wells and fountains, or oozing from cavities in rocks.”
For a definition of petroleum as used in an English Act regulating the keep-
ing and sale of petroleum, see Beck vs. StrincErR, L. R., 6 Q. B., 504,
Oil direct from the well should always be designated ‘‘crude petroleum”
in preference to ‘‘crude oil”’ (on this point, see Donatu, Chem.-Ztg., 37, 661),
the simple term “oil” is widely used by geologists.
Regarding the early history of petroleum, see BoverTon REepDwoop’s
‘“‘A Treatise on Petroleum,” 3d ed., 1, 1-3. It may be noted here that it
was used by the Medes and Persians in religious ceremonies and as a fuel
for lamps in the second century (von Lippmann, Chem.-Zitg., 35, 537). A
full historical account of the American petroleum industry is given in
Chap. V (pp. 197 to 271).
2The proximate analysis of petroleum consists in separating its com-
ponents from one another, and in their identification as compounds of
definite constitution. On the analytical characteristics of American petro-
leums, see pp. 122 to 196.
Different petroleums are composed roughly of 13 to 11 per cent. of hy-
1
2 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

All the hydrocarbons fall primarily into a number of regular

series, to each of which a generalized formula may be assigned,
in accordance with the following scheme:

Members of
these have been Q 5 ae) 6B i
w oa oa 9 of 0s s 5.018 ©

found in petroleum.

. Cp Hon_12. aMeiayistisl, eitelteRoleette re

CHONOARWNH
. C,Hen=1.4 18. Cy Hon_32.

Each of these expressions represents a group of series—homolo-

gous, isomeric, or polymeric, which, for precise work, must be
considered separately. The first formula, for example, represents
what are known as the paraffin hydrocarbons, which begin with
methane, CH,4, and range at least as high as the compound Cs5H7..
These are again subdivided into a number of isomeric series—
the primary, secondary, and tertiary paraffins—which, with
equal percentage composition, differ in physical properties owing
to differences of atomic arrangement within the molecules.
Each member of the series differs from the preceding member by
the addition of the group CHe, and also by certain physical
characteristics. For instance, methane is gaseous; the middle
members of the series are liquids, with regularly increasing
boiling points; the higher members are solids, like ordinary
paraffin. These hydrocarbons preponderate in the Pennsylvania
petroleums, from which the members of the series given in Table I
have been separated.
The isomeric secondary paraffins isobutane, isopentane, iso-
hexane, isoheptane, and isooctane should be included in this list,
and even then it is undoubtedly incomplete. For instance, the
solid paraffins C27H55 and C3oH¢. have been found in petroleum.

drogen and 84 to 87 per cent. of carbon; the hydrocarbons present are

numbered by the hundred. On the relations of the various bituminous
materials, see p. 853.
1 Hspecially in Pennsylvania and Galician petroleums.
* These preponderate in the petroleums of Burma, and are abundant in
those from Baku and California.
* On CpHen-2 hydrocarbons in Ohio petroleums, see Masury, J. Ind.
Eng. Chem., 6 (1914), 101.
4 In certain Russian and Rumanian petroleums.
 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM 3

TasuE I.—PARAFFINS FROM PENNSYLVANIA PETROLEUM

Name - Formula peste ae

1. Gaseous: °C.2 2c.

Methane tora sere te. ouercak ays1s CH, —184.0 —165.0
HGnane saree rte Gores C2He —171.4 — 93.0
PFO Da Demian Sar hans nk Sowroin C;H¢ —195 — 45.0
Butbanemaernccavowcne
an toc eines CuH1 —135 + 1.0
2. Liquid:
Pentameann earths cicuccacris can ee Ceblise Milica ete SON
ELGKAN ONE irre ii eront oer en el iae pleases 69.0
Heptane terete ce ce sated © (Gris Pameateooas 98.4
Octane mera tie Wan awn aLae CSHis* leper 125.5
INOMAN Gea eee nace eins! Coble — 51.0 150.0
IDE CAG meee rarer cianot sierra wane ara st CioH 22 — 31.0 Uae),
WIGECAD Gremeres nu ctrscer cin raarcrne Cibo. — 26.0 195.0
Wodecaneantosn: sowie woe he CisH9.6 — 12.0 214.0
Mridecane tie ses at tances oe all) Crsklys = Ly) 234.0
Metradechnes ee es eeyaciaesee Ci4H 39 + 5.0 252.0
Rentadecane srt. en ene CisH32 10 270.0
Hexa decamenectsat ss scssilacroee s CisH a4 18.0 287 .0
3. Solid:
Octadecanesactres. «caer soe CisH 38 28.0 317.0
ICOSAMI OMA eters oe ee eee eee Caos SO el dct ce,2.
criCosANe Ame at thee Ak Co3Hag A SHO malWaele setae
OUEAC OSA NEHER Ne ee crear Wess C2sH50 la eos
Pentacosamesase..-65.0.-000---41) Caslles HS=DARO ics a contaie
LEXA COsan Cer nent tA rate Hy ea trae CoeHs4 DOO OMIM. a aes ees)
Octocosane eran ere i ln erste GOROM A ec acfce
INO OCOSANORA Te kertt escane care CooHe0 62=63F OMe 3:
Hlentriacontanesnts..- 6 o6% 256+ C3iH64 OS OMe canes.
Dotriacontane,..s..¢222........| Casktes Or Ogeen a see ee
Netratacomtanenn. cession C34H79 TOPS OA aren BIR
PSiitaeriacontane la. mst es ene. os CzsH72 (ss nad |rere a

Unsaturated open-chain hydrocarbons, probably of the series

C,H, are, as constituents of petroleum, of considerable im-
portance. These fall into several independent series, which
differ in physical properties and in their chemical relations,
although identical in percentage composition. Of one series,

1 For a description of these higher, solid paraffins, see Mannry, Am.

Chem. J., 33 (1905), 251. Hex and HAGELE (Ber., 22 (1889), 504) have
described the artificial hydrocarbon CeoH122.
2 All temperature designations used in this treatise refer to degrees
Centigrade, unless otherwise stated.
4 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

the olefines, which is parallel to the paraffin series, the follow-

ing members have been isolated from petroleum:"

TasuE II],.—So-Cauttep “Oxerrmss” Isonratep From PETROLEUM

Name Formula nee oe oe

1. Gaseous: AG. 2G:

Ethylene? tic n.ct nso oiene
eee C.H, — 169.0 —102.7
Propylene. anc .ds. eit: cates here eter CpElg pincer ee 2 — 50.2
Butylenectis son scutes erate Cue Wsee eee + 1.0
2. Liquid:
Amylene cae egetiudtente deter aha amelteNaten sis tere C;Hio Peeve Oe Macnee + 36.0
Hexylene heeShip? acketstke MATL WME ELAR OLORE og NER ATE CeHi2 Bn Date Sitieoe TRS 69.0
Hoptylene. meviace
acces sternite Cr Eiias: \eeerrreare 98.0
Octylene sik eee akaices hcl, CLaeh aheieiane semen se Cs Hig A ero bers 122.5

Nonvyleno fst ene te a eae Coliee #|52sec 141.0

Decylene arisihes okeWetal oLoeicy snexeuat etewe weet tee C19 Ho Lats evi Rogan ore 175.0
Undecylenesaa it sass aes Gi Hesteslee.s eee 196.0
Dodecyleneyeers.a tere crocs CiroH24 — 31.0 213.0
TTid6Gylene.icwiews re oe CisHeee cs.-eieeeee Ws fe
Cotenese artic nei enters CisHs2 + 4.0 275.0
Eicosylene idistey dlaenenuueeteRe ts! eke. siekaene CooH4 frivra ls elev ede LARS 395.0
3. Solid: i
Cerotene..c ero ae ee CorH 54 OS sOle ieeeae
Melene ‘Wa UaNla: hte ierteWantal Net OMT Latde Jess eae oe epee Me CspHeo 62 0 ofeuweh wa etal

As Clarke observes,’ this table is probably exact in an empir-

ical sense, but not so constitutionally. Hydrocarbons of the
indicated composition have undoubtedly been found, and some
of them are certainly olefines. According to Mabery,* however,
the true olefines, the ‘‘open-chain” series, are present in pe-
troleum at most in very small amounts. In Canadian petroleum
Mabery and Quayle‘ identified hearylene, heptylene, octylene,
and nonylene. In other cases, and notably in the Russian pe-
troleums, the compounds CnHon are not olefines, but cyclic
hydrocarbons of the polymethylene series, which were originally
called “naphthenes.” They were at first regarded as deriva-
tives of the benzene series, and only recently has. their true

1 H6rer’s “Das Erdél,” 2nd ed., 65.

“Data of Geochemistry,” 1911, 684.
3 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 28 (1906), 415; cf. Picrer and Bouvier, Compt.
rend., 160 (1915), 629.
4 Proc, Am, Acad., 41 (1905), 89.
 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM 5

constitution been determined. According to Mabery and

Hudson,! they predominate in California petroleum.
Members of the series from C7Hi, were isolated from the
California material. Mabery and Takano? reported that
Japanese petroleum consisted largely of CaHon hydrocarbons.
Other similar occurrences are recorded in the treatises of Héfer

Fria. 1.—Dr. Charles Frederic Mabery, distinguished for his original con-
tributions to the chemistry of American petroleum.

and Redwood.* Some Russian oils contain as much as 80 to

90 per cent. of ‘“naphthenes.”
The lower members of the series CnHon-2 seem not to have
been found in petroleum, although several of the higher members
1 Idem, 36 (1901), 255.
2 Tbid., 295,
3 H6rer presents a full discussion of the composition of the various petro-
leums. In his ‘‘Wissenschaftliche Grundlagen der Erdélbearbeitung”
(pp. 1 to 115), GurwirscH covers in detail the composition of petroleums
from the chemical and physical sides.
6 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

are characteristic of oils from Texas, Louisiana, and Ohio.

In oil from the Trenton limestone of Ohio, Mabery and Palm!
found hydrocarbons having the composition of CisH36, CeiHo,
CosHa2, and CosH4¢. With these compounds were members of
the C,Hon series as high as Ci;H3,. There were also members
of the next series, CpHons, namely, CosHa2, CosHas, and CosH4e;
members of this series occur generally in small amounts in all
the crude oils of low specific gravity. In petroleum from Louis-
iana, Coates and Best? found the hydrocarbons Cy2H». and
CuHos. These, together with CisH30, were also separated by
Mabery® from Texas oils. These oils also contain free sulphur,
which separates out in crystalline form. In heavy petroleum
from Santa Barbara, Cal., Mabery® discovered hydrocarbons of
the three series C,Hon-2, CyHen4, and C,Hon-s,° represented by
the formulas C13He1, CisHs0, Ciz7H30, CisHs2, CosHas, Co7Ha6,
and CooH 50.

Hydrocarbons of the well-known series C,Hon-¢, the ‘‘aro-

matic’? or benzene series, occur in all descriptions of petroleum,
although generally in small amounts. Their empirical formulas,
omitting consideration of isomeric compounds, follows: ;
Benzene nk ah cicero cries Re NgRaton
orth CeHe
TOMMGICS cctehibi es oe Ee Ee eee C,Hs
B43 (51: aE RIES, Oo EIT GARE SRDS 5 CsHio
Culmene nai tetas Sie eee: ee ee CoHie2
Cymene PeiCicad Porny 0 chk te GOO Coch cece ac CipHi4

Ete.

According to Mabery,’ Pennsylvania petroleum contains

1 Am. Chem. J., 38 (1905), 251.
2 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 25 (1903), 1153; see also Coarms, idem, 28 (1906),
384.
® Idem, 23 (1901), 264. See also on Texas oils, RicHaRDSON and WALLACE,
J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 20 (1901), 690; Tu1rLE, Am. Chem. J., 22 (1899), 489;
Puiturps, Bull. No. 5, Univ. Texas, 1902; Hinn, Trans. Am. Inst. Min.
Eng., 33 (1903), 363; and Funneman, Bull. U. S. Geol. Surv., No. 282
(1906). Fmnneman describes both Texas and Louisiana petroleums. On
the composition of Kansas oils, see Busnone, Kansas Univ. Geol. Survey,
9 (1908), 303. In the same volume, 187, Haworrs discusses the origin
of oil and gas.
4See Ricnarpson and Watuacg, J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 21 (1902), 316.
5 Am. Chem. J., 33 (1905), 270.
® Markovnikoy and OaLosiin (Ber., 16 (1883), 1873) have found, in
Russian petroleum, members of the series CpHon-s, CpHen—10, and CpHon-12.
7 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 28 (1906), 418.
 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM ri

small proportions of the lower members of this series, and

Mabery and Hudson! found larger amounts of them, especially
of the zylenes, in California oil. Numerous other examples
might be cited, but they need not be mentioned here.? Naph-
thalene, CioHs, is probably the only compound of the series
C,Hen-12 which has been positively identified in petroleum.
It was found by Warren and Storer? in Rangoon oil, and also
by Mabery and Hudson in oil from California. In one of the
latter’s distillations of crude oil, so much naphthalene was pres-
ent that the distillate solidified on cooling slightly. Even
more complex hydrocarbons have been found in petroleum
residues, but it is possible that they were formed during the
process of refining and it is not certain that they were originally
present in the natural oil.*
Small amounts of oxidized bodies are contained in many
petroleums, occasionally complex acids, sometimes phenols.
According to Mabery,®> phenolic bodies are found in notable
proportions in some California oils, but not in petroleum from
the eastern part of the United States. Substances having the
properties of phenols are present in small amounts in all the
distillates from Baku petroleum.®
Petroleums usually contain nitrogen, from a trace up to 1
per cent. and over. It may be said to exist in most cases, if
not in all, in the form of complex organic bases, but the con-
stitution of these remains to be determined. They are peculiarly
abundant, as, probably, pyridine and quinoline derivatives, in Cali-
fornia petroleum, in which they were discovered by Peckham;’
and Mabery® has shown that in some cases the basic nitrogen
1 Proc. Am. Acad., 36 (1890), 255.
2 ZALOZIECKI and HausMANN (Z. angew. Chem., 1907, 1761) have called
attention to the richness of Rumanian petroleum in aromatic hydro-
carbons.
3 Mem. Am. Acad., (2), 9 (1865), 208.
4 For data and references, see Hérmr, “Das Erddl,” p. 74; and pp. 579
and 592 of this treatise.
5 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 28 (1906), 596.
6 Ber., 7 (1874), 1216; 10 (1877), 451. See also Ascuan, Ber., 23 (1893),
867; 24 (1894), 1864; 25 (1895), 3661. On the products of the oxidation
of petroleum, see pp. 581, 620 and 803. On naphthenic acids, see p. 888.
7Am. J. Sci., (3), 48 (1894), 250; Rept. Geol. Survey Cal., 2, 89.
8 J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 19 (1900), 505. Banprowsxr (Monaish. Chem.,
8 (1887), 224) and Werner (Ber., 20 (1887), 2097) have detected nitrogen-
ous bases in European oils.
8 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

compounds constitute from 10 to 20 per cent. of the crude petro-

leum. Mabery isolated compounds of this class ranging from
CizHizN to CizHoiN, although these formulas are open to
question. Pennsylvania oils contain only traces of nitrogen.
Petroleum free from sulphur is very rare, although the amount
of this constituent present is generally small. In some instances,
however, the sulphur compounds are quite abundant, as, for
example, in the Lima oil of Ohio, in which Mabery and Smith?
found normal sulphides of the paraffin series [(CnH2n-1)2S],
and isolated ten compounds ranging from methyl sulphide,
C.H;S8, to heryl sulphide, CizH2eS. In Canadian petroleum
Mabery and Quayle? found another series of sulphur compounds,
cyclic in character and polymethylene derivatives, of the general
formula CnHonS, which they termed “‘thiophanes;’’ eight mem-
bers of this series were described, between C7H148 and CisH36S.
Other sulphur compounds have been noted as occasional ad-
mixtures in petroleum,*® and it remains to be mentioned that
Richardson and Wallace* separated sulphur in the form of
crystals from Beaumont petroleum, and Thiele> found 63.63 per
cent. of amorphous sulphur and 6.81 per cent. of crystalline
sulphur in the sediment in a tank. car which had held Beau-
mont oil. Hydrogen sulphide is usually emitted by petroleums
which contain sulphur in considerable amounts, especially on
distillation.®
THE SYNTHESIS OF PETROLEUM

Hydrocarbons such as methane, ethane, acetylene, and

benzene, have been often obtained by laboratory methods
from inorganic sources, and also by the breaking down of more
complex organic matter. Certain of the procedures employed
have led to the production of substances resembling petroleum.?
1Am. Chem. J., 18 (1891), 233.
* Proc. Am. Acad., 41 (1905), 89. A paper by Kayser, published in 1897,
contains data relative to sulphur compounds in Syrian asphalt oils; it is
cited by W. C. Day in J. Frank. Inst., 140 (1895), 221.
* On sulphur in California petroleum, see Pecknam, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc.,
36 (1897), 108. See Peckuam, J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 16 (1897), 996, on the
sulphur content of bitumens.
4 Eng. Min. J., 73 (1902), 352.
5 Chem.-Ztg., 26 (1902), 896.
° See p. 609 for a consideration of the sulphur compounds in certain petro-
leums and the methods employed for their removal.
7 CuarKE, Bull. 491, U. S. Geol. Survey, 690-93.
 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM 9

When cast iron is dissolved in a mineral acid, hydrogen is

evolved, but along with impurities that were long ago recognized
as similar to known hydrocarbons. In 1864, Hahn! attempted
to determine their exact nature by passing the gases evolved
through bromine. Organic bromides were thus formed, cor-
responding to the olefines from C2H,4 to C7Hi, the general
formula being CnHenBre. In hydrogen evolved from spiegel-
eisen Hahn found still higher hydrocarbons, up to CisH32; these
were collected by direct condensation in wash bottles, without
the use of bromine.
In 1873, similar results were obtained by Williams,” who dis-
solved spiegeleisen in hydrochloric acid. The gas evolved there-
from was passed through tubes immersed in a freezing mixture
and then through bromine. Williams reported that 7,430 grams
of iron gave 49 grams of directly condensible hydrocarbons, with
325.5 grams of bromides; and that this result was confirmed by
other experiments. However, the exact nature of the hydro-
carbons was not ascertained.
In 1874-8, Cloéz? studied the products thus obtained. Hydro-
chloric or sulphuric acid was allowed to act on large quantities
of spiegeleisen, and the gas evolved, partly by direct condensation
and partly by absorption in bromine, was found to give large
yields of bromides, which were separated by fractional distilla-
tion and identified. Ferromanganese gave particularly large
amounts of hydrocarbons, and a cast manganese, containing
85.4 per cent. of metal, was even attacked: by water alone, with
evolution of similarly carburized hydrogen. Cloéz stated that
he obtained octylene, CsHie, by direct condensation, and brom-
heptylene, C7H.;Br, and bromoctylene, CsHi;Br, from the
bromine solution; and later he described the products obtained
in dissolving 600 kg. of white cast iron, which gave 640 grams of
oily hydrocarbons, 2,780 grams of bromolefines, and 532 grams
of paraffins. Seven of the latter hydrocarbons were identified,
from CyoHe2 up to CieH34; they are identical with those which
occur in petroleum. ‘Therefore, according to the investigations
of Cloéz, from the carbides contained in cast iron, a mixture of
hydrocarbons chemically resembling petroleum can be prepared.
Most of the carbides react with water, yielding hydrocarbons,
1 Ann., 129 (1864), 57. Hahn refers to the earlier investigations.
2 Am. J. Sci., (3), 6 (1873), 363.
3 Compt. rend., 78 (1874), 1565; 85 (1877), 1003; 86 (1878), 1248.
10 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

and the production of acetylene, as an illuminating gas, from

calcium carbide, has, as is well known, become an important
industry. The yield of hydrocarbons from various metallic
carbides may be summarized as follows:*
The carbides of lithium, sodium, potassium, calcium, stron-
tium, and barium, when treated with water, yield acetylene,
CoH». The carbides of aluminum and glucinum give principally
methane, CH. The carbide of manganese yields a mixture of
methane and hydrogen. The carbides of yttrium, lanthanum,
cerium, thorium, and uranium give rise to mixtures of acetylene,
methane, ethylene, and hydrogen. The cerium, lanthanum,
and uranium compounds yield some liquid and solid hydrocar-
bons. From 4 kg. of uranium carbide Moissan obtained 100
grams of liquid hydrocarbons, consisting largely of olefines,
with some members of the acetylene series and some saturated
compounds.
Salvadori? found that hydrocarbons can be generated by heat-
ing a mixture of calcium carbide and ammonium chloride; this
observation was confirmed by Brun.* Ammonium chloride
is one of the salts most commonly found in voleanic emanations,
and these observations have a bearing upon the theories of
petroleum formation, a matter which will be discussed in the
following section.
While acetylene is a common product of such reactions, it is
not a constituent of petroleum. However, Sabatier and Sender-
ens‘ have found that when a mixture of hydrogen and acetylene
is passed over reduced nickel at a temperature below 180°C.,
a mixture of paraffin hydrocarbons is formed which resembles
Pennsylvania petroleum. Acetylene alone, in presence of nickel,

1See Morssan, Compt. rend., 122 (1896), 1462. See also a summary by
J. A. Matunws, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 21 (1899), 647. BrrTHELoT (Compt.
rend., 132 (1901), 281) has discussed the reactions involved from a thermo-
chemical standpoint.
2 Gazz. chim. ital., 32 (1902), 496.
3 Arch. sci. phys. nat., (4), 27 (1909), 113.
Steiger, in the laboratory of the United States Geological Survey,
obtained both saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons by the similar
action of ammonium chloride upon the native iron of Ovifak.
* Compt. rend., 134 (1903), 1185; see also, Sapatrer, J. Peir., 1901, 67.
Similar results to those of SABATIER and SeNDERENS have also been obtained
by KuarircrKov (Westnik shirow. prom., 7, 180), who studied the petro-
leum thus synthesized.
 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM Ut

also yields aromatic hydrocarbons, and a mixture is produced

resembling Russian petroleum. It may be mentioned here
that Berthelot! proved that acetylene, when heated to the
temperature at which glass begins to soften, polymerizes into
benzene: three molecules of C2H» yield one of CsHs. Benzene
itself, when heated under suitable conditions, loses hydrogen,
and the residues combine to form diphenyl, Ci2Hio.
It is clear, then, from the investigations cited, that, from
acetylene as a starting point, higher hydrocarbons may be pro-
duced. These, again, at high temperatures, mutually react in
such a manner that the complexity of the final product may be
very great. Furthermore, as first indicated by Berthelot,’
carbon and hydrogen can unite directly: when the electric are
is formed between carbon terminals in an atmosphere of hydro-
gen, acetylene is produced. According to Bone and Jerdan,?
the rate of formation of acetylene in the arc bears a nearly con-
stant ratio to the rates of formation of methane and ethane; at
a lower temperature (about 1,200°C.) methane is the sole prod-
uct of the union, and even by passing hydrogen over charcoal
at 1,200°C. methane may be formed. Pring and Hutton
demonstrated the formation of acetylene, independently of an
electric arc or spark discharge, at about 1,800°C.
Turning now to the organic syntheses of hydrocarbons, we
find that it has long been known that the destructive distilla-
tion of organic matter, animal or vegetable, under conditions
which preclude the free access of air, will produce hydrocarbons
and nitrogenous bases. Warren and Storer,* as far back as
1865, prepared a lime soap from menhaden (fish) oil, which, on
destructive distillation, yielded a mixture of hydrocarbons
hardly distinguishable from coal oil. From this mixture they
isolated and identified the paraffins pentane, hexane, heptane,
1 Ann. chim. phys., (4), 12 (1867), 52.
2 Idem, (3), 67 (1863), 64.
3 J. Chem. Soc., T1 (1897), 41; 79 (1901), 1042.
See also Prine and Hour-
TON, idem, 89 (1906), 1591; and Bonz and Cowarp, idem, 93 (1908), 1975;
97 (1910), 1219.
Ipatiew (J. prakt. Chem., 87, 479) has suggested that in the experiments
of Bonz and JerpDAN the union of carbon and hydrogen was due to the pres-
ence of a small amount of water, whereby the carbon was first oxidized.
4 Mem. Am. Acad., (2), 9 (1865), 177.
5 Coal oil is oil distilled from bituminous coal. Properly speaking, the
term is not synonymous either with petroleum or with illuminating oil
produced therefrom.
12 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

and octane; the olefines amylene, hexylene, heptylene, octylene,

nonylene, decylene, undecylene, and duodecylene; together
with benzene, toluene, xylene, and isocumene, members of the
aromatic series. A true artificial petroleum had therefore been
prepared.
Engler’s noteworthy investigations were announced in 1888.!
This investigator distilled menhaden oil, unsaponified, at a tem-
perature between 320° and 400°, and under a pressure of ten
atmospheres. The distillate resembled petroleum, and con-
tained the paraffins from CsHi2 up to C7His. Later he reported?
the isolation of normal octane and nonane, with secondary hex-
ane, heptane and octane. In a still later research with Leh-
mann,? he also obtained olefines from CsHi2 up to CoHis and
some derivatives of the benzene series. ‘These experiments con-
firmed the findings of Warren and Storer, but differed from
theirs in the direct use of the oil instead of its fatty acids alone.
The lime soap of the American chemists contained only the
acids of the oil, separated from its glycerine; the entire oil was
used by Engler. From his crude product Engler also prepared
an illuminating oil, practically indistinguishable from commercial
kerosene.* ;
Day® conducted similar experimental work. A mixture of fish
(fresh herring) and resinous pine wood was distilled from an
iron retort, the process being continued to complete carboniza-
tion of the residual material. The distillate consisted of a
mixture of oil and water, and the oil, upon redistillation, yielded
a residue closely resembling gilsonite. When fish alone was
distilled, the final product was more like another solid hydro-
carbon, elaterite. Wood alone gave a similar oil, with a similar
residue on redistillation. Day thus obtained artificial asphalts
which resembled the natural substances; like ordinary asphalt,
they contained some nitrogen.
Vegetable oils also yield hydrocarbons upon destructive distil-
lation. Sadtler,® for example, established this fact in the case
’ Ber., 21 (1888), 1816. On the organic origin of naphtha, see RaKkuzin,
J. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc., 37 (1905), 79.
2 Ber., 22 (1889), 592.
8 Idem, 80 (1897), 2365.
4 Observations confirmed by Repwoop (‘Petroleum and Its Products,”
2d ed., 1, 259).
5 Am. Chem. J., 21 (1899), 478.
5 Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 36, 93.
 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM 13

of linseed oil, although he did not determine the exact nature of

the product. Engler! obtained hydrocarbons by the distillation
of colza and olive oils, as well as from fish oil, butter, and bees-
wax. Marcusson? has described an experiment in which pure
oleic acid was heated for several hours to 330°C. in a sealed tube;
on opening the tube, there was a strong evolution of gas, and
in the residue a product was found which closely resembled a
petroleum lubricating oil. Lewkowitsch* found that the dis-
tillation of chaulmoogra oil with zine dust led to the formation
of gaseous products and a crude petroleum.

PETROLOGENESIS?4

No subject in geochemistry has been more discussed than

that of the origin of petroleum, the controversies relative to
which have created a voluminous literature. Theory after
theory has been advanced, and discussion thereon is still active.
The evidence is abundant indeed, although decidedly contra-
dictory, and leads to different conclusions when studied from
different aspects. Only the principal points will be considered
here.
The divergent views which have been offered on this subject
can be considered to be of two types—the inorganic and the
organic, which hypotheses will be taken up separately.
Inorganic Theories.—The early theories connecting the forma-
tion of petroleum with volcanic phenomena® may be omitted,
since they were formulated at a time when essential evidence
' Cong. internat. du petrole, Paris, 1900, 20.
2 Chem.-Ztg., 30 (1906), 789.
3 Ber., 40 (1907), 4161. Cf. Nnusura, Ber., 40, 4477.
4 Petrologenesis, or naphthogeny, is that subject of bitumenology which
treats of the origin of petroleum. Bitumenology is the science which deals
with the occurrence, composition, properties, classification, and technology
of the various forms of hydrocarbons included under the names of asphaltum,
maltha, and petroleum. See Chap. XVIII.
5 See especially Hérmr’s ‘Die Geologie, Gewinnung und der Transport
des Erdéls,’”’ 1909, 2, 59-142; CampseLy, Econ. Geol., 6 (1911), 363-386;
and CLARKE, Bull. 616, U. S. Geol. Survey.
6 In 1804, Humsoxpt wrote that “petroleum is a product of distillation
which exists at a great depth and, acting upon the primitive rocks, develops
the forces of all volcanic action.”” See Brunet, Bull. soc. géol. France, 9
(1838), 252; and Revimrn, Compt. rend., 47 (1858), 646; but especially
Cosmos, 4 (1858), 274,
14 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

was not available; they were mere speculations, nothing more.

The modern era begins with a memoir by Berthelot, published
in 1866.1
Berthelot started from the supposition of Daubrée that the
depths of the earth contain alkaline metals in the free state.
These react, according to Berthelot, with carbon dioxide at
high temperatures, giving rise to alkaline carbides (acetylides),
which, when acted upon by the vapor of water, liberate acetylene,
which possesses a tendency to polymerize and, by condensation,
to give rise to the numerous hydrocarbons which, admixed, form
petroleum.? The defect of the hypothesis, which Berthelot only
advanced tentatively, is that there is no evidence to indicate
that alkaline metals are present in an uncombined state at any
point below the earth’s surface. The starting point is a pure
assumption, which is more likely to be erroneous than correct.
The suggestion of Byasson,’* that petroleum might have re-
sulted from the action .on iron or its sulphide at a white heat, of
steam and carbon dioxide produced by the infiltration of salt
water into the earth, has no present value. Next in chronological
order is the famous “carbide theory”? of Dmitri Mendeléeff,*
proposed in 1877. This theory presupposes the existence of
iron carbides within the earth, to which percolating waters gain
access, generating hydrocarbons; the vapors of these then escape
through fissures, etc., and condense in the upper-lying porous
sedimentary rocks. If such carbides exist at reasonable depths
below the surface of the earth, the reactions sugggested by Men-
deléeff would undoubtedly occur; but the actual existence of
metallic carbides in nature remains to be proved.
Mendeléeff’s theory has had many adherents. It found
support in the investigations of Hahn, Williams, and Cloéz5
upon the production of hydrocarbons from cast iron; and it was
further strengthened by the researches of Moissan, who himself
1 Ann. chim. phys., (4), 9 (1866), 481.
* According to BrERTHELOT, steam acting upon the alkaline metals will also
liberate hydrogen, which reacts upon the hydrocarbons first produced to
form more completely hydrogenized hydrocarbons.
3 Compt. rend., T3 (1871), 609.
4 J. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc., 9, 36; Ber., 10 (1877), 229; J. Chem. Soc.,
36, 283. See also Munprtierr’s “Principles of Chemistry,” Eng. trans.,
1 (1891), 364-366.
5 Compt. rend., 75, 1003.
 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM 15

adopted it,' and also suggested that volcanic explosions may

perhaps be caused by the action of water upon subterranean
carbides. Moissan admitted, however, that some petroleums
are possibly of organic origin. ‘The occurrence of methane in
volcanic emanations has been cited in support of Moissan’s
suppositions, although this well-recognized fact may be inter-
preted otherwise. It may be mentioned in this connection that
Silvestri? found in basaltic lavas from near Etna both liquid oils
and a solid paraffin which melted at 56°, and Brun* has made
similar observations in his study of Javanese voleanoes. Brun
ascribes a volcanic origin to the petroleum of Java; but these
oils, as well as the methane, may conceivably have been formed,
as Clarke has pointed out,’ either through a direct union of
carbon and hydrogen or from material distilled by volcanic
heat out of adjacent sedimentary rocks. The same considera-
tions apply equally well to the petroleum field near Tampico,
Mexico, as described by Ordonez,> which is cited by Coste® in
support of his argument in favor of the inorganic origin of petro-
leum. In the Tampico field the oil rises close to volcanic cones;
which, however, have been forced up through a great thickness of
Cretaceous shales. The possibility of a distillation of oil from
organic matter in the sediments should here be considered
(Clarke).
Becker’ has pointed out that if petroleum is derived from iron
carbides, as is assumed in the Mendeléeff theory, there should
be magnetic irregularities in petroliferous regions. This he finds.
to be the case in the Appalachian oil field, where the lines of
magnetic declination are sensibly deflected. Similar irregularities
appear in the oil fields of California, and magnetic disturbances
have also been noted in the region of the Caucasus. While

1 Compt. rend., 122 (1896), 1462. See also Mnunimr, idem, 123 (1896),
1327.
2 Gazz. chim. ital., T (1877), 1; 12 (1882), 9.
3 Arch. sct. phys. nat., (4), 27 (1909), 113.
4 “T)ata of Geochemistry,” 2d ed., 694.
5 Min. Sct. Press, 95 (1907), 249.
"6 J. Can. Min. Inst., 12 (1909), 273. For earlier papers by Costs, see the
same journal, 6 (1903), 73, and Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 35 (1905), 288.
Ricaup (Rev. univ. des mines, (4), 81 (1910), 145) has also argued in favor of
the inorganic origin of petroleum.
7 Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 401, 1909. Mour (Petroleum, 6, 2069)
comments favorably upon the proposition set forth by BecKrr.
16 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

these observations are not absolutely conclusive, they are indeed

compatible with the “carbide theory.”
Several other inorganic theories of the genesis of petroleum
may be mentioned. The “cosmic theory” of Sokolov,! advanced
in 1890, considers petroleum to be an original product of the com-
bination of carbon and hydrogen in the cosmic mass; that is, it was
formed initially during the consolidation of the planet, became
enclosed within the primeval fluid magma, and then separated
slowly as it cooled down. In support of his theory, Sokolov cites
the occasional discovery of hydrocarbons in meteorites.”
Another theory is that of Ross,? who endeavored to show that
petroleum is a product of the action of solfataric gases upon
limestones. Ross partly based his theory on the observation
that sulphur has been obtained in laboratory experiments by the
action of hot volcanic gases upon chalk, and he assumed that
such action would further produce both olefines and paraffins,
with aseparation of sulphur and a conversion of the calcium
carbonte into gypsum. However, these views have not been
verified by any experimental evidence.
As has been mentioned, in the preceding section of this chapter,
Sabatier and Senderens were able with a mixture of acetylene
and hydrogen, by the intervention of finely divided nickel and
similar metals, according as the operation was conducted, to obtain
liquids resembling the petroleum of Caucasus or that of Galicia,
or to produce aromatic hydrocarbons. A mixture of acetylene
and hydrogen in excess passing over fine metallic nickel at a
temperature below 1800° furnished only petroleum like that of
Western Pennsylvania. From this synthesis an explanation
of the formation of the different naturally occurring petroleums
has been deduced by De Wilde.* It suffices to admit, he states,
1 Bull. Soc. imp. nat. Moscou, 3 (1890), 720.
2 See W6uumR, Ann., 109 (1859), 349, on carbon compounds in the meteor-
ite of Kaba, Hungary. Also Mrunimr, Compt. rend., 109 (1889), 976, on the
meteorite of Mighei, Russia. NorpmnsxréLp (Pogg. Ann., 141 (1870), 205)
found carbonaceous matter in the meteorite of Hessle, Sweden; and TscuEr-
MAK (Sttzungsb. Akad. Wien, 62, Abth. 2, 1870, 855) reports 0.85 per cent.
of a hydrocarbon in the stone which fell at Goalpara, India. The well-
known meteors of Orgueil, France, and Cold Bokkeveld, South Africa, were
largely carbonaceous. On Orgeuil, see CLozz, Compt. rend., 59 (1864), 37.
Graphite and amorphous carbon are common in meteorites, and in some
falls diamonds have been found.
3 Rept. Brit. Assn., 1891, 639; Chem. News, 64 (1891), 14 and 215.
4 Mon. sci. du Quesneville, May, 1907, 301-7,
 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM 17

that in the depths of the earth there are found differently dis-
tributed alkaline and alkaline-earth metals, as well as the
carbides of these metals. Water coming into contact with the
first liberates hydrogen, and into contact with the carbides,
acetylene. The two gases in variable proportions encounter
the metals nickel, cobalt and iron, in a divided state, greatly dif-
fused through nature, and give rise to the reactions mentioned
above, which, according to the mode of action, furnish the
different known petroleums.
The inorganic theories of the origin of petroleum relate not
only to its proximate genesis, but even to fundamental ques-
tions of cosmology. Sokolov’s hypothesis is an illustration of
this, and the assumption of carbides within the earth (Mendeléeff;
De Wilde) represents an effort in the same direction. Another
indication of this fact is to be found in a memoir by Lenicque.'
If the molten globe possessed at any time a temperature like
that of the electric furnace, carbides, silicides, nitrides, etc.,
would be among the first compounds to form, and oxidation
could not commence until later. Under such conditions some
carbides might remain unoxidized through many geologic ages,
“© be reached by percolating waters at the present time. The
development of hydrocarbons would then inevitably follow,
although to what extent they might be subsequently consumed
is beyond statement. To quote Clarke:? “The theory is
plausible, but is it capable of proof? Furthermore, does it
account for any accumulations of petroleum such as yield the
commercial oils of to-day? These essential questions are too
often overlooked, and yet they are the main points at issue. We
may admit that hydrocarbons are formed within volcanoes, but
the quantities definitely traceable to such a source are alto-
gether insignificant. Bitumens occur in small amounts in
many igneous rocks, but never in large volume. ‘They are,
moreover, absent, at least in significant proportions, from the
Archean, and first appear abundantly in Paleozoic time. From
the Silurian upward they are plentiful, and commonly remote from
great indications of volcanic activity. Even such an occurrence
as that of the Pitch Lake in Trinidad, where asphalt is asso-
ciated with thermal waters, does not necessarily imply a com-
munity of origin. It is at least conceivable that the solfataric
1 Mem. Soc. ingén. civils, France, October, 1903, 346.
2 Loc. cit., 696.
2
18 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

springs may have acted upon sedimentary accumulations of

oil, partly by vaporizing the latter and so bringing it to the
surface, and partly by effecting, with the aid of steam and
sulphur, the condensations or polymerizations that are ob-
served. ‘These considerations serve to show the need of great
caution in dealing with this class of problems and to warn us
against hasty generalizations. Speculations based upon in-
dividual occurrences of petroleum are of very little value. The
entire field, in all of its complexity, must be taken into account.”
A new hypothesis of the origin of petroleum has recently been
published by Kizhner.! It is based upon the experiments of
Forquignon,? which showed that when hydrogen is passed over
red-hot cast iron the carbon in the latter is converted into hydro-
carbons, while the traces of sulphur, phosphorus and arsenic are
changed to organic compounds of these elements. These ex-
periments also showed that the passage of nitrogen over red-hot
cast iron yields cyanogen. The hypothesis assumes that naphtha
owes its origin to the interaction of the hydrogen with the carbon,
both of which are held in solution by the iron existing in the
bowels of the earth. This interaction began when, in the process
of cooling, the earth reached the state of a red star. The dif-
ficultly fusible iron and carbon liquefied and solidified first, and,
owing to its high specific gravity, the iron, holding in solution
the hydrogen, settled at the lower strata of the globe. Owing
to the high temperature prevailing in the depths of the earth,
the reaction between the hydrogen and the carbon has been going
on for ages and is doubtless going on now. The comparatively
low specific gravity of the hydrocarbons causes them to rise as
naphtha to the surface, passing through various strata which
modify its character. The cyclic hydrocarbons of naphtha owe
their formation to the high temperature and pressure prevail-
ing in the innermost strata. Astothe optical activity of naphtha,
it is due to the influence of terrestrial magnetism on the different
degrees of reactivity (decomposition, condensation, oxidation,
etc.) of optical antipodes, it being assumed that these differ in
reactivity to such a slight extent that the difference escapes our
observation. Hence in the usual reactions racemic compounds
are formed. But the magnetism of the earth enhancing the
reactivity of both antipodes and acting through geologic ages,
1J, Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc., 46, 1428.
2 Ann, chim. phys., (5), 28, 516,
 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM 19

may favor the reactivity of one of them, changing it to other

substances, and thus permitting the other antipode to impart
activity to the naphtha.
While methane is sometimes formed as a volcanic emana-
tion, it is more commonly of organic origin and is generally
produced in small amounts. Gas in Iowa wells has been
described! which occurs in the drift and is apparently of
vegetable origin, since buried vegetation alone can account for
its formation under the reported conditions.
Hoppe-Seyler* and Tappeiner* have shown that methane may
be artificially produced by the fermentation of cellulose, together
with carbon dioxide and free hydrogen. During the decay of
seaweeds, however, according to Phillips,* the generated gases
consist largely of carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and nitrogen. The
apparatus in which the experiment was performed was allowed
to stand in position for two and a half years, and during that
time, following the first rapid evolution of gas, a very slow,
continuous production was observed. At the end of the period,
the gas consisted of methane. Phillips concluded, from this
evidence, that buried vegetable matter, after a brief era of rapid
gas evolution, may pass into a condition of extremely slow
decay when methane is generated. Perhaps methane is not the
only hydrocarbon thus produced.
In several cases, as in the Placereta Canon field of Los Angeles
County, California, the Thrall field in Texas, in several seepages
in Mexico, and in traces elsewhere, petroleum exists in igneous
rock and might appear to add confirmation to an inorganic origin,
were it not that the number of cases where it occurs in sedi-
mentary deposits are so much greater. Many associations of
petroleum with basaltic rock, subterranean salt, sulphur and
gypsum masses, and with hot water, in Mexico, the southern
United States, Hungary and Rumania, might also appear to
confirm an inorganic theory, but nothing conclusive has ever been
discovered which would apply to all or to a majority of cases,
1 See LeonarD, Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci., 4,41. Wuirrrr (Am. Geol., 9 (1892),
319) has described a gas well, about 100 ft. deep, near Letts, Iowa.
2 Ber., 16 (1883), 122.
8 Ibid., 1734, 1740. See also Popov, abstract in J. Chem. Soc., 28 (1875),
1209, on gas from river mud near sewer openings.
4 Am. Chem. J., 16 (1894), 427. Puruuips supports the view that petro-
leum has been formed by the slow decay of marine vegetable matter, under
' water, in the absence of air.
20 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Organic Theories.—Sufficient evidence has been presented

above and especially in the preceding section of this chapter to
show that hydrocarbons analogous to natural gas and petroleum
may be derived either from animal or vegetable matter, or both.
This is conceded, although argument and speculation relative
to the genesis of the larger accumulations of mineral oil, is
abundant. It may be said, however, that the investigations of
Engler have induced a quite general adherency to the belief in
the animal origin of petroleum, although the details of the
transformation process are variously interpreted.*
Theories of Animal Origin—Engler ascribes the derivation
of petroleum from animal remains to a putrefaction process,
which eliminates the nitrogen compounds. The residual fats
are then converted by heat and pressure* into hydrocarbons
whose boiling points lie below 300°, and these later undergo a
partial autopolymerization into denser forms.‘ There is con-
1 For a very complete summary of all the hypotheses relative to the forma-
tion of petroleum, see Hirer, ‘‘ Das Erddél,’’ 1906, 160-229. See also Rep-
woop, “Petroleum,” 1 (1913), 268-283. Other summaries are by Arsty-
MANN, Z. angew. Chem., 18938, 739; idem, 1894, 122; Kuewent, Bull Soc.
belge geol., 11, proc. verb., 1897, 76. .Recent memoirs on the subject are
by Ds Witps, Arch. sct. phys. nai., (4), 23 (1907), 559; Neupere, Sifzungsd.
K. preuss. Akad., May 16, 1907; and Cuaurarp, Bull soc. de Pind. min.,
July, 1915.
2 Ber., 30 (1897), 2358. For more recent articles by ENGLER,see Z. angew.
Chem., 21 (1908), 1585; Verhandl. naturwiss. Vereins Karlsruhe, 1908, 20,
65; and Compi. rend. Cong. iniernat. péirole, Bucaresi, 1910, 2, 1.
3 The theory of animal origin, now usually connected with the names of
H6rer and ENG.eEr, traces back to the Frenchman Hacuer in 174. As
stated by ENGLER, it is that natural fatty bodies (both vegetable and animal)
and fatty bodies artificially obtained, as the fatty acids, when distilled under
a pressure of 20 to 25 atmospheres at 360° to 420°, yield a mixture of hydro-
carbons resembling petroleum and without carbonaceous residue. In dis-
tilling a fish oil in this way, the hydrocarbons obtained appeared to be about
three-fourths saturated hydrocarbons and one-fourth olefines; of “naph-
thenes”’ and aromatic hydrocarbons there appeared to be only traces formed.
Small quantities of gases like CH,, CO, CO; and C:H, and from 1 to 2 per
cent. of water were also formed. The cadavers of terrestrial and marine
animals, if submitted to the same distillation under pressure, yield a dis-
tillate without carbonaceous residue; but the distillate contains, besides the
hydrocarbons, a notable quantity of amines and pyridine bases, due to the
decomposition of albuminoid material. Engler notes that the cadavers of
fish, etc., rapidly lose their nitrogenous material by putrefaction, while the
fatty bodies resist decomposition and only slowly undergo the changes
resulting in the formation of the petroleum-like bodies. This disappearance
 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM 21

siderable doubt as to the actual possibility of such a polymeriza-

tion. Mabery! reasonably maintains that the changes are
always in the opposite direction: the more complex hydrocarbons
formed first partially break down subsequently into lower
members of the series. Marcusson? also shares this view. The
removal of the nitrogenous substances by any putrefaction
process is also open to doubt; certainly it is not universal. The
nitrogen bases of California petroleum supply perhaps the
strongest evidence that the proteids contribute their share to
the make-up of petroleum, and indicate that these particular
oils are of animal origin.
Evidence in support of the derivation of petroleum from fish
remains has been contributed by several investigators. For
instance, Dieulafait® reported that while the copper shales of
Mansfeld are strongly impregnated with bitumen, they are also
rich in fossil fish. Then, too, Galician petroleum is invariably
associated with menilitic schists in which fish remains are
abundant. Szajnocha has computed‘ that the annual catch of
herring on the north coast of Germany would, if its fats were
half converted into petroleum, yield in 2560 years as much oil
as Galicia has produced. Bertels,> however, considers that the
Caucasian petroleums result from the decomposition of mollusks.®
The views of Engler have received special attention because of
their experimental basis, for he was not the original advocate
of animal derivation. For example, Ochsenius’ has endeavored
to connect the formation of petroleum with that of the mother-

of animal tissue and persistence of the fatty bodies under the name of adi-
poceres (mixtures of free fatty acids) has long been known and was referred
to by Lixzra.
1J, Am. Chem. Soc., 28 (1906), 429.
2 Chem.-Zitg., 30 (1906), 788.
3 Cited by Jaccarp, Arch. sci. phys. nat., (3), 24 (1890), 106.
4 Ber., 33 (1900), 16. See also Cong. internat. du pétrole, 1900, 30.Cf.
Der Witpe, Mon. sci. du Quesneville, May, 1907.
5 Cited by Horer “Das Erdél,” 1906, 219. Hornune (Z. Deutsch. geol.
Gesell., 57, Monatsber., 1905, 534) argues in favor of fishes as the raw mate-
rial of petroleum. See also JAHN, Jahrb. K.-k. geol. Reichsanstalt, 42 (1892),
361. For arguments against the theory of ENGLER, see PANTANELLI, Bull.
Soc. geol. ital., 25 (1906), 795; Pantanelli seems to favor the inorganic origin
of petroleum.
8 In the Kuban district, the oil, accompanied by salt water, exudes directly
from beds of molluscan remains, which occur in enormous quantities.
7 Chem.-Ztg., 15 (1891), 935; and Z. Deutsch. geol. Gesell., 48 (1896), 239.
22 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

liquor salts which accumulate during the last stage of the evapora-
tion of sea water; Mrazec! has noted this association of salt and
oil in the case of Rumanian petroleum; and Heusler,” indorsing
Engler’s principal conclusions, like Ochsenius, who mentioned
magnesium chloride as the active substance, invoked the aid of
another agent in producing a polymerization of the hydrocarbons
(aluminum chloride). It has not been experimentally demon-
strated that hydrolyzed water solutions of aluminum chloride
are effective; moreover, aluminum chloride does not occur in
any notable quantity in natural waters.*
Zalozieckit has suggested that the salts probably retard and
modify the decay of animal matter on or near the seashore,
and in this way provide for the gradual transformation into
petroleum.’ It is of interest to note that the brines which are
frequently associated with petroleum generally possess a com-
position indicative of a marine origin and do not resemble solfa-
taric or volcanic waters.6 Furthermore, Mendeléefi’s objection
to the possibility of petroleum forming at the bottom of the sea—
1Compt. rend. Cong. internat. pétrole, Bucarest, 1910, 2, 80. Also
“T’industrie du pétrole en Roumanie,” Bucarest, 1910. The presence of
methane, ethane, etc., in rock salt has been studied by CosTAcHEsct,
Ann. sci. Univ. Jassy, 4 (1906), 3. On the animal origin of petroleum, see
also Sinaur, Inaug. Diss., Zurich, 1893.
27Z. angew. Chem., 1896, 288, 318.
3 A possible exception to this statement is cited by Ocusmntus (Z. Deutsch.
geol. Ges., 48 (1896), 239), who mentions a water containing, in its solid resi-
due, 23.91 per cent. of aluminum chloride. This water accompanied a
petroleum.
4 Chem.-Zlg., 15 (1891), 1203.
5 The latter process is not necessarily very slow, for SICKENBERGER (ibid.,
1582) has shown that in small bays of the Red Sea, where the salinity
reaches 7.3 per cent., petroleum is actually forming as a scum upon the sur-
face of the water. Living forms are abundant in these bays, and their
remains, after death, furnish the hydrocarbons. The latter are to some
extent absorbed into the pores of coral reefs, and so contribute to the forma-
tion of bituminous limestones. Fraas (Bull. Soc. sci. nat. Neuchatel, 8
(1868), 58) supplied data of similar purport. He found in Egypt shells
filled with bitumen, and noticed that the bituminous beds were rich in fos-
sils, while the nonbituminous strata were poor. In the region of the Dead
Sea, also, Fraas noticed that bitumen was abundant in beds of baculites,
from which it exudes to accumulate upon the shore.
*° The waters accompanying the naphtha of the Grosny district, Russia, as
analyzed recently by KuarrrcuKxoy (Chem.-Zig., 1907, 295), appear to be
exceptional. In these sodium carbonate is more abundant than the chloride,
and salts of ammonium and the amines are also present.
 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM 23

namely, that being lighter than water it would float away and be
dissipated—is negatived by the well-known fact that mud and
clay are capable of retaining oily matters mechanically.
H6fer mentions the following as arguments in favor of an
animal origin for petroleum:
1. Oil is found in strata containing animal but little or no
plant remains. This is the case in the Carpathians and in the
limestone examined in Canada and the United States by Hunt.
2. The shales from which oil and paraffin were obtained in the
Liassic oil-shales of Swabia and of Steierdorf in the Banat,
contained animal but no vegetable remains. Other shales, as,
for instance, the copper-shales of Mansfeld, where the bitumen
amounts to 22 per cent., are rich in animal remains and prac-
tically free from vegetable remains.
3. Rocks which are rich in vegetable remains are generally
not bituminous.
4. Substances resembling petroleum are produced by the
decomposition of animal remains.
5. Fraas observed exudations of petroleum from a coral reef
on the shores of the Red Sea, where it could only be of animal
origin.
In summing up the evidence as to origin, Héfer expresses the
belief that petroleum is of animal origin and has been formed
without the action of excessive heat, and observes that it is
found in all strata in which animal remains have been dis-
covered. He considers that the oil is the primary, and natural
gas a secondary, product.
Orton’s opinions, which are somewhat different, are as follows:
1. Petroleum is derived from organic matter.
2. Petroleum of the Pennsylvania type is derived from the
organic matter of bituminous shales and is probably of vegetable
origin.
3. Petroleum of the Canada type is derived from limestones
and is probably of animal origin.
4, Petroleum has been produced at normal rock temperatures
1 The littoral sediments probably aid in the process of petroleum forma-
tion, as CLARKE has pointed out, if only to the extent of retaining the fatty
eubstances‘from which the oil is to be produced. The opinion has been
expressed that the beds of sulphur which occur adjacent to some oil wells,
notably in Texas, were probably formed by the reducing action of organic
matter upon sulphates, such as gypsum, a mineral which is often associated
with marine deposits and with petroleum.
24 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

(in American fields) and is not a product of destructive distilla-

tion of bituminous shales.
5. The stock of petroleums in the rocks is already practically
complete.
The Engler-Hifer theory, as developed by its authors up to
the present time, states that petroleum is derived from the
natural decomposition in situ of the fatty remains of marine
organisms, both animal and vegetable.
Engler thus enumerates the various stages which, in his
opinion, occur in the formation of petroleum from organic
matter:
1. Putrefaction, or fermentation, by which albumen and
cellulose, etc., are eliminated. Fatty matters (and waxes),
with a small quantity of other durable material and possibly
fatty acids from the albumen, remain.
2. Occurs partly during the first stage: saponification of the
glycerides, and production of free fatty acids, either from action
of water or ferments, possibly both. The waxy esters are either
wholly or partly hydrolyzed. The residues from many crude
oils are probably due to lack of completion of these actions.
3. Carbon dioxide is eliminated from the acids and esters,
water from the alcohols, oxy-acids, etc., leaving hydrocarbons of
high molecular weight containing oxy-compounds. Comparable
with these is the intermediate product, like ozokerite, of Kramer
and of Zaloziecki, who also regarded ozokerite as representing an
early stage in the formation of petroleum.
4. Formation of liquid hydrocarbons and violent reaction,
with “cracking,” into light or gaseous products (formation of
proto-petroleum).
He adds, in regard to all these stages, that he is assuming that
time and temperature compensate one another, though pressure
has no action beyond raising the temperature slightly and is in
no way equivalent to it. He considers that with moderate
temperatures and pressures oil of intermediate grade will be
formed, while increase of either tends to form light oils. Poly-
merization and addition-products are formed after the completion
of stage 4.!
Eogler further suggests that the various hydrocarbons are
formed as under:
1On the formation of the chief constituents of petroleum, see ENGLER,
Petroleum, 7 (1912), 399.
 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM 25

SCHEME SUGGESTED BY ENGLER AS REPRESENTING THE PRocESSES OccuUR-

RING IN THE FORMATION OF PETROLEUM
Bituminous animal and
’ vegetable residues
from fats, waxes, etc.

Liquid paraffin Olefines Solid paraffin

hydrocarbons (CnHon) hydrocarbons
(and gases) (CnHon+2)
(CnHen +2) |

Liquid Olefines (Naphthenes)

paraffin hydrocarbons

TAOS SNES)
(CnHon)x

Liquid paraffin Naphthenes Lubricating oils

hydrocarbons (CnHon) (Cn Hon_x)
(and gases)
(CnH2n+2)

Liquid paraffin Naphthenes Lubricating

hydrocarbons oils poorer
(and gases) in hydrogen
26 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Methane Series Hydrocarbons—as direct products from the “ bi-

tumen,’’7.e., the fats of stage 1 and heavy hydrocarbons of stage 3.
Olefines—directly formed, by splitting up of saturated chain
hydrocarbons of the paraffin series,

ConHan+2 a CrHon +2 ae (Galea

they would afterward polymerize to form simple methanes, etc.,

but they are probably partly re-formed in distillation, especially
at high temperatures, as in the ‘‘cracking’’ process.
“‘Naphthenes’’—perhaps from the decomposition of aromatic
acids or esters, or from isomeric olefines under the influence of
heat and pressure.
Benzenes, etc.—from the decomposition of fats at com-
paratively high temperatures.
Theories of Vegetable Origin—The similarity between pe-
troleum and the oils obtained by the destructive distillation of
peat, lignite, coal and oil-shale, led to an early belief that
petroleum was produced from one or all of these materials.+
It is true that this theory was soon abandoned in its original
form, but a few later writers have also maintained that terrestrial
vegetation has in some cases undergone a mineralization, being
converted into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons instead of the
usual solid lignites and coal.”
Lesquereux? argued in favor of the derivation of the Devonian
oils of the eastern United States from cellular marine plants,
especially fucoids, the remains of which are plentiful in the
petroliferous formations. This hypothesis induced Vouga‘ to
make the suggestion that great masses of fucus, like those of the
Sargasso Sea, might sink to the bottom of the ocean, and there,
decomposing under pressure, yield petroleum. Redwood states

1See Harcuert, T'rans. Linn. Soc., 4 (1798), 129; Phil. Trans., 1804, 385.
* See, especially, WALL, Quart. J.Geol. Soc., 16 (1860), 467; Smiru, J. Soc.
Chem. Ind., 1891, 979; and Saptiur, Am. J. Pharm., 68 (1896), 465.
During the past century it was commonly supposed that oil originally had
been distilled by nature from beds of coal into contiguous formations. It is
interesting to note that such a supposition has been world-wide—even the
Chinese having the term ‘‘May-yu,” indicating some impression that oil is
related to coal. Nevertheless, the evidence is strong that there has been
little or no connection between the two; and moreover that oil exists in some
localities hundreds of miles from the nearest coal deposit.
5 Bull. Soc. sci. nat. Neuchatel, 7 (1866), 234.
4 See discussion following LesqurrEux’s communication.
 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM 27

that the salt marshes of Sardinia are covered from time to time
with sheets of seaweed, decomposing into an oily substance re-
sembling petroleum;! and that petroleum is being formed at the
present time on the shores of the Sound near Lund, Sweden, by
the decomposition of seaweed in sand.? Watts? observed that
the saline waters occurring along with petroleum in the central
valley of California are unusually rich in iodine and connected
this iodine with the occurrence of iodine in seaweed, which he
regards as a probable source of this petroleum.
Additional evidence is had from the investigations of Bertrand
and Renault, who have shown that Boghead mineral, torbanite,
and kerosene shale, which yield crude oils resembling certain
petroleums upon distillation, are derived from gelatinous algae,
whose remains are embedded in what was once a brown, humous
jelly. Newberry’ and Peckham® regard the liquid petroleums
as natural distillates from carbonaceous deposits, which were
laid down at depths below the horizons where the oil is now
found. The heat generated during metamorphism is supposed
to be the dynamic agent in this process, although many pro-
ductive regions present no evidence that any violent metamor-
phoses have ever occurred.”
Binney and Talbot® described a peculiar occurrence of pe-
troleum in a peat bed on Down Holland Moss, not far from Liver-
pool, England. The origin of this oil was attributed by Binney
to the decomposition of the peat itself, but this mode of genesis
1 “Petroleum,” 3d ed., 1, 132.
2 Tdem, 148. Cf., however, 198, on the occurrence of petroleum in traces
in thermal springs at Koumac, New Caledonia.
3 Bull. California State Mining Bur., No. 19, 202. See also Bull. No. 3 for
more details. In Bull. No. 16, 1899, Cooper discusses at length the genesis
of petroleum and asphalt in California. Bull. Nos. 31 and 32 also relate to
this subject. See also PrutzmAn, Calif. Derrick, 3, Nos. 1-6.
4 Compt. rend., 117 (1893), 593. See also BERTRAND, Compt. rend. VIII.
Cong. géol. internat., 1900, 458. According to Jerrrey (Proc. Am. Acad.,
46 (1910), 273), the supposed gelatinous algze are the spores of vascular eryp-
togams.
5 “Geology of Ohio,” 1 (1873), 158. See also an earlier paper by Npw-
BERRY, “Rock Oils of Ohio,” in Fourteenth Ann. Rept. Ohio State Board
Agr., 1859, 605.
6 Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 10 (1868), 445; 37 (1898), 108.
7§rremMeE (Centralbl. Min., Geol. u. Pal., 1908, 271) has shown that the
polymerization of petroleum may itself generate heat.
8 Trans. Manchester Geol. Soc., 8 (1868), 41; 3 (1860), 9. Seé also Brn-
NEY, Proc. Manchester Lit. Phil. Soc., 3, 136.
28 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

has been doubted.! However, it is reported by Newberry’

that in the Bay of Marquette, where the shore consists of peat
overlying Archean rocks, bubbles of methane arise, together
with drops which cover the surface of the water, in spots, with
an oily film.
In 1899, Stahl* and, independently, Kramer and Spilker? called
attention to a possible derivation of petroleum from Bacillaria-
cee (diatoms), which occur largely in peat. Diatoms contain
drops of oily matter distributed in the plasma, and from diato-
maceous peat 1.5 to 4 per cent. of a wax resembling ozokerite
can be extracted. The following theory of the origin of pe-
troleum has been developed by Kramer and Spilker:
Lakes became filled up in the process of time with a growth of
diatoms; over this growth other deposits were formed subse-
quently. The decay of the diatoms (which takes place very
slowly) gave rise to ammonium carbonate, which hydrolyzed the
wax present; from the resulting acids, carbon dioxide and
monoxide and water were eliminated, and ozokerite formed.
Where the pressure was small and the temperature low, this
was converted further into a comparatively low boiling petro-
leum; under greater pressure and higher temperature, the sulphur
present also exerting an influence, a petroleum was formed
which contained a large proportion of viscid, high-boiling sub-
stances (probably formed by polymerization of olefines); more
extended action of the sulphur, and of atmospheric oxygen, gave
rise to a petroleum containing much asphalt. Generally speak-
ing, the petroleum would be absorbed by a calcareous bed, a
deposit of asphalt being thus formed.®
Kramer and Spilker’s theory has not been received with very
general acceptance, but it undoubtedly contains elements of
importance. Potonié’s hypotheses’? seem to be an extension of
Krimer and Spilker’s. Potonié calls attention to the ‘‘faul-
schlamm” or “sapropel,’’ a slime rich in organic matter, which is
formed from gelatinous alge and accumulates at the bottom of
1 H6rer (“Das Erdél,” 110) states that this deposit lies upon sand which
may have supplied the bitumen.
2 Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., 2 (1882), 277.
3 Chem.-Ztg., 23 (1899), 144; 30 (1906), 18.
4 Ber., 32 (1899), 2940; 35 (1902), 1212. Cf, Encxmr, idem, 33 (1900), 7.
’See also Guranrt, Compt. rend., 91 (1880), 888, on wax from peat.
6 Cf. Kuarrrconxov, J. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc., 44 (1912), 354.
7 Natur. Wochenschr., 20 (1905), 599.
 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM 29

stagnant waters. Such a slime, Potonié believes, may be the

parent substance from which bitumen, by a process of decay,
was probably derived.
Comments on the oceanic sediments? suggest an intermediate
group of theories, which assume a mixed origin for petroleum.
Animal matter in some cases, vegetable matter in others, or both
together, are supposed to be the primary source of supply.
Jaccard,* for example, maintains that the liquid oils are derived
from marine plants, while the viscous or solid bitumens may
originate from mollusks, radiates, etc. Some oils, again, are sup-
posed to be of mixed origin, and it would seem probable that the
last class is the most common. Similar views have been advanced
with reference to American petroleum—that of Pennsylvania
being attributed to marine vegetation, that of California to ani-
mal remains; in fact, the American literature of petroleum con-
_ tains numerous suggestions of this order.?
The fact that some petroleums are optically active is, accord-

1TIn this connection, and with reference to the adequacy of the proposed
source, attention may be directed to the enormous accumulation of radio-
larian and globigerina oozes on the bottom of the sea.
2 These oceanic sediments are especially noticed by ENGLER in a paper
read before the petroleum congress in 1900 (Cong. internat. du pétrole,
Paris, 1900, 28). In THompson’s monograph, “The Oil Fields of Russia,”
London, 1904, 85-87, a theory is developed to account for the probable
formation of bitumens on the sea bottom. THompson regards fish re-
mains as an important source of supply. MrKxsarLtovsxi (Bull. Com. géol.
St. Petersburg, 25 (1908), 319) derives the Caucasian petroleum from marine
sediments. Morrey (Bull. Geol. Survey Ohio, No. 1, 1908, 313) suggests
that bacteria have been the chief agents in transforming other organic
matter into hydrocarbons.
3 Hclog. Geol. Helvet., 2 (1890), 87. See also Arch. sci. phys. nat., (3),
23 (1890), 501; 24 (1890), 106. Jaccarp studied especially the bitumens
of the Jura.
4In addition to the memoirs already cited, see the Reports of the Second
Geol. Survey, Pennsylvania. Also BowNnocxEr, Geol. Survey Ohio, (4),
Bull. No. 1, 1908; Gory, Siateenth Ann. Rept., Indiana Dept. Geol. and
Nat. Hist., 1888; Buatcuuey, idem, Twenty-eighth Ann. Rept., 1904;
Haworru, Kansas Univ. Geol. Survey, 1 (1896), 232; BrumELu, Geol.
Survey Canada, Ann. Rept. 5, Q, 1893; and McGrxn, Hieventh Ann. Rept.,
U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 1, 1891, 589. Harprratx (Bol. Acad. nac. cien.
Cordoba (Argentina), 18 (1905), 153) has published a long memoir on petro-
leum and salt. Danton (Econ. Geol., 4 (1909), 603) advocates the organic
origin of petroleum.
30 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

ing to Walden,! of importance in determining the origin of

petroleum. Only the oils derived from organic matter, Walden
asserts, can possess this property; the hydrocarbons prepared
from inorganic materials, such as metallic carbides, being optic-
ally inert. The oils distilled from coal, which is of vegetable
origin, are active; and petroleum, which has the same peculiarity,
is presumably formed from similar materials. The optical
activity is attributed by some to derivatives of cholesterin, of
animal origin, or else to its vegetable equivalent, phytosterin.?
The general conclusions are very important and quite convincing
in certain respects, but require considerable investigation before
they can demand acceptance.
As Clarke reminds us,? in any attempt to discover the genesis of
petroleum the quantitative adequacy of the proposed sources
must be considered. Superficial observations are deceptive;
since they seem large, the visible and productive accumulations
which furnish the oils of commerce are likely to be overrated.
Orton‘ has called attention to the fact that while disseminated
petroleum is well-nigh universal, the accumulations thereof are
rare. In certain districts the shales and limestones are generally
impregnated with traces of bitumens, which seem at first sight to
be insignificant, but which really represent enormous quantities.
In the Mississippian (“‘sub-Carboniferous’’) limestones of Ken-
tucky petroleum is generally present. If it amounts to only
0.10 per cent., each square mile of rock, with a thickness of 500
ft., would yield about 2,500,000 bbl. of oil. Hunt® estimates that
in the limestone of Chicago, with a thickness of 35 ft., there are
1 Chem.-Zig., 30 (1906), 391, 1155, 1168. Wanprn cites many examples
of this optical activity. See also Enaumr, ibid., 711. Raxuzin (Orig.
Com. 8th Intern. Cong. Appl. Chem., 25, 721) regards the optical activity
of petroleum as the most important factor in determining the genesis ofa
crude oil.
2 See Raxuzin, Chem-Zig., 30 (1906), 1041; Ber., 42 (1908), 1211, 1640,
4675; Marcusson, Chem.-Zig., 31 (1907), 419; 32 (1908), 377, 391; ALBRECHT,
Inaug. Diss., Karlsruhe, 1907; Uspetoupn; Ber., 42 (1909), 3242; 43 (1910),
6038. Zavozreckt and Kuarrutp (Chem.-Ztg., 31 (1907), 1155, 1170)
question the cholesterin theory and favor that of Potonti. See also
ZALOZIECKI, Compt. rend. Cong. internat. pétrole, Bucarest, 1910, 718;
and Srernkopr and WrnTErnivz, Chem.-Ztg., 38 (1914), 613.
SOCmCile Ud:
‘First Ann. Rept., Geol. Survey Ohio, 1870, Chap. XI;Geol. Survey Kentucky,
Report on occurrence of petroleum, etc., 1888-89.
5 “Chemical and Geological Essays,” 1875, 168.
 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM 31

7,743,745 bbl. of oil to each square mile of territory. Such

data, together with the computations by Szajnocha relative to
Galician petroleum, lead to the conviction that the formation of
bitumens is a general process and by no means exceptional.
Wherever sediments are laid down, inclosing either animal or
vegetable matter, there bitumens may be produced. The
presence of water, preferably salt, the exclusion of air, and the
existence of an impervious protecting stratum of clay, seem to be
essential conditions toward rendering the transformation possible.
Seaweeds, mollusks, crustaceans, fishes, and even microscopic
organisms of many kinds may contribute material to the change.
In some cases plants! may predominate; in others animal re-
mains; and the character of the hydrocarbons produced is likely
to vary accordingly, just as petroleum varies in different
fields.
The question, sometimes raised, as to how petroleum becomes
concentrated, will not be discussed here. Probably circulating
waters have much to do with the process, but whatever that may
be the laws governing the motion of liquids must inevitably
rule.
General Conclusions.—In conclusion, it may be said that
nearly all of the proposed theories to account for the origin of
petroleum include certain elements of truth; in regard to some
of the theories, considerable experimental proof has been forth-
coming. Sokolov’s cosmic hypothesis is sustained by the fact
that hydrocarbons are found in meteorites. The volcanic
hypothesis is supported by the fact that hydrocarbons occur
among volcanic emanations. The organic origin of petroleum,
however, seems to be best maintained by the geologic relations
of the hydrocarbons. On the whole, the Engler-Héfer dual
theory? has the largest number of adherents, to whom the evi-
1See Brecer, Min. World, 35, 1219, 1321, for a full consideration of the
vegetable derivation. Manrry (J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6 (1914), 106) has
concluded that the origin of petroleum in certain American fields must be
looked for chiefly in the decay of vegetation.
2 For a discussion of this problem, see Hérmr, ‘‘Das Erddél,” 1906, 223.
Also ApAms, Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 33 (1903), 340; and Day, ibid.,
1053. Orron’s reports, previously cited, contain important contributions
on this subject.
3 See ENGLER and Hérer’s ‘‘Das Erdél,” 1909, 2, 59-142; A1stnMANN,
Z. angew. Chem., 1893, 738; 1894, 122; Ipaview, J. prakt. Chem., 84 (1911),
800; and Hrrscut, Petroleum, 7, 62.
32 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

dence seems to be clear that no important petroleum field derived

its hydrocarbons from purely inorganic sources.' Campbell,
who has considered the available evidence in a searching manner,”
states that this testimony favors the animal origin of most pe-
troleum, although a certain amount has probably been derived
from the fatty portions of plants. Some authorities contend
that oils having an asphalt base are derived from animal matter
and oils having a paraffin base from vegetable matters. Still
other adherents of the organic theories claim that the differences
in quality of the oils are due to differences of capillarity, heat,
pressure, extent of migration, etc., but none of these theories
seems to have been proved. Richardson has recently expressed
the opinion that the phenomena of surfaces and films, as demon-
strated by the recent developments of colloidal chemistry, open
up an entirely new point of view for the interpretation of the
origin of petroleum and asphalt and one which will be, no doubt,

1Davip Wurts (J. Wash. Acad., 5, 189) has considered the ingredient
materials of coals and oil rocks, the biochemical and dynamo-chemical
processes of alteration of the organic detritus, its devolatilization, its regional
alteration and the corresponding regional differences in petroleums, and
the occurrence of higher rank oils in regions of greater alteration of the
carbonaceous residues. His conclusions are as follows: (1) Petroleum is a
product generated in the course of the geodynamic alteration of deposits of
organic débris of certain types buried in the sedimentary strata. (2)
The quantity and characters of the oils generated are determined by:
(a) the composition of the organic deposit at the beginning of alteration;
(b) the stage in the progress of this; (c) the elimination of the heavier and
more viscous hydrocarbons through filtration incident to migration. It is
probable that the composition of the mother organic deposit largely regu-
lates the types of oils; it may account for the nitrogen and sulphur content,
color, ete. (3) The rank of the oils is proportional to the degree of altera-
tion of the carbonaceous deposits. (4) The change is marked by concen-
tration of hydrogen in the distillates and of carbon in the residues. (5)
Abnormally light oils are in most cases due to filtration. (6) In general,
the oils found in successive underlying formations are progressively higher
inrank. (7) In regions where the progressive devolatilization of the organic
deposits in any formation has passed a certain point (usually 65-70 per cent.
fixed carbon) commercial oil pools are not present in that or underlying
formations although gas may occur. (8) Wherever the regional alteration
of the carbonaceous residues passes the point marked by 65-70 per cent.
of fixed carbon in the pure coals, the light distillates appear in general to be
gases at rock temperatures.
* “Petroleum and Natural Gas Resources of Canada,” Canada Dept. of
Mines, Mines Branch, 1914, 1, 76.
 THE GEOCHEMISTRY OF PETROLEUM 33

widely developed in the future. It seems to Richardson! that

the origin of all forms of petroleum must be attributed to surface
action between a natural gas and the “‘sands,” using this term
in a general sense, with which it comes in contact.
1J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 8 (1916), 4.
 CHAPTER II

THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM

By Freperick G. Cuapp!

As shown in the preceding chapter, petrologenesis has been a

subject of research and extended theoretical discussion by
chemists and geologists for many years, but without arriving at
results universally accepted. In any consideration of the geology
of petroleum, it is important to first review the question of origin,
so far as knowledge allows at the present time; for, to quote
Campbell,? ““much that is now uncertain could be eliminated
were the source of the oil known and the mode of its origin
understood. The geologist cannot afford to ignore this phase of
the question.” It is assumed by the author of this chapter that
the reader is familiar with the general aspects of petrologenesis.
Surface Indications of Petroleum.—While the evidences of
the presence of petroleum which are commonly noted by the
geologist or geological engineer are not such as can be seen
and comprehended by the average layman, there are, however,
in many oil fields, certain more direct indications which have a
definite bearing on the existence of oil, either in that particular
locality or at a distance. These so-called ‘‘surface indications”
may be classified as (1) oil seepages or springs, (2) natural gas
springs, (3) outcrops of sands impregnated with petroleum or
bitumen, (4) bituminous dikes, and (5) bituminous lakes. Any
one of these generally has some association with petroleum, but
the latter very frequently lies at a great distance from the point
where the evidence appears on the surface.
To illustrate, it is a fact that a formation which reaches the
surface of the ground at a particular point, and from which the
seepages of oil, gas or asphalt are seen to emerge, may incline
downward at such an angle that the point of greatest amount
‘Petroloum Engineer and Managing Geologist, The Associated Geological
Engineers, 120 Broadway, New York.
2 Econ. Geol., 6 (1911), 363.
34
 THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 35

of oil in it Hes many miles from the exposed outcrop. For this
reason, it is generally inadvisable to drill on or near seepages
unless there is also real evidence that the main deposit of
petroleum occurs directly below.
1. Orl Seepages—Seepages may exist in one of two forms:
(a) where the outcrop of an oil-sand reaches the surface; or
(b) where there is a crevice or a fault through which the oil has
risen to the surface from some depth. Seepages are commonly
found in the lowlands, in swamps, or along small streams; some-
times they occur merely as a faint scum on the water; but one
case has been seen by the author in Mexico where oil and asphalt
are running down the side of a small basaltic hill from 100 ft.
or more above its base. Generally the upper part of an outcrop
of an oil-sand will have lost its signs of oil, owing to weathering;
but sometimes oil will still be found in the same stratum at water
level.
It is very important for the novice to distinguish between
scums of oil and those of other substances on water. For in-
stance, ‘iron scum”’ has, times without number, been mistaken
for petroleum, and would-be investors have paid thousands of
dollars for expert examination of territory on such slight evi-
dence, where the expert, on his arrival at the locality, was able
to say at once that the scum was not petroleum, and in some
cases that the formation of the country was entirely unsuitable
for its occurrence. As arule, where a film of petroleum is present,
it can be distinguished from that of iron by its odor. An old
hand at the business will always be able to distinguish the two
substances; and often a novice can distinguish them by remem-
bering that even a drop of oil on a water surface will expand as
a thin film, giving an iridescence enlarging from a center. In
the case of “iron scum,” a small stick thrust into it will break
it up into separate patches, while an oil scum is so thin and
cohesive as to retain its iridescent and unbroken appearance.
As a rule, oil seepages exist as very faint scums on the surface
of rivers or lakes, this having been true in certain of the Pennsyl-
vania and West Virginia oil fields in the early days of their dis-
covery. In other cases, however, as in Mexico, the tarry oil
emerges from the earth in very large quantities; and ancient
reports state that in certain biblically mentioned localities it
formerly gushed out in great streams. In the past, rivers of oil
are reported to have emerged from beneath the Caspian Sea;
 36 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

and there is no doubt that natural explosions of burning petroleum

have taken place, throwing masses of clay and stones into the air,
uplifting the bottom of the sea locally and giving rise to small
islands in the vicinity of Baku.!
In the larger seepages one can see the green or black oil in
drops or patches, which are frequently associated with a tarry
or asphaltic substance; and gas may sometimes be observed bub-
bling through the water at the same point. While oil seepages
are generally very small, an instance has been mentioned by
Craig? where as much as 20 bbl. of oil per day flows naturally to
waste into a stream from a certain outcrop. A few cases are
known where oil has come up through the ocean and appeared
on the surface of the water, such an instance being reported from
near Baku in the Caspian Sea, and similar occurrences exist on
the coast of South America and of Trinidad.
A question will naturally arise in considering such productive
oil fields as are found in Pennsylvania, Ohio, West Virginia,
Oklahoma and Illinois, namely, why oil seepages have been seldom
known. ‘The reason is that the beds are so slightly tilted as to
remain unbroken and there has been no fissure or other channel
by which the oil could reach the surface, except perhaps in the
minutest quantities. Moreover, where these formations actually
reach the surface in a neighboring locality, the oil has already
leaked away, owing to the fact that productive strata in those
States are of Carboniferous and earlier age, and there has been
plenty of time for the oil to disappear. In California and
Mexico, however, where seepages are so abundant, the formations
are of more recent age, namely, Tertiary and Cretaceous, so
that, even though the sands are tilted and eroded at the surface,
the oil has not yet entirely disappeared.
2. Natural Gas Springs—In some places in Ohio and West
Virginia, bubbles of gas rise in minute quantities through the
water to the surface of streams. At other places, as, for instance,
in the peninsula of Baku in European Russia, gas has been
actually burning for thousands of years, so that it has given rise
to a peculiar sect, the ‘‘Fire Worshipers.” Great gas springs
exist in Hungary as well as in the United States and elsewhere.
Gas springs, while not being an actual proof of the existence of
oil in a locality, show us that conditions are favorable, for where
1A. pe Lapparent, ‘‘Traité de Géologie,’”’ 1883, p. 490.
2K, H. Cunnineuam-Crara, “Oil Finding,” 1912, p. 90.
 THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 37

we find natural gas, it is logical to expect petroleum also within

the lateral range of the existing formation.
3. Outcrops of sands impregnated with tar or bitumen are not
common, but they exist in several parts of the world. Perhaps
the best occurrences of this kind are the “tar sands” of the
Athabasca and other rivers in northern Alberta in Canada, where
the outcrop of the Dakota formation is impregnated with tar
for scores of miles along the main rivers, leading to the supposi-
tion that oil and gas will be found in great quantity in those
portions of the same sands which are under cover and have the
requisite geologic structure.
4. Bituminous Dikes.—As to dikes of asphalt and other bitu-
mens, the relationship is not so apparent, since these substances
are frequently solidified, and some varieties of them are as hard
and compact as coal. This has been so deceiving to the public
that in reference to one case at least, namely, the Albert Mines
in Albert County, New Brunswick, the Courts have decided
that the material (albertite) shall be legally known as coal.
In reality, however, it is an entirely different bitumen. In
other localities, such as Mexico and California, oil is seen to
ooze out of the ground, together with the asphalt, thus proving
a close relationship.
5. Bituminous Lakes.—Asphalt and related bitumens occur
elsewhere at the surface in the form of lakes. In Mexico are a
great number of seepages, some of small size, but many of them
covering thousands of square feet, in which the asphalt has
been seen emerging from the ground and taking the form of
small lakes. The best known example of a lake of asphalt is
the Pitch Lake of Trinidad, hundreds of acres in area, frequently
described in literature.
Asphaltic deposits are direct evidence that oil does exist or
has existed in the vicinity, for these substances appear to be the
desiccated or oxygenated residues of heavy oils which have
oozed out of the surface in past ages. In many cases it is possible
for a geologist to locate the field from which the asphalt has
escaped. Consequently, it is important not to neglect the surface
evidences; but in studying them, one must remember that certain
structural relations hold true, and consequently that oil pools
will very seldom be found directly underneath the points of
emergence of the substances.
38 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Supposed Indications —It is true that in some localities in

Louisiana and Rumania, petroleum is associated with salt in
such a manner that there would appear to be a direct relationship,
as certain German, Hungarian and Rumanian geologists and
chemists have assumed. Perhaps the idea that oil and salt
are necessarily associated is derived in part from the fact that oil
was originally discovered in the United States during the search
for brine, which was at one time obtained from wells in Pennsyl-
vania and West Virginia. Many persons have assumed that
salt is an indication of petroleum or natural gas. ;
On the other hand, it is a fact that extensive masses of salt
often exist entirely unassociated with oil, this being the case in
Ohio and Ontario. Consequently, recent theories respecting
the origin of petroleum have mainly ignored any relationship
with salt as a factor in the process, assuming first that brine,
where found in an oil field during the drilling for oil, is a normal
constituent of deeply buried formations of marine origin. While
the connection of oil with dome-shaped masses of salt, as in
Hungary and Louisiana, may be due to the fact that oil, when
existent in a suitable formation, becomes concentrated against
the salt mass, as a suitable factor of interruption, nevertheless
the frequent occurrence of oil with salt seems to indicate some
possible relationship in their origin.
It has also been assumed by some investigators that mud
volcanoes are necessarily associated with oil, but this also is
doubtful, since mud volcanoes are known to exist in parts of the
world where oil has never yet been discovered.
Boverton Redwood states! that “in Russia and India the rela-
tion between petroleum and mud voleanoes is very noticeable;’’
and he goes on to say that mud volcanoes are generally considered
as a favorable indication for the presence of petroleum, as has
also been asserted by Mendeléeff, Dalton and others. Mud
volcanoes are known to be found in the vicinity of the oil fields
of the Caucasus mountains at Taman-Kertch, in the Apscheron,
Crimean and Taman peninsulas, in Venezuela, in northern
Columbia, at Minbu and the Island of Ramai in Burma, and
also to some extent in Transylvania and Galicia. At Baku in
the Apscheron peninsula, they have been known for centuries,
and have been associated with large quantities of natural gas
and petroleum. The height of the mud volcanoes near Baku
1“A Treatise on Petroleum,” 3d ed., 1913, 1, 122.
 THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 39

is reported sometimes as much as 1,300 ft., while those of

Transylvania, on the other hand, are seldom over 30 ft. in height.
While natural mud volcanoes are not known to exist in the
United States, there are, however, certain very voluminous
natural gas wells in the Caddo field of Louisiana and in certain
parts of Oklahoma, where the formations are comparatively
soft and of a clayey texture, which have broken loose, bursting
into the air, and continued to run wild, throwing water and mud
into the air for years. These might almost be classified as
artificial mud volcanoes, and it is easy to imagine that they may
be of similar internal structure to the natural mud volcanoes.
They are, however, evidences of gas and not of oil. It is probable
that the occurrence of mud volcanoes is not necessarily as-
sociated either with natural gas or with petroleum in quantity,
and that they may occur even where small amounts of any kind
of gas are imprisoned in or below the muddy strata, and the
escape of such gas will throw the mud into the air.
Summarizing the foregoing statements regarding the relation-
ship of surface indications to petroleum, it must be acknowledged
that surface indications of any kind are not essential, since many
fields, such as those in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and certain parts
of Oklahoma, show an absolute lack of surface indications, oil
never having been discovered until it was tapped accidentally by
the drill or located on favorable geologic structures. We
can say, however, that where oil seepages exist, they indicate
oil below the surface in greater or less quantity. Similarly,
since it is known that asphaltic deposits have come from oil, it
may be said that oil has once existed in localities of such de-
posits, and it is a question for the geologist to decide whether or
not the conditions are such that oil may still be expected there.
In many localities where the asphaltic deposits are very old
geologically, the oil seems to have completely disappeared.
Where natural gas is present without oil, there is no direct
evidence of the latter; but since gas and oil are believed to be
derived from a common source, it is important to leok for the
geologic evidences of oil somewhere in the region.
It is, of course, necessary for the expert to take account of
all such occurrences as may prove the general region favorable;
but he must be on his guard not to give undue weight to the
chances in the particular locality where a “surface evidence”’ is
seen. Many persons have supposed that occurrences of hy-
40 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

drogen sulphide are favorable to oil; but there seems to be no

certainty of this. We should also mention the great deposits
of bituminous shale which exist in some parts of the world, and
which, although not commercially workable in many cases, prove
that oil exists potentially in greater or less quantity.
One of the greatest mistakes made throughout the early
development of petroleum in the United States was the supposi-
tion on the part of a majority of prospectors that the oil fields
ran universally in a given direction, and, with that idea in view,
the men who were searching for oil, drilled thousands of wells on
45° lines and 30° lines. Underlying the idea was the fact that
the general trend of the Appalachian oil fields as a whole and cer-
tain other fields, is from northeast to southwest. Consequently,
drilling in that general direction is somewhat more likely to
strike oil than along southeast-northwest lines; but, on the
other hand, the southwesterly trend of the fields is only true in
a very broad sense, and an individual pool is just as likely to
disappear toward the southwest as to be continued in that
direction. -The only class of lines which are of real value in pro-
longing oil pools are “structure contour lines,” drawn by the
geologist on bis maps, and which, when followed outward from an
initial well, will furnish some clue to the probable direction of the
extension of the pool.
Geological Age of Formations Producing Petroleum.—
Petroleum has been found in rocks of practically all geologic
ages from the Cambrian up to the most recent; consequently, one
cannot determine, simply by a knowledge of the age of the
formation, whether or not oil will be found. It is, however,
very valuable, in a given field, to know that the stratum is of the
same age as some producing stratum in an adjoining field, since
this leads one to infer similar favorable conditions.
Table III, compiled from various sources, presents an outline
of the formation in which petroleum is known in the United States
and Canada.
Character of Formations Containing Petroleum.—The greater
part of the petroleum of the world is found in sandstones, sands
and limestones, but certain cases are known where it exists
in shales, and it has even been reported in small quantities in
igneous rocks. Since strata yielding petroleum are geologically
identical with those yielding natural gas, it is necessary to con-
sider the two substances together to a certain extent.
 THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 41

TasLE III.—Groxtocic ForMATIONS IN WuHicH PETROLEUM IS FouND

IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA

Era System Geological group Locality

Quaternary Recent Texas and Louisiana.

R Pliocene series California and Wyoming.

Cenozoic

Tertiary Miocene series California and Wyoming.

Eocene series California.

Upper Cretaceous Alberta, California, Wyoming, Texas

Colorado and Louisiana.
Cretaceous

, Lower Cretaceous Louisiana and Wyoming.

Mesozoic
Jurassic Sundance formation | Northeastern Wyoming.

Triassic Chugwater formation |Wyoming.

Permian series Texas and Oklahoma.

Pennsylvanian series | Oklahoma, Illinois, Pennsylvania, West

Virginia, Ohio, Kentucky, Alabama,
Kansas, Indiana, Wyoming, California,
i 4h d Utah.
Carboniferous ree F:

Mississippian series Illinois, Indiana, West Virginia and

Oklahoma.

Pocono series Pennsylvania, West Virginia, Ohio and

Kentucky.

Chemung & Catskill | Pennsylvania, West Virginia and Ohio. *

Hamilton Ontario, Canada.

Paleozoic | Devonian —
Corniferous Ohio, New York, Indiana and Ontario.

Oriskany New York, Indiana and Ontario.

Guelph New York and Ontario.

Niagara New York, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois and

poet Ontario.
Silurian as

Clinton Ohio and Ontario.

Medina New York and Ontario.

25 Trenton Ohio, Indiana, New York, Kentucky

Ordovician 5
and Ontario.

Cambrian Quebec group Newfoundland, Quebec and Alberta.

42 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

We may classify the formations which contain petroleum as

“reservoir rocks,” and this term is particularly appropriate
since it seems probable that they are in truth merely reservoirs,
the contents of which have been generated in underlying strata
and have been collected in these formations, since the latter are
particularly porous.
The question of the derivation of the oil is, of course, bound
up with its origin, but it seems probable that there are certain
limestones to which the oil may be indigenous, as, perhaps, the
Trenton limestone of Ohio, the Tamasopo limestone of Mexico,
and certain other great limestones; but, as stated elsewhere, no
particular theory as to the origin of petroleum is advocated in
this work.
The porosity, or capability of sandstones and sands to hold
oil, is due to the shane and arrangement of the grains. Oil-
well drillers refer to certain sands as ‘‘oil-sands,”’ “‘ gas-sands,”’
“water-sands,” or sands from which nothing is expected; and
it seems that with their long experience in the business, they
often have a faculty of noticing certain characteristics regard-
ing shape of grain, etc., which determine the factor of porosity.
In limestones, the question of porosity is somewhat more
complex. There is no doubt that in certain limestones petroleum
occurs in greater or less quantity, in real cavities which have
been caused by solution of the rock. In other limestones,
however, the porosity is due to the fact that the rock has been
changed locally from limestone to dolomite, giving a phase of
interlocking crystals, in which the oil is held. The change is
due to the conversion of the calcium carbonate which composes
the limestone into the calcium and magnesium carbonate which
mineralogists know as dolomite and which occupies less space
than the limestone. The Trenton limestone of Ohio and Indiana
is thus altered along the crest of the Cincinnati anticline.
In the case of sandstone, the occurrence of oil is due not only
to structure, but is affected also by the continuity of the stratum.
Well drillers recognize the internal variations when they speak of
a sand being “open” or “close,” “soft” or “hard,” and “good”
or “poor” in character. An experienced driller may determine
the petroliferous possibilities of a sand by visual examination,
but he is unable to determine definitely whether it would be
productive without knowing the geological structure of the
locality in question.
 THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 43

The question of the amount of oil which a certain formation

can contain in view of its porosity is a rather complicated sub-
ject. It is discussed by Redwood! in some detail, and will not
be gone into here. Interwoven with this same subject is the
question of the distances which one well will draw oil from
another, and many other questions encountered in the drilling
of an oil field.
Stratigraphic Relations of Petroleum.—The conditions under
which petroleum exists in the earth are both stratigraphic and
structural. The principal requisite for a productive oil field
consists of a porous reservoir rock overlain by an impervious
cover. As stated elsewhere, the reservoir rock is commonly
sandstone, sand or limestone, and the cover is most frequently
shale; but there are many different exceptions to and modifica-
tions of thisrule. It is a fact, however, in a field of large volume,
that there must be some sort of a continuous cover toprevent
the oil from leaking away to the surface and disappearing, and
this is what must have happened in some great fields from which
the oil has long since vanished.
Ordinarily the bed of impervious rock overlying a “sand”
which holds oil or gas, is known as the “‘cap-rock.” It is fre-
quently very hard, though not always, and generally consists of
limestone or shale. One of the most widespread formations
overlying gas- and oil-sands is the Utica shale above the Trenton
limestone in the Ohio-Indiana fields. The Clinton sand of
central Ohio is overlaid in a similar way by the Clinton shale.
The numerous oil- and gas-sands of Pennsylvania and West
Virginia are all overlaid by impervious shales. In the Louisiana
fields a hard stratum of limestone sometimes acts as a cap-rock
overlying a more pervious portion of the same formation. In
fact, ‘‘cap-rocks”’ may consist of almost any relatively impervious
material, even dense sandstone answering in some fields.
Structural Relations of Petroleum.—One of the most important
matters to understand in connection with the geologic aspects
of petroleum is the relationship in which oil, gas and water are
found in view of their different specific gravities. Where these
substances exist in any sand, it is very probable that they were
originally intimately mixed, but that the tilting or folding of the
strata from geologic causes have separated out the different
1Boverton Repwoop, “‘A Treatise on Petroleum,” 3d ed., 1913, 1,
p. 11s.
44 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

substances, segregating the water into the lower parts of the

porous strata, the oil higher up, and the gas into the very highest
portion of the strata which it can reach. This relation is a fun-
damental consideration in the discussion of oil geology, since it
means that where the sands are absolutely dry the oil will be
found low in the synclines or basins; whereas, where the sands
are wet, the oil in many cases will have been forced up by the
water to the crest of a dome or anticline. In practically all
instances, however, the oil lies lower in the formation than does
the gas, and it generally rests upon water, when the latter is
present.
Movements of Oil in the Strata.—A subject on which the ma-
jority of oil geologists are agreed is that petroleum is not
limited to the formation in which it originated, but has migrated
and is sometimes still migrating. This necessitates an under-
standing of the movements of oil through rocks, and anexcellent
description of these has been given by Campbell.*
So far as known there are three forces which are mainly re-
sponsible for the movements of oil through the rocks and its
segregation: (1) gravitation, (2) capillary attraction, and (3)
differences in specific gravities. It is probable that the gravita-
tive factor is very simple and practically negligible, on account
of the friction which would be encountered by the oil in moving
through the rock. Capillary attraction, however, is much more
powerful than is gravitation and is supposed to be an effective
agent in the movements of oil.2 As has been shown by Day,
petroleum will diffuse readily in all directions through dry clay
and shale, and in this diffusion the oil may be separated into
fractions of different specific gravities. This process probably
takes place frequently in dry rocks; but in those saturated with
water the capillary factor is likely to be overshadowed by the
presence of water. Moreover, capillary attraction takes place
only in rocks having extremely small pores, such as clays or
shales. These rocks when moist are impervious to oil, which
may be the main reason why a cap-rock of clay or shale is best

1M. R. Campsett, “Petroleum and Natural Gas Resources of Canada,”

Canada Department of Mines, Mines Branch, 1 (1914), pp. 76-89.
?C. W. Wasupurne, “The Capillary Concentration of Gas and Oil,”
Am. Inst. Min. Eng., Bull. No. 98 (1914), 2365-2378.
3 Davip T. Day, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 36, No. 154, 112-155; also Trans.
Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 41, 219-224.
 THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 45

fitted to hold the oil in the reservoir below it. It is a great

question as to whether capillary attraction, notwithstanding its
great force, has been sufficiently widespread or continuous to be
the most important factor in oil movements and accumulation.
In connection with capillarity, it has been shown by Day! that
oil will diffuse readily through dry fullers’ earth, but that moist-
ened earth is impervious; hence the cap-rock overlying the oil
reservoir may consist either of fine-grained impervilous rock or
of fine material saturated with water.
The principal factor in the movement and accumulation of oil
appears to be specific gravity, or, more accurately speaking, the
difference in the specific gravities of water, oil and gas. As ex-
plained by Campbell,? water has presumably been such a powerful
factor in the movement of oil that it has always pushed oil ahead
of it when moving up the dip of a porous stratum; consequently,
where the rocks are saturated, the oil has finally been accumulated
on the highest portion of an anticline or dome. Moreover, it is
probably true that in cases where the saturating water has been
removed subsequent to the time of structural change, the asso-
ciated oil will still remain in a high portion of the stratum, since
it does not move readily by the force of gravitation alone. In
localities, however, where the reservoir rocks were dry at the time
of structural change and are still dry, the oil may be found in the
synclines; this is frequently true in West Virginia and in some
parts of Pennsylvania.
Another view, originally proposed by Munn, is that the move-
ments of oil are bound up with the hydrostatic conditions in the
stratum, as affected by the overlying surface topography, and
consequently that the present accumulation of oil bears a definite
relation to the present water circulation; but this theory has not
met with wide acceptance. In any case, both the advocates
and opponents of the anticlinal theory seem to have generally
assumed that oil rocks are saturated with water; but such is not
universally true, and hence the structural relations of oil are
quite different where water is or has been present from what they
are where it has been absent. Therefore, one of the first req-
uisites in examining an oil field is for the expert to determine
whether the rocks are wet or dry.
1Davip T. Day, ‘The Conditions of Accumulation of Petroleum in the
Earth,” Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 41 (1911), 212-224.
2 Op. cit., p. 79.
 ~

Mew wet W ameeed thar all beds of Sardeeme or all pa

af any partie: sadkeame Siratamr ae agate af held:
Re there ae Remy Sadktanes aad May Portions ef Ora '
stare which && tee bard t canta ail aad be many eases the
gts Se | Cay cememad as & make the meks prectikalle
RREEERAR,
The movemens and methads ef amanvniien af al te

amesl, there Ssmamiieiy me pike to which the ell can migrate and them
® quillees ip. the ugrermest yess af Ge Sad Beds ef mek, however,
seid Tetsin their berhamtlity Re any grat Gswae FE ter ma,

antimasta af the bed. E tte Ge & Sight te prasur mate em

Me Gifkmace in sqqeaiiie gece af the water and ail may at
»
suffhemat te Gece the all theaggh the egem amd: hat in eae te bed
is

Suns cumcrallimg arrumuiation ofaia cemdition that

ispreter meat
maried inthe case of the Chie ndios. peels in the Thenten
limestema””
_ Types af Gealgit Stractare with Which 2 Pools
are Asse
aa —h comsukemg the geelegieal Srectere ef al
tries,
uma has beem write: em the “antidlinal theery,” which
tll ;

Seilure ef the theerr im me Iolitka Mererer, pecreleum

SNUES Enether Iypes ef geallqgical structure tham
amtidines sai
& Snowihuge ofallthee trpes ik mersany te a geole
gital eng
 THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 47

The antidinal theory was first suggested by T. Serry Hunt,

and has been investigated and advocated by E. Benjamin An-
drews,? Alexander Winchell, J. J. Stevenson, F. W. Minshall,*
I. 8. Newberry,’ Hans Hofer,’ and others. The theory was not
definitely formulated, however, until 1885, when L C. White*
worked out its details and applied the theory in practice by lo-
cating oil and gze fields in West Virginia and Pennsylvania by
means ff itt. White's theory was at -first applied strictly to
supposedly saturated rocks. In dry rocks somewhat different
conditions exist, and in such instances the theory is modified.
Edward Orton’ also deserves great credit for parallel lines of
research which deciphered the geologic structure of certain
terraces. The various stages in the anticlinal theory have been
ably summarized by Campbell”
In order to consider the various types of geological structures
with which petroleum is now known to be associated, the author
& this Chapter has had occasion to dassify them. The original
dassification was published in Eemomic Geology, referring to
accumulations
i gas as welasof oil
In any accumulation based on geologic structure, the structure
of the productive stratum itself must be considered independ-
ently of the configuration of the surface or structure of any surface
formation. The object of the dassification is to describe the
various types of aecumulations of petroleum by grouping them

1 “Notes on the History of Petroleum or Rock O01,” Con. Nat, 6, 241—

255 (August, 1861); Causds Gok. Survey, Vith Eeph. of Progress, 1862-6,
233.
2*Rock& On, tis Geologic Edations and Distribution,” Am J. Sei,
(2),
22, BSB.
2 “On the O01 Formation in Michigan and Elsewhere.” Am. J. Sc, Z),
39 (1565), 252.
* Second Ged. Bureey of Pennsylvania, (A), 1875, pp. ZGLS.
5 Ia letiers to the Slate Journal i Parkersburg, Weet Virginia, in 1581
* Gel. Barecy of Olin, 1 (1873, 16.
7“Das Erdal und scime Verwandien,” 34 e1, p 166; “Geologie des
Edis,” p. 18.
* Science, 6, Jaume 26, 1335; Bull. Geol. Boe. Am., 3 (1892), 137-216; and
W. Va. Geo. Survey, 1-A, 194, pp. 48-64.
* Ged. Burecy of Olin, 18%, 6, pp. 21 andGA
8 “Historical Review of Theories Advanced by American Geologisize to
Account for the Origm and Accumulation of O01,” Eeon. Gad, 6, No. 4,
BH.
PF. G Crave, Boon. Ged, 4 (1909), 65-570.
48 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

into classes, each division of which follows a special rule of struc-

ture, and all of which have certain aspects in common.
The classification as elaborated to date, is as follows:

CLASSIFICATION OF PETROLEUM ACCUMULATIONS BASED ON

GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE

Cuass I.—Where anticlinal and synclinal structure exists.

(a) Strong anticlines standing alone. ,
(b) Well-defined anticlines alternating with synclines.
(c) Structural terraces.
(d) Local warpings on monoclinal dip.
(e) Accumulations on monoclines, due to thinning out or
change in texture of the sand.
(f) Broad geanticlinal folds.
(g) Overturned folds.
Cuass II.—Quaquaversal structures.
(a) Anticlinal bulges, or ‘cross anticlines.”
(b) Saline domes.
(c) Volcanic necks.
(d) Perforated domes.
Cuass III.—Joint cracks.
(a)Joint cracks in sedimentary rocks.
(b)Joint cracks in crystalline rocks.
Cuass [V.—Sealed faults.
Cuass V.—Oil sealed in by asphaltic deposits.
Cuiass VI.—Contact of sedimentaries with crystalline rocks.
Class I. Where Anticlinal and Synclinal Structure Exists.—
This is the type of petroleum accumulation with which we are
most familiar. It predominates in a large majority of the known
oil fields of the world, including the Appalachian, Illinois,
Indiana, Mid-Continent, Wyoming, Colorado, northern Louisi-
ana, northern Texas, and some of the California fields in this
country, and Russian, Austrian, Burma, and Borneo fields in
the eastern hemisphere. Class I is divided into seven subclasses,
in order to distinguish between various structural relations in
which oil is found in connection with anticlines and synclines.
Subclass (a). Where Strong Anticlines Exist Standing Alone.
—In this division should be included fields that bear a direct
relation to very pronounced uplifts, easily recognizable, and which
constitute a marked geologic feature of the region. The only
prominent example in the eastern fields of the United States is
 THE GHOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 49

‘EXPLANATIONS
@ Oil Well
x Gas Well
-~ Dry Hole
——~ 900 Structure Contour Lines, showing Elevation
of Washington Coal-Bed above Tide
1%%x% 0 1 2 3 4
Scale of Miles

Fia. 2.—Sketch map of a portion of the Volcano anticline in West Virginia,

to illustrate the occurrence of petroleum according to Subclass I (a). The
oil is found on the flat crest of the highest portions of the anticline. (After
G, P. Grimsley, Rept. W. Va. Geol. Survey, 1910.)
4
50 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

the Volcano anticline in Pleasants, Wood, Ritchie and Wirt

counties in West Virginia. This anticline is 25 miles in length,
and ranges in direction from north 20° west to north 20° east,
from an eighth of a mile to over a mile broad on its flat crest,
and has side-dips in places as high as 20 to 60°. A structural
map of it in part is given in Fig. 2. The anticline differs some-
what in direction from the main Appalachian folds, and was
probably produced by a different set of forces. It is one of the
earliest recognized anticlines in the country, and probably has
had as many wells drilled on it as any other. It has been de-
scribed by White,! Andrews? and Evans. Some of the Cali-
fornia fields which have sharp anticlines probably belong to
this class, and perhaps the Baku fields of Russia should -be
placed here.
Subclass (b). Where Well-defined Alternating Anticlines and
Synclines Exist—With minor exceptions this subclass includes
all pools in the Appalachian field in Pennsylvania, West Virginia,
eastern Kentucky, the fields of southern Indiana and Illinois,
certain Oklahoma fields, part of the Caddo field of Louisiana,
certain fields of northern Texas, Colorado and Wyoming.
The Caddo field has geologically nothing in common with the
Beaumont and Jennings fields and others of the Coastal Plain in
Louisiana and Texas, but it has certain similarities in structure
with the fields of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Illinois.
In northern Louisiana the oil-accumulating structure is afforded
by the Sabine uplift, and the final distribution of oil and gas there
appears to be due to minor anticlines and synclines, accompanied
by differences in porosity of the Upper Cretaceous formations.
Several of the California oil fields also belong in this subclass,
viz.: the Coalinga field and the Los Angeles field, according to
descriptions by Eldridge? and by Arnold and Anderson.4 In
1895, Noetling established the fact that the oil fields of the
Irrawaddy, in Burma, correspond with the structural theory;
and they presumably belong in part in this subclass. The oil
in those fields is directly related in its distribution to anticlines
and domes in the Miocene sandstone.
1[. C. Wurrr, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 10 (1899), 29.
2h. B. ANDREWS, Am. J. Sci., (2), 82, 85-93.
3 Gro. H. Expriver, Bull. 213, U. S. Geol. Survey, pp. 306-321 (1902).
4RatpH ARNOLD and Rospert AnpuRsON, Bull. 367, U. S. Geol. Survey,
pp. 70-71 (1908).
 THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 51

The rocks in the fields comprised in subclass (b) are folded into
alternating anticlines and synclines of moderate dip, which is
seldom as much as 30° from the horizontal. This is thesubclass
to which the anticlinal theory was originally applied. As natural
gas occurs in the upper part of individual sands, or “pay streaks,”
the oil occurs somewhere below the gas, while salt water, when
present, fills the remaining space in the sand, if the latter is
uniformly porous, or occurs in separate ‘‘pays,’’ where the sand
as a whole has not a high degree of porosity. The position of all
these deposits is controlled primarily by force of gravity. Where
oil or salt water occurs higher than gas in the sand, it is presum-
ably due to sharp changes in the dip, or to a multiple nature of
the “‘pay streaks.”
Subclass (b) is illustrated in Fig. 8, where an oil field is
seen occupying the side of an anticline, while a gas field occupies
the crest.
Subclass (c). Structural Terraces are an exaggerated form of the
flattenings of dip which are included in subclass (d). As a rule,
where gas exists, it is found on the outside of the terrace, with oil
on the inside and round the edges, though this is not an infal-
lible rule. The change in the rate of dip forms a local interrup-
tion and seems to be the essential factor.
The effect of terrace structure was first explained and illus-
trated by Edward Orton in 1866.1 In the Findlay field of
northwestern Ohio, described by him, oil and gas were found in
two terraces, separated by a monoclinal dip. The upper terrace
yielded dry gas, the lower terrace yielded oil and water. Orton
gave the name “arrested anticlines” to structural terraces, and
cited the Macksburg field of southern Ohio as an example.”
The terrace structure of the Macksburg field was first recognized
and described by Newhall in the same volume.
During the past two decades, hundreds of similar terrace struc-
tures have been discovered throughout southeastern Ohio,
northern Oklahoma, West Virginia, and, to some extent, in other
states, and most of them are available for oil or gas development.
Generally, though not always, the structure can be practically
determined from the geology of the surface without the necessity
of borings until one is ready to make his test. Other good ex-
amples of terrace structures and relations of oil to them were
1 Science, 7, 563.
2 “Geology of Ohio,” 6 (1888), 94.
 SNOILVNV1TdXq
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 THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 53

shown by Griswold and Munn in Jefferson County, Ohio, and

Fig. 4 is an illustration of this class of structure taken from
their report. |
Subclass I (d). Local Warpings on Monoclinal Dip.—This may
be considered as a less prominent form of I (c), in that the terrace
is not a well-defined one; but there are slight flattenings and
inward and outward warpings with which the oil is associated,

Fia. 4.—Sketch map to illustrate the occurrence of petroleum on structural

terraces, according to Subclass I(c). (After Griswold and Munn. For ex-
planations, see Figs. 3 and 5.)

since these furnish interruptions and thereby facilitate the segre-

gation of the oil pools. One type of these warpings is shown in
Fig. 5, which is an illustration of a small pool in Pike County,
Ohio.
While subclass I (d) has been noticed by the author mostly in
Ohio and Oklahoma, a number of examples have been reported
by Gardner and others in Kentucky and Alabama. The
majority of the oil and gas pools in southeastern Ohio belong in
this subclass. Definite anticlines are not so common in Ohio
1 Bull. 318, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1907.
54 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

as in Pennsylvania and West Virginia, since formations dip only

in one general direction (toward the southeast). However, the
application of the structural theory, properly understood, is
almost as certain of profitable results as it is in Pennsylvania, for
the reason that the dip is not uniform, but varies from flat to
over 5° from the horizontal. Oil and gas can be predicted in
subclass (d) through recognition of the principle that any change
in the rate of dip is to be considered as a possible place of accumu-
lation; and that such a place of accumulation once discovered,

EXPLANATIONS %
ee, 2400 — = Structure Contour Lines Showing
Depth of Clinton Sand Below Sea-Level
Dry Hole
Gas Well
@ Oil Well
0 4 v2 % 1
|
Scale One Mile

Fia. 5.—Example of Subclass I(d). A small oil pool coincident with a

change in monoclinal dip, in Clinton sand fields of southern Ohio, examined
by the author.

the pool can be easily extended (within structural and lithological

limits) by following the lines of horizontality in the sand.
Subclass I (e). Accumulations on Monoclines Owing to Thinning
Out or Change in Texture of the Sand—There are doubtless a
great number of instances of this type; but the best known is
that of the Clinton sand of Ohio (or, in reality, a Medina sand),
which rises from a great depth in the Appalachian basin, and
gradually thins out as it approaches the surface in central Ohio,
so that it never reaches the top of the ground, the feather edge
 SOSSBPOGNY
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THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 55
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 56 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

being hemmed in by shale; thus furnishing an ideal substitute

for an anticline and hence this formation has become a repository
of one of the greatest gas fields in the world, on the lower border
of which are the Bremen, Junction City, Wooster, Straitsville
and other well-known oil fields. A cross-section of the west side
of the Appalachian basin, illustrating subclass I (e), is shown in
Fig. 6. An ideal section of a pinching sand is given in Fig. 10.
Subclass (f). Broad Geanticlinal Folds.—This is an extreme
type of I (a). By a geanticline is meant an anticline which is
extremely long and broad, and constitutes more than a local
feature, extending over thousands or tens of thousands of square
miles. One of the best examples in this country is the Cincinnati
anticline, in which immense reservoirs of oil and gas have been
developed and exhausted, the oil and gas being contained mainly
in the Trenton limestone. Owing to the broad areas under
which oil is found in the Cincinnati anticline, the chances of
success in drilling were originally much better than in other
fields. Most of the pools in the Clinton sand in Ohio are situated
along the eastern flank of the Cincinnati anticline, but these
pools belong under subclass (e) of the classification. A cross-
section of the Trenton limestone field appears in Fig. 6.
Subclass (g). Overturned Folds —Examples of oil and gas occur-
ring in connection with overturned folds are not common, but
some such cases are conspicuous in California, as shown by Arnold
and Johnson,! and they are reported in Galicia and elsewhere.
Class II. Domes or Quaquaversal Structures.—In the classi-
fication of oil deposits, the subdivision entitled ‘‘quaquaversal
structures” is used to include all those structures in which the
oil-sand dips away in all directions from a central point; thus
including the saline domes of Louisiana, certain anticlinal domes
in Oklahoma and West Virginia, the basalt volcanic necks of
Mexico, and the perforated and non-perforated salt domes of
Rumania and Hungary.
Subclass II (a). The Anticlinal-bulge Type.—This structure
merges with the types described in subclasses I (a) and I (6) of
the classification, since practically all anticlines consist of
alternate contractions and bulges where the formations are
respectively depressed or elevated.
The term ‘‘cross-anticline”’ has been sometimes applied to
1 Ratpx ARNoLD and Harry R. Jounson, Bull. 406, U. S. Geol. Survey,
1901, p. 97.
 THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 57

these domes or bulges, but not always correctly so, as, for in-
stance, at Jacksonville, Greene County, Pennsylvania, where
the deepest part of the Ninevah syncline lies directly opposite
the highest part of the dome on the Washington anticline.
Anticlinal bulges are of all shapes and sizes, but those of great
length would hardly be recognized as domes and are not here
considered, since they belong strictly to subclasses I (a) and I
(6). Anticlinal bulges exist in Washington and Greene counties,
Pennsylvania; in Jefferson and Harrison counties, Ohio,? and
in Johnson and Natrona counties, Wyoming.? Wegemann has —
named this last-mentioned feature “the Powder River dome.”
The anticlinal-bulge type of domes has also been observed at
many other places throughout Pennsylvania, West Virginia,
Ohio and Oklahoma. Fig. 7 is an illustration of this type.
‘While natural gas is more common than oil in this type of domes,
oil does occur in some localities, especially where the rocks are
saturated with water.
Subclass II (b). The Saline-dome Type.—This type of qua-
quaversal structure was described by Hayes and Kennedy in
19034 and more fully by Fenneman in 1906.5 The saline domes
of Louisiana were described by Harris in 1908,°, 1909,’ and 1910.8
The saline-dome structure is typical of most of the fields in
Louisiana and Texas within 100 miles of the Gulf of Mexico.
The Caddo field and the north Texas fields, however, are not
included in this type.
In southern Louisiana there are five prominent elevations
known as the ‘‘Five Islands,” or the “South Islands,” which
constitute the most conspicuous landmarks in hundreds of miles

1F, G. Cuapp, Folios 144 and 146, U. S. Geol. Survey: 1907; and W. T.
GriswoLp, Bull. 318, U. 8. Geol. Survey, 1907.
2W. T. GriswoLp, Bull. 198, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1902.
3C, H. Wecemann, Bull. 471-A, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1912.
4C. W. Hayes and Wm. Kunnepy, ‘Oil Fields of the Texas-Louisiana
Gulf Coastal Plain,” Bull. 212, U. S. Geol. Survey.
5N. M. Fenneman, “Oil Fields of the Texas-Louisiana Gulf Coastal
Plain,” Bull. 282, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1906.
6G. D. Harris, Bull. No. 7, “On Rock Salt,” Rept. of 1907, Geol.
Survey of La., 1908.
7 “Geological Occurrence of Rock Salt in Louisiana and East Texas,”’
Econ. Geol., 4, No. 1, 12-34.
8G. D. Harris, “Oil and Gas in Louisiana,” Bull. 429, U. S. Geol.
Survey. ,
 58
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 THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 59

along the Coast of the Gulf of Mexico.! They rise from a few
feet to 200 ft. above marsh level and have been frequently dis-
cussed in literature. In area they are from 200 to 1,500 acres.
Salt is found in all of the Five Islands except Céte Blanche.
It should not be supposed, however, that every dome which
is a saline-dome geologically is evinced on the surface of the
plain by a topographic dome. While instances exist of the
occurrence of mounds or small hills overlying the geological
domes, the topographic dome is not a necessity to the type.
The Welsh and Spindle Top pools and some others are situated
where the surface is practically flat.
The configuration of the strata and the minerals underlying the
saline-domes are matters of much interest and great importance,
as the structure is very different from the normal southeastward
dip of the Cretaceous and Tertiary beds which underlie the
Coastal Plain of Louisiana and Texas. Whether or not there is
any particular surface topography indicating a dome in the
locality, there is a very marked geologic protuberance con-
sisting of a sudden upward warping of the strata, as they ap-
proach the edge of the dome, so that they may stand nearly
vertical round its edges. Several thousand feet of uplift in an
area a mile across is not uncommon in these salines. While
there are no Cretaceous beds of normal structure at the surface
in Louisiana, there are several salines in which these formations
reach the surface in limited areas. Beneath’ the Cretaceous
beds and interlaminated with them in the center of the dome are
extensive deposits of rock salt, sulphur, gypsum and sometimes
other minerals.
In certain other fields an association of salt and sulphur is
found with hydrocarbons. This holds true in Russia, Sumatra,
Java, Japan, Rumania, Germany and Transylvania. Gypsum
and zine blende are occasionally found associated with these
deposits, and pyrite and galenite are reported by at least one
writer.
The term “‘dome”’ refers to the shape of the geologic struc-
ture, which is illustrated by Fig. 8. In the Gulf Coast oil fields,
the underlying formations are domed, whether the surface is
so or not. For instance, at Spindle Top the rock structure
has been carefully determined on the basis of well records and
has been found to have a form similar to that illustrated. The
1A, F. Lucas, Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 29, 464.
60 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

cross-sections of all salines which have been determined show a

similar, more or less, dome-like form, although there are great
differences in local conditions.. As a rule, sands and shales
are penetrated for several hundred feet in depth, then limestone
or dolomite is encountered, below which sulphur, gypsum and
rock salt are found. The character of these minerals is not sup-
posed to have any effect on the existence of oil at the particular
point; but the oil has been accumulated from the surrounding
strata owing to the interruption formed by the upward doming
of the sediments.

Salt Dolomite

Tia. 8.—Cross-section of a typical saline-dome oil field in Texas. (After

Hager.)

Salt is believed to exist in practically all domes of this sub-

class. ‘The salt consists of 98 to 99 per cent. sodium chloride,
except at Belle Isle, La., where it is saturated with oil. Galenite
and sphalerite are also found at Belle Isle in a well drilled on
the center of the dome; and at Sulphur, La., a large dome of
rock sulphur has been found, in place of the salt which might be
expected. Borings made for oil and sulphur at Belle Isle have
revealed limestone, sulphur and escaping waters charged with
hydrogen sulphide and sulphur dioxide, but the oil from these
wells gives no indication of sulphur. This oil has a paraffin
 THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 61

base, is 45° Bé. in gravity, and is somewhat lighter in color than

Pennsylvania petroleum.'
Although the oil seems to occur on the saline-domes and to
accord with the anticlinal theory, it must be acknowledged that
it is frequently found around the base of a dome and that there
is no certainty where the oil originated. Attempts to discover
its source by deep drilling have generally been abandoned, owing
to the great depth of well necessary. Since the question of the
origin and mode of accumulation of the oil in the domes is
intimately concerned with the origin of the domes themselves,
even the geologists who are most familiar with these structures
seem to have abandoned any systematic attempt to explain
them. Some persons who are familiar with the Louisiana struc-
tures believe that the saline-domes are simply the results of crys-
tallization of the salt on a large scale along lines of weakness in
the strata, presumed to be the crossing points of faults. Others
believe that the salt and other minerals have been deposited
by circulating currents of hot water. Still others suppose that
the domes overlie large masses of igneous rock similar to the
basalt domes of Mexico, but which have not reached the surface.
An ingenious European theory is that the domes of Germany,
Transylvania and Rumania have been caused by the lateral
flowing of beds of salt into the domes owing to pressure in the
_ overlying and underlying strata. So many theories, all with
their advocates and all accompanied by equally good arguments,
go a long way to support the view that all material theories must
in time give way to something better than material.
Subclass II (c). Volcanic Neck Type.—The Coastal Plain of
Mexico contains oil fields connected with several types of geologic
structure, of which one at least is quaquaversal. This type
consists of necks of basalt and similar rocks which rise through the
Cretaceous and Tertiary sediments in the Coastal Plain, to ele-
vations of several hundred feet. While little drilling has as yet
been done in the vicinity of the necks, and the geologic structure
is therefore somewhat speculative, the general cross-section is
presumed to be somewhat as in Fig. 9, although recent investi-
gations have indicated that the walls of the basalt are much
steeper than shown and even re-entrant. In close proximity the
formations have been domed upward, forming pockets or places
of change in dip at the base of the upheavals and surrounding
1 Bull. No. 7, Geol. Survey of La., 1908.
62 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

them, where large deposits of oil have accumulated. In the

Tamasopo limestone and San Felipe beds, these oil deposits were
presumably concentrated from surrounding portions of the same
strata, owing to the upheavals mentioned, possibly with the
assistance of heat. The presence of the oil accumulations sur-
rounding the necks are sometimes, although not always, evinced
by large seepages of oil in the immediate vicinity.
The superficial deposits of Mexico are so deep that, whether or
not the limestone beds actually reach the surface of the Coastal
Plain is sometimes a matter of conjecture; but at any rate the
underlying beds are domed upward by the intrusions, and it is
a fact that pockets of oil generally exist there. It would appear

Scale of Miles
yy 4

Oil Well
Surface Sands Frssst Seepages Seepages
ERS whitions
Clays, Marls, S2
Ss]== ——- ee
Ly

hers a3 aye
x y 5 ae
. Voleanic Neck
(ey, Lss7 ie x
Tamasopo i, ‘ of Basalt
Limestone
ae Py

aaa
roo
Fra. 9.—Hypothetical cross-section of a voleanic neck in the Coastal
eT of Mexico, showing the occurrence of petroleum according to Subclass
Cs

that large deposits of oil might be expected in the vicinity of

such intrusive masses in all cases where porous sands exist
overlaid by a suitable cover to prevent the escape of oil. Where
the impervious covering or cap-rock is unusually massive or
thick, without fractures, seepages may not exist, although they
do exist in the vicinity of most of the necks, generally not far
from their base. Seepages also exist along the sides of dikes
which radiate from the volcanic necks; and one case was seen
where asphaltic oil was flowing down the sides of a cone from a
breccia included in the basalt 50 to 60 ft. above the surrounding
 THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 63

plain. It is supposed that this oil entered the basalt through

fissures, which extend into the neck from the oil sand, and that
the existence and consequent escape of the oil through the basalt
was caused by the great pressure under which it exists in the
sand.
The volcanic necks of olivine-basalt are scattered at wide
intervals throughout the Gulf Coastal Plain of Mexico. The
greatest center of volcanic activity in the Mexican Coastal
Plain was the Otontepec and Tantima range of mountains,
several thousand feet in height, in the State of Vera Cruz. The
volcanic activity seems to have become less at increasing dis-
tances from these mountains and had practically disappeared be-
fore reaching the Rio Grande River. The majority of the
volcanic necks are only a few hundred feet in height, and some
of them less than 100-ft., so that many such necks presumably
exist which never reached the surface.
While the largest seepages in Mexico are within a few miles
of the Otontepec Mountains, seepages are also found in Amatlan,
Tancoco, Tepezintla, Chapapote, Juan Casiano, Cerro Azul,
and many other localities. Many of these seepages are asso-
ciated with voleanic rocks. The geologic relations of the
necks make it certain that they are of more recent origin than
the Coastal Plain sediments, although very often no disturbance
of the strata can be discovered surrounding them. In the
vicinity of the Otontepec Mountains, however, there are great
uplifts which bring the sedimentary rocks many hundred feet
above sea level, and in them numerous dikes and intrusive beds
of igneous rock have been seen. The most important point
is that numerous seepages encircle the conical basalt hills.
Lest it should be supposed that the volcanic neck form of
structure is given undue prominence in Mexican occurrences, it
may be well to mention that this is described simply as the
principal quaquaversal tupe noticed by the author among several
other Mexican types of structure. Oil fields also exist in Mexico
along dikes and faults, on anticlines and probably on other kinds
of domes than the one described.
Subclass II (d). Perforated Domes.—In Transylvania and
Rumania the saline dome type of structure has frequently
reached an exaggerated phase, owing to the facts that the dome-
shaped salt masses have reached the surface of the earth and
that the surrounding strata have been compressed outward
64 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

to such an extent that they stand vertical or even overturned

in a circle surrounding the dome. In Rumania large oil fields
are found in such structures, which are known to European
geologists as ‘‘domes penetré,”’ or perforated domes. While
this type of oil-bearing structure may exist in America, it is not
known to the author. It is true that in New Brunswick certain
gypsum deposits appear to be of similar structure and probable
origin, but they are not supposed. to contain oil on account of
the greater age and metamorphism of the desposits.
An evidence that interruption in structure is the concentrating
factor comes from the Louisiana and Texas fields, where hun-
dreds of wells have been drilled at a distance from the saline

ee
ee

Iia. 10.—Ideal section of a pinching sand, showing the relations of gas, oil
and water according to Subclass I(e).

domes, with a result that no oil was found. In this class of fields,
as in the monoclinal and anticlinal types, the evidence seems to
be that the oil has been widely disseminated in the porous strata
and that it has ultimately been accumulated at favorable points
where the regularity of the dip has been locally changed, or
where it is interrupted by water, gas, dikes, faults, or by pinching
out of strata.
Class III, In Joint Cracks.—There are a few fields in which oil
occurs in the joint and cleavage fissures in shale. This is true,
for instance, in the Florence field of Colorado, where, as stated by
Campbell,! even at depths as great as 1,000 ft., the drill has some-
times struck cavities which contain oil; and the lines of the
best wells are parallel to the joint crack systems. Such an
occurrence of oil is unusual, but it is probable that many small
1 Op. cit., p. 86.
 THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 65

pools throughout the world, and some which appear to bear no

definite relations to geologic structure, are in reality situated
along joint cracks. In the Florence field the oil appears to be
held in fissures of a broad syncline in shale.
Petroleum and solid bitumen have been noticed by various
observers in traps, basalts, and other igneous rocks. An inter-
esting instance was mentioned by Logan! in a greenstone dike
at Tar Point, Gaspe, in the Province of Quebec. Another
instance is reported by Rateau in trachite in Galicia,? and one
in the United States, mentioned by Lakes,’ is a volcanic dike
in Archeluta County, Colorado.
Another unpublished occurrence, contributed by David T.
Day, of oil in igneous rock, refers to a boulder of vesicular
basalt from Colorado, in which the vesicles were filled with oil;
the latter had been sealed in by a secondary deposit of calcium
carbonate, and, by removing this, it could all be extracted, and
the basalt left intact. Thus the external origin of oil was deemed
probable.
- In the vicinity of Binny Craig, Scotland, a volcanic neck or
pipe was encountered in an oil-shale working. This dike con-
sists of trap, and contains cavities in which mineral wax, pitch
or paraffin was found.*
These instances are not, however, in the opinion of the author,
due necessarily to the oil having had an igneous origin, but may
be equally well accounted for by the fact that the volcanic rock
was intruded from below into the sedimentary formations which
contained the oil, and consequently the voleanic rock may have
absorbed large quantities of bitumen in ascending to the surface.
Moreover, in an instance like that in Mexico there are a great
many crevices in the volcanic necks, and these are sufficient to
allow oil to enter them from the surrounding Tertiary and
Cretaceous formations, and thence ascend to the surface.
Class IV. Sealed Faults—The known examples of this class
consist of some of the pools in the Los Angeles field and some of
those in the Lompoc field in California, described by Arnold.®
In these cases the highly inclined oil-sands are cut off abruptly
1§$rr Witiram Logan, “Geology of Canada,” 1863, pp. 400-789.
2 Ann. Mines, (8), 11, 150, 152. ©
3 ArTHUR Laxgs, ‘‘ Mineral Resources of the U. S.,” 1901, p. 561.
4 Henry M. Canpett, ‘Oil-shale Fields of the Lothians,” Trans. Inst.
Min. Eng., 22, pt. 3, 347-353.
5RatpH ARNOLD, Bull. 309, U. S. Geol. Survey, 1907.
5
 66
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 THE GEOLOGY OF PETROLEUM 67

below ground by a fault, thus sealing in the oil and gas and pre-
venting their escape to the surface. To explain the probability
that such occurrences are more frequent than is known, it may
be worth while to mention the fact that oil springs frequently
occur along fault lines. Some of these instances exist in British
Columbia and others in Gaspé, Quebec. The type is illustrated
in Fig. 11. Several of the Oklahoma oil pools have recently
been discovered to be associated with faults, but seepages do
not exist along them.
Class V. Sealed-in by Asphaltic Deposits——Known examples
of this class, like the last, are few, but they may be perhaps exem-
plified by the Pitch Lake of Trinidad, near which oil is known to
‘exist. Some of the oil found near the vein.of grahamite at
Ritchie mines, West Virginia, described by White,! may belong
in this class, although these deposits are also dependent in their
original accumulation upon anticlinal and synclinal structure,
as in subclass I (6).
The source of the grahamite dike in Ritchie County, West
Virginia, is believed to have been the Cairo oil-sand, at a depth
of about 1,300 ft. from the surface; and there is no doubt that,
now or at an earlier period, a portion of the oil was prevented
from escaping by the grahamite.
Similarly, the source of the albertite dike in Albert County,
New Brunswick, is believed to have been oil intruded from
petroliferous strata in the Albert shales.2 The albertite is an
oxygenated hydrocarbon filling a large vertical fissure in a fine-
grained shale of lower Carboniferous or Devonian age. The
albertite fissure was as much as 17 ft. wide in some places and
was mined to a depth of 1,300 ft. It also fills many branch veins
in the wall rock.
The uintaite (gilsonite) of Utah has been shown by Eldridge
to occupy a fractured zone in the central Uinta synclinal basin.
There are many parallel vertical veins of gilsonite from }/¢ in.
to 18 ft. in width, and from a few hundred yards to 8 or 10 miles
in length, paralleling the mountains which border the basin.
To illustrate the importance of bitumen dikes in indicating
petroleum and gas, it may be said that the grahamite dike of
West Virginia is in the center of one of the greatest oil and
gas regions in the world; that the albertite of New Bruns-
1T. C. Wuitx, Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 10 (1899), 277-284.
2 BarLey, Geol. Survey Canada, 1876-77, 354 et seq.
68 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

wick is only a few miles from the Stony Creek oil and gas field;
that the uintaite dikes of Utah lead, in a general direction, to-
ward oil which is found over the boundary in Colorado; and that
oil fields are now being developed on the Island of Trinidad, on
which the Pitch Lake is situated.
Class VI. Contact of Sedimentaries with Crystalline Rocks.—
Aside from the occurrences of subclass II (c), there are no known
occurrences of oil according to this type; but gas does exist in
this way in the Provinces of Quebee and Ontario and in north-
ern New York State, and oil presumably does in some locality.
The gas is contained in the lower or arkose zone of the Potsdam
sandstone, resting directly upon the underlying granite or
gneiss. The deposits seem, so far as the author has been able
to learn from men who know the fields, to occur on top of buried
granitic knobs.
Features Common to All Types of Geological Structure.—
Although there seems to be quite a discrepancy between oil fields
of different subclasses, they are all similar in certain respects.
In the first place, in order to hold the oil, the structures must
combine several factors necessary in every oil field, vzz.: (1)
a porous or open reservoir; (2) a relatively impervious cover; and
(3) some sort of geological structure by which the oil, gas and
water may have been separated from each other and the oil
concentrated in one locality. In anticlinal, synclinal and dome-
shaped fields the structure or folding of the beds has acted as
the third factor; hence we should expect to find gas nearest
the crest of the anticline or dome, water farthest down dip and
oil between, frequently at the locality of greatest change in
dip.
In a scientific study of any oil field, for the purpose of deter-
mining its possibilities, it is necessary for the expert to dis-
tinguish the features in common with other fields from those in
which the fields differ; and by a process of comparison and
inference, based on the detailed observations and calculations,
to draw his conclusions as to whether: or not the locality is
favorable for petroleum.
 CHAPTER III

THE DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM IN THE UNITED

STATES

The General Distribution of Petroleum.—It is usual to group

the oil pools of the United States in certain fields. The im-
portant of these are the Appalachian, Lima-Indiana, Illinois,
Mid-Continent, Gulf Coast, California, Colorado, and Wyoming.
In addition, small areas have been developed or prospected in
Michigan, Utah, Missouri, Arizona, New Mexico, Alaska, etc.!
Such grouping not only represents the geographic arrangement
convenient with regard to the accessibility of the fields to the
markets, but also indicates certain more or less fundamental
characteristics of the petroleums and their consequent adapt-
ability to refining methods.’
Appalachian Field.—This field covers a very large area, but is
no longer the most.important, as it supplies but little over 10
per cent. of the country’s production. It embraces all oil pools
east of central Ohio, including those of New York, Pennsylvania,
West Virginia, southeastern Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee.
Nearly all of this petroleum is classed as of Pennsylvania grade,
with the exception of some of the oil from Kentucky and from
a few isolated pools in other states. The region in general
represents the oldest oil field of the United States. Most of the
pools have long since passed their prime, and in New York and
Pennsylvania production is kept alive chiefly by cleaning and
deepening old wells or by obtaining oil from shallow sands which
were passed by as too small when the wells were first drilled.
Nevertheless, no pool has been entirely abandoned as exhausted,
and wells are still being pumped within a few yards of the original
Drake well at Titusville, Pa. In West Virginia and on the
eastern edge of Ohio are many pools long since on the wane, but
the extension of territory and the discovery of new pools is still
in actual progress in West Virginia, central Ohio, and Kentucky.
1 For a consideration of the petroleum resources of the United States,
see ARNOLD, Econ. Geol., Dec., 1915.
2 See p. 447 et seq.
69
70 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Prospecting is still active in Tennessee, but so far without

definitive results.
The petroliferous rocks, which range from Ordovician to
Carboniferous in age, are chiefly sandstones, with a few lime-
stones, embedded in and underlain by a great thickness of
shales, while below these are probably limestone beds. The oil-
bearing rocks occupy the bottom and west side of a great struc-
tural trough, within which are a number of subordinate folds.
The sands range in depth from 100 to 4,000 ft.
The petroleums obtained from the Appalachian field have been
of high grade, free from objectionable sulphur and from asphalt,
but rich in paraffin wax. They are simplest in composition and
are capable of yielding products of the highest grade at a mini-
mum refining cost. The Kentucky and Tennessee oils are inferior
to those of Pennsylvania.
Lima-Indiana Field——The petroleum in this field was found
in Trenton limestone. It contains little asphalt, but is con-
taminated with sulphur compounds and requires special treat-
ment.! Once freed from the objectionable sulphur compounds,
the products are of high grade. The output declined in this
field continuously from 1904 to 1914.2 In 1911 oil was found in
the Trenton limestone at a depth of about 1,000 ft. below the
previous pools.
Illinois Field—This field has declined since 1910. This does
not presage exhaustion, but rather what may be regarded as
settled production for a long time, unless the production should
be increased by the discovery of new oil pools. The main por-
tion of the field is associated with a structural feature known as
the La Salle anticline, extending from the northeastern part of
the State into southwestern Indiana. The petroleum is thick,
asphaltic, and contains sulphur in the northern portion; but in the
southern part of the field it is found at a greater depth (2,200+
ft.), is thinner, and contains little or no sulphur. Most of the
Illinois oils can be refined without the employment of any special
process, but only with great care and with small yields of certain
of the more valuable products. The oil sands are of Carbonif-
erous age.
Mid-Continent Field—This field includes the oil pools of
Kansas, Oklahoma, Caddo and De Soto, La., and northern
1 See pp. 609 and 611.
2 See p. 256.
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 DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM IN UNITED STATES 71

Texas. The petroleums of Kansas and Oklahoma are in general

found in Carboniferous sandstones, while those of northern
Texas and Louisiana occur in Cretaceous formations. Petro-
leums of this field vary in composition within wide limits. Most
of the Kansas oils are asphaltic, but in Oklahoma petroleums of
both paraffin- and asphalt-base are found. The crude petroleum
of the Healdton field in Oklahoma is of lower grade than the
crude oils from the Glenn pool and Cushing field, on account of
the lower gasoline content and the large percentage of sulphur
present which is removed with difficulty.!_ In northern Louisiana
and Texas, paraffin-base petroleums, free from sulphur, pre-
dominate, but asphaltic oils of higher gravity have also been
found.
Gulf Field—Within this field are included a number of areas
lying in the Coastal Plain region, the pools of southern Texas
and southern Louisiana. The petroleums have been found in
association with salt domes,? which also carry limestone and
gypsum. The crude oils possess some of the characteristics of
the petroleum from Baku; they are usually heavy, asphaltic and
sulphurous, but occasionally lighter, nonasphaltic ones also occur.
The total amount of sulphur present in the petroleums of the
Gulf field is higher than that of the oils of the Mid-Continent
field. The Gulf field oils are even higher in sulphur than those
of the Lima-Indiana field, though the sulphur can usually be
more readily removed from the former than from the latter.
California Field—This State is now the leading producer, the
output coming from a number of fields, which differ so that it
is indeed difficult to generalize regarding them. The California
petroleums have been usually characterized by much asphalt,
although in recent years not a few lighter ones have been found.
They are often in rocks that have been much disturbed.®

1 See refining results given on p. 499. Cf. ‘‘Conditions in the Healdton

Oil Field,’’ Bureau of Corporations, Washington, D. C., 1915.
2 The similarity of the petroleum in all the pools of the Gulf field has been
ascribed to the fact that it all occurs under essentially the same conditions
in connection with salt domes, which are peculiar to the Gulf region. See
G. D. Harris, Science, N. S., 27 (1908), 347; Bull. La. Geol. Survey, No.
7, pp. 5-59, 1908; zbid., pp. 59-83; Econ. Geol., 4 (1909), 12.
3 On anticlinal dome structure in California oil fields, see Hacmr, Western
Eng., 3 (1913), 196. On the oil geology of California, see especially Bull.
No. 69 of the California State Mining Bureau, 1914.
72 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

The following table gives a summary of the occurrences of

petroleum in the principal fields.'
Taste IV.—SumMmarizeD TABLE oF OIL OcCURRENCES IN THE UNITED
STATES

Field Structure Geologic age Kind of rock Kind of petroleum

Appalachian. Geo-syncline Ordovician to Mostly sand- Paraffin-base?

with subordi-) Carbonifer- stone.
nate anti- | ous.
clines.

Lima-Indiana.| Anticlines. Ordovician. Mostly lime- Paraffin-base.

stone.

Illinois. Low anti- |Carbonifer- Sandstones. Paraffin-base and

clines (?). ous. paraffin-asphalt
base.

Michigan. Probably an-|Silurian. Sandstones. Paraffin-base.

ticlines.

Mid-Conti- |Westerly dip|/Carbonifer- Shales, sand- Paraffin-, asphalt-,

nent. with some! ous. ‘stones, and paraffin-as-
anticlines. mostly phalt base.

Wyoming. Usually Carbonifer- Mostly sand- Paraffin- and as-

folded. ous to Terti- stone phalt-base.
ary.

Colorado. Folded. Cretaceous. Sandstone Paraffin-base.

and shale.

Gulf Coast. |Domes. Tertiary and Dolomite and \Mainly asphalt-

Cretaceous. sandstone. base.

California. Folded and |Tertiary. Sandstones, Mainly asphalt-

faulted. shales, and base.
conglomer-
ates.

Alaska. Folded and |Jurassic to Sandstones Paraffin-base.

faulted. Tertiary. and shales.

1Rres and Wartson’s ‘Engineering Geology,” 1914, p. 570; see also

Riss’ “Economic Geology,” 3d ed., p. 68 et seq.
2 On paraffin-base petroleums, see pp. 447 and 456.
3 On petroleums of paraffin-asphalt base, see p. 447.
 DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM IN UNITED STATES 73

The production of the various fields follows.

Taste V.—Quantity, Tora, VALUE, AND AVERAGE Prick PER BARREL

Recerved at WELLS FOR PETROLEUM PRODUCED IN THE UNITED
STATES IN 1912, 1913 anp 1914, By Freups, in Barrets.!

1912 1913

Field Aver- Aver-

age age
Quantity Value price | Quantity Value price
per per
barrel barrel

Appalachian........ 26,388,516| $42,818,384/$1.626| 25,921,785! $63,708,981\$2.458

Lima-Indiana....... a 4,925,906} a 4,794,783) 0.932 4,773,138 6,588,068} 1.380
Mllinoisse seco wie tees 28,601,308 24,332,605} 0.851| 23,893,899 30,971,910} 1.296
Mid-Continent......| 65,473,345 45,300,669] 0.692} 84,920,225 80,767,758) 0.951
GQulisacee closet ae 8,545,018 6,344,173] 0.742 8,542,494 7,993,997| 0.936
Californiat.: cesses b 87,272,593} b 39,624,501] 0.454) 97,788,525 45,709,400} 0.467
Colorado and Wy-
COTTE Go ngurete 1,778,358 998,131) 0.561 2,595,321 1,362,011) 0.525
OER Or HTELAS esr ota wianere scares, siete hate. 61te ese eersaere| needles ecd c 10,843 c 19,265) 1.227

Motal ices: 222,935,044| $164,213,247|$0.737| 248,446,230) $237,121,388|/$0.954

a Includes Michigan. 6 Includes Alaska. c Includes Alaska, Michigan, Missouri, and

New Mexico.

1914
Field :
Quantity Value Porous

APDAIACHIAT fs.
oo ne5,0 ee 24,101,048 | $45,239,201 | $1.877
HonMaslncdianea ss ee rants ot 5,062,543 5,983,356 1.182
HI OIS ee ers see ee oe toe 21,919,749 | 25,426,179 1.160
Mid-Continent sm.-0e a6 onsen 97,995,400 | 78,671,902 0.803
(Ciibhe siendiate Ata enemy Pun eS 13,117,528 8,844, 104 0.674
Californias meter ke 99,775,327 | 48,066,096 0.482
Colorado and Wyoming.......... 3,783,148 1,880,086 0.497
Alaska, Michigan and Missouri.... 7,792 14,291 1.834

AONE f, ccocmo trek emacs oyBikae roe 265,762,535 |$214,125,215 $0. 806

1 Mineral Resources of the United States, 1913, ii, 145; The Mineral
Industry, 23 (1915), 553; Mineral Resources of the United States, 1914,
ii, 906.
74 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Turn GroaGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM IN THE UNITED STATES

Alabama There is a show of oil in wells.in the northwestern part of

Alabama, but there are no producing wells. In the
Tennessee valley, in the northern part of the State, there
are tar-springs, oozings, and other indications of the pres-
ence of petroleum. Two wells were completed in 1912;
both were dry. There were no drilling operations in 1913.
In 1914, unsuccessful efforts were made to discover oil
in Chilton and Jackson counties.
On oil prospects in Alabama, see P. Byrnu, Proc. Eng. Assn.
South, 21 (1910), 167. On the Fayette gas field, see M. J.
Munn, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 471 (1912).

Alaska Petroleum occurs in Alaska at Cape Yakthe; near the mouth of

Copper River, in the Controller Bay district; on the west
shore of Cook Inlet; and in the region of Cold Bay. Some
well drilling has been conducted in the Cook Inlet region;
both petroleum and gas were found. Three wells were
drilled in the Cold Bay region in 1903; in one a heavy oil
was encountered. Wells have also been drilled at Katalla,
in the Controller Bay district; oil was found in some
quantity (see THompson, Min. Sci. Press, 105 (1912),
169). In 1914, the Katalla field yielded a small output of
petroleum. :
On the petroleum deposits of Alaska, see A. H. Brooks, Trans.
Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 35 (1905), 376; Bull. U. S. Geol.
Survey, No. 394, pp. 172-207 (1910); H. Horr, Petroleum,
5 (1910), 741; G. C. Marin, Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, No.
225, pp. 365-382 (1904); Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 250
(petroleum fields of the Pacific coast of Alaska); Bull. U.S.
Geol. Survey, No. 259, pp. 128-139 (1905); W. T. Prossmr,
Eng. Min. J., 91 (1911), 1098; Mines and Minerals, 31
(1911), 731 (Katalla field); P. C. Sromss, Min. Sci. Press,
87 (1903), 65 (Kayak field); and Ann. Rept. Gov. Alaska to
Secy. of Interior, 1903. See especially, however, Bull.
U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 467 (1911) by W. W. Arwoop;
and Brooks, Bull. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1915, No. 98, 199.

Arizona Petroleum is said to be found in Mohave County (sandstone

saturated with petroleum); in traces in water wells at
Douglas in Cochise; and in the Mammoth District in Pinal.
One well was completed in 1912; it was a dry hole. <A test
well was begun in 1914, in Tonto Basin, Gila County.
Asphalt has been reported to occur on the Great Colorado
Plateau.

Arkansas In four counties in Arkansas five wells were drilled in 1913 in

search of petroleum, but with no result (dry). Fayetteville,
 DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM IN UNITED STATES 75

Washington County, has produced petroleum, which occurs

in a shale of the Carboniferous limestone series. Asphalt
is said to occur in Madison and Scott counties. Natural
gas has been obtained in Sebastian County since 1902.
Test wells for petroleum were begun in 1914, at or near
Ozark and Meg, Franklin County; Paris, Logan County;
Hope, Hempstead County; and De Queen, Sevier County.

California |Petroleum is the most important mineral product of California,

the leading State in the 1914 production of oil. The
principal fields in order of importance are the Midway-
Sunset, Coalinga, Whittier-Fullerton, Kern River, Lost
Hills-Belridge, Lompoc-Santa Maria, McKittrick, Los
Angeles, Ventura County-Newhall, Summerland, and Wat-
sonville. There are also numerous indications of oil in
Devils Den, Kreyenhagen, and Kettleman Hills districts,
southern San Luis Obispo County; Parkfield and Lone-
oak districts, and west of Bradley, western Monterey
County; San Antonio River district, southern Monterey
County; Sargent and Moody Gulch districts, Santa Clara
County; western San Mateo County; Vallecitos district,
San Benito County; Livermore district, Alameda County;
western Contra Costa County; Colusa County; and in
southern Humboldt County. The production of the State
amounted to 99,775,327 bbl. in 1914.
On the oil prospects of the Cantua-Panoche region, Cal., see R.
AnpERsoN, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 431, pp. 58-87
(1910). On fields, see M. AnaEx, 10th Ann. Rept. State
Mineral. Cal., 1890, 219 (Kern County); tbid., 345 (Mon-
terey County); 7bid., 567 (San Luis Obispo County); R.
ARNOLD, Bull. U.S.Geol. Survey, No. 285, pp. 357-61 (1906)
(Salt Lake field); zbid., No. 309, pp. 138-198 (1907) (Los
Angeles district); ibid., No. 321 (1907) (Summerland dis-
trict); ibid., No. 340, pp. 339-342 (1908) (Miner Ranch
field); Compt. rend. Cong. internat. Pétrole, sess. 3, 2 (1910),
365 (Santa Maria district); C. Bartow, Petrol. Rev., 6 (1902),
16 (Kern County fields); and C. T. Dnans, Petrol. Rev., 7,
(1902), 183 and 641. On oil prospects of Cuyama Valley,
Cal., see W. A. Enatisy, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No.
621-M. On the McKittrick field, see W. G. Youna, Eng.
Min. J., T1 (1901), 30; and on the Coalinga field, see zdid.,
403. On petroleum in northern Cal., see A. H. WzBrER,
7th Ann. Rept. State Mineral. Cal., 1887, 193. On the
petroliferous formations of Central Valley, Cal., see W. L.
Watts, Bull. Cal. State Min. Bur., No. 3, 1894; see also
Min. Sci. Press, T9 (1899), 144, 172. P. W. PrurzmMan
has discussed ‘‘ Petroleum in California,” in Petrol. Rev., 9
(1903), 331, 351, 395, 424 and 435; as has E. O’Neixy in
Compt. rend. Cong. internat. Chem. appl., sess. 5, 2 (1904),
76 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
a

760. On California petroleum in 1914, see Requa, Eng.

Min. J., Jan. 16, 1915, 139.
For a full account of the petroleum industry of California, see
Bull. No. 69, Cal. State Min. Bur., 1914. On petroleum in
southern California, see the special bulletin by P. W.
PruTzMAn, issued by the same Bureau in 1913.

Colorado The Colorado oil fields are as follows: Boulder County, Boulder
oil field, 3 miles northeast of Boulder; high-grade light
illuminating oil. Fremont County, south of Florence;
field 10-20 sq. miles. Mesa County, small wells near
De Beque. Routt County, Yampa field; used as lubricant.
Rio Blanco County, Rangely oil district. Petroleum has
been found also in Archuleta, Pueblo, Crowley, Moffat
and Garfield counties. The total Colorado production
amounted to 222,773 bbl. in 1914.
Oil-shales occur in Delta and Garfield counties; extensively
developed, geologically, constituting the greater part of the
rocks of the Green River formation (Eocene). In the
Book Cliffs, the richer rock occurs in bands, about 50 in
number, from 2 to 15 ft. thick. Destructive distillation
gives from 15 to 35 per cent. of condensed hydrocarbons,
and 10 to 20 per cent. of gas. These shales are a pro-
spective source of lubricating oil. On oil-shales of north-
western Colorado, see WooprurrF and Day, Bull. U.S. Geol.
Survey, No. 681, 1914.
For the histories of the Colorado oil regions, see Laxus, Mines
and Minerals, 23 (1903), 399. The geology of the White
River district is described by F. M. Enpiicw in Ann. Rept.
U.S. Geol. Survey Territories, 10 (1878), 61-131, wherein,
on pp. 135-159, is given a catalogue of Colorado minerals.
On the oil fields of Colorado, see N. M. Fenneman, Bull.
U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 218, pp. 322-32 (1903) (Boulder
field); ibid., No. 225, pp. 383-91 (1904) (structure of
Boulder field); ibid., No. 260, pp. 436-40 (1905) (Florence
field); H. S. Gaun, ibid., No. 850 (1908) (Rangely district);
A, Laxus, Mines and Minerals, 19, 477; 21, 981; 22, 107
(prospects); Bull. Sch. Mines Colo., 1 (1901), 221 (geology);
Mines and Minerals, 22 (1902), 150 (Rio Blanco County);
Mining Sci., 62 (1911), 235, 311 (general), 341 (Boulder
field), 367 (Florence field); and J. S. Newserry, Proc.
Am. Assn., 87 (1887), 186 (general).

Connecti- While bitumen is widely distributed in the amygdaloidal trap

cut rocks traversing the Trias of Connecticut at Hartford,
Farmington, New Britain, Middleton, Meriden, and South-
bury, and elaterite occurs at Woodbury, petroleum has not
 DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM IN UNITED STATES 77

been found. See J. G. Percrvat, ‘Report on the Geology

of the State,” New Haven, 1842; and Am. J. Sci., (3), 16,
130 (on “indurated bitumen.’’)

Delaware The occurrence of bituminous substances has not been reported.

District of None of the bituminous substances occurs commercially.

Columbia

Florida It is said that the Eocene beds of Juliette in Marion County

are petroliferous. Pockets of gas of no commercial value
-were penetrated in a test well begun during 1914, near
Kissimmee, Osceola County.

Georgia Petroleum has been reported in the Trenton Limestone of Dal-

ton, Whitfield County; also in Floyd County, near Rome.
There is little probability of commercial production. A test
well was begun in 1914 near Waycross, Ware County.

Idaho It has been reported that a fuel oil was found in Neogene lacus-
trine deposits along the Snake River, near Warm Springs
Ferry.
On oil prospects near Payette, Idaho, see C. W. WasuBurne,
Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 481, pp. 22-55 (1911).

Illinois In the shallow fields of southeastern Illinois, the Clark, Cumber-

land, Coles, and Edgar County fields (shallow oil-sand terri-
tory) showed a very low but steady yield of oil in 1912 and
1913. Like the shallow fields, the Crawford County area,
with its 900-ft. sands, was rapidly developed and drained,
and is maintaining a low but steady yield. Lawrence
County is the richest oil-producing area in the State. There
are seven sands from 450 to 1,985 ft. in depth that produce
large quantities of high-grade oil. There are at present 36
producing wells with a daily production of about 700 bbl.
in Wabash County. In south-central and western Illinois,
the Carlyle pool, 3 miles northwest of Carlyle in Clinton
County, has shown a steady decline in the past two years.
The Sandoval pool in Marion County, had, in 1913, 112 pro-
ducing wells. Both the Sandoval and the Carlyle pools
have been profitable because of their continued yield. The
Carlinville pool, 2 miles south of Carlinville, in Macoupin
County, yielded about 200 bbl. per day during 1913.
In 1913, Iltnois produced 23,893,899 bbl. of petroleum; 1,363
oil wells were drilled in that year. The sharp decline in
production, beginning in 1912, appears to correspond with
the decrease in new development in the deep Lawrence
County pools. The opening of new fields would probably
78 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
os nnn EEE

reverse the situation. In 1914, the production amounted to

21,919,749 bbl. valued at $25,426,179.
The southeastern Illinois oil field has been described by HSE:
Bain, Min. Sci. Press, 92 (1906), 326; in a later paper BAIn
describes the various Illinois fields fiom, 99,153). On the
petroleum resources of Illinois, see R. 8. Buarcuiey, Bull.
Geol. Survey Ill., No. 16, 1911; Petrol. Rev., 25 (1911), 101;
Nat. Gas J., 5 (1911), No. 3, 17; and Eng. Min. J., 91
(1911), 92; 93 (1912), 95. On the petroleum industry
of southeastern Illinois, see Buatcutny, Bull. Geol.
Survey Ill., No. 2, 1906. For an account of the Carlyle
field, see E. W. SuHaw’s report issued by the University of
Tllinois in 1912; and H. A. Wurnter, Eng. Min. J., 92
(1911), 63; see zbid., 355, for a description of the various
fields in the State. On Illinois petroleum in 1914, see
Buatrcuiey, Lng. Min. J., Jan. 16, 1915, 136. Buatrcuiey
has also discussed oil in Bond, Macoupin and Montgomery
counties, the oil fields of Crawford and Lawrence counties,
and the Plymouth fields in special reports of the State Geol.
Survey, Ill., 1914.

Indiana There are producing wells in the following counties: Adams,

Blackford, Daviess, Delaware, Gibson, Grant, Greene,
Hamilton, Huntington, Jay, Perry, Pike, Randolph, Sulli-
van, Vigo, and Wells. The production in 1913 amounted to
956,095 bbl. ‘The petroleum industry of Indiana developed
rapidly between the years 1891 and 1904, but the production
declined steadily from 1905 to 1914, when 1,335,456 bbl.
were produced.
On the petroleum fields of Indiana, see Epw. Barrer, Rept.
Depi. Geol. Nat. Res. Ind., 1914; A. C. Bunupicr, 17th
Ann. Rept. Geol. Ind., 1892, 306-325; W. S. Buarcuiry,
Ann. Rept. Ind. Geol. Survey, 31 (1907), 559-593 (Prince-
ton field); zbid., 20 to 33 (industry); J. Cotnert, Ann.
Rept. Geol. Survey Ind., 4 (1872), 291-337; ibid., 5 (1874),
315-382 (Knox County); ibid., 8, 9, 10 (1879), 291-522
(Harrison and Crawford counties); M. N. Exrop and A. C.
Brnepict, Ann. Rept. Geol. Survey Ind., 17 (1892), 192
(Wabash County); ibid., 19 (1894), 17 (Cass County);
M.L. Fuuimr, Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, No. 218, pp. 333-335
(1903) (southwestern Indiana); 8. S. Gorpy, Ann. Rept.
Geol. Survey Ind., 15 (1886), 198; 16 (1889), 165; and C. K.
Macrapprn, Petrol. Rev., 4 (1901), 270, 305, 322 and 345
(general survey). ;

Iowa Petroleum has nowhere been discovered in commercial quantity,

but rather widely disseminated, as shown by traces in wells;
it has been found near Fort Madison, Lee County, in very
es ee en ee eee
 DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM IN UNITED STATES 79

small quantity. Natural gas has been found in Dallsa,

Louisa, Hamilton, Muscatine, Polk, Sac, and Story
counties.
On the geology of Polk County, Iowa, see H. F. Barn, Rept.
Iowa Geol. Survey, T (1897), 263-412; and on the geology
of Guthrie County, Iowa, see also Barn, ibid., 413-487.
On Dallas County, Iowa, see A. G. Lronarp, Ann. Rept.
Iowa Geol. Survey, 8 (1898), 51-118. Two reports by
8S. Catyvin, in Ann. Rept. Iowa Geol. Survey, 11 (1901),
9-30; 12 (1902), 11-27, refer to the occurrence of petroleum
in Iowa.

Kansas There are producing wells in Allen County (vicinity of Moran

and Humboldt); Chautauqua County (Sedan, and southern
part); Miami County (high-grade oil, Paola); Montgomery
County (Coffeyville, Wayside, and elsewhere in Bolton
field); Neosho County (Chanute); Wilson County (vicin-
ity of Toronto); and in Franklin and Woodson counties.
Petroleum occurs in numerous other localities in the State.
2,375,029 bbl. of petroleum were produced in 1913, and
3,103,585 bbl. in 1914.
For the history of Kansas oil development, see L. L. Wirrticu,
Mines and Minerals, 32 (1912), 384. The oil fields of Kan-
sas have been described by E. Atsrecut, Petroleum, 1
(1906), 640; P. Dovauas, Petrol. World, 3 (1906), 105 and
204; P. Dvorxovitz, Petrol. Rev., 11 (1904), 403, 423, 425,
443, 444, 463 and 464; E. Haworts, Proc. Am. Assn., 43
(4894), 229; Univ. Geol. Survey Kan., 1 (1896), 232; Eng.
Min. J., 72 (1901), 397; tbed., 74 (1902), 477 (Chanute
fields); ibid., 79 (1905), 42; ibid., 89 (1910), 132; <bid.,
91, 91; zbed., 93 (1912), 95; and Haworts et al., Kansas
Univ. Geol. Survey, 9 (1908), pp. 586 (a valuable general
report). For a general survey, see W. H. Hrypnricx,
Mining Mag., 10 (1904), 363-75; and WauKEerR and Boun-
STENGEL’s ‘‘Western Kansas Fuels; Coal, Oil, Gas”
(University of Kansas, 1913).

Kentucky Kentucky has the following oil-producing areas: Barren County

(near Glasgow); Bath County; Breathitt County (Frozen
Creek) ;Cumberland County (near Burkville) ; Estill County
(near Irvine); Floyd County (Right Beaver, Salt Lick, and
Middle creeks, near Prestonburg) ; Knox County (vicinity of
Barbourville); Lawrence County (Busseyville); Logan
County (Diamond Springs); Menifee County; Morgan
County (Caney and West Liberty); Ohio County (near
Hartford); Rowan County (Triplet Creek); Wayne County
(number of wells); Webster County (Lebree); Whitley
County (near Williamsburg); Wolfe County (near Camp-
ton). Oil shows reported in Allen, Boyd, Breckenridge,
80 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Caldwell, Carroll, Carter, Christian, Clark, Clinton, Harri-

son, Hart, Jefferson, Johnson, Knott, Lawrence, McLean,
Magoffin, Martin, Meade, Montgomery, Oldham, Pike,
Pulaski, Rockeastle, Russell, and Warren counties. 524,568
bbl. of petroleum were produced in Kentucky in 1913; it came
mainly from a considerable number of small wells, most of
them old, in Wayne County. 502,441 bbl. constituted the
1914 production.
On the oil field of Barren County, Ky., see M. Fiscurr, Eng. Min.
J., 49 (1890), 197; on the oil-sands of the State, see J. B. Hoz-
ING, Bull. Ky. Geol. Survey, No. 1, 1905; on the geology of the
lands on Paint Lick Fork of Sandy River in eastern Ken-
tucky, see J. P. Lrestey’s “Petroleum,” Philadelphia,
1865 ; and on the east Kentucky oil region, see J. P. LESLEY,
Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 10 (1865), 33, 187. On the Campton
and Knox pools, see M. J. Munn, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey,
No. 471 (1912). On the Ragland oil field, see M. J. Munn,
ibid., No. 581 (1913). For a reconnaissance of the oil fields
of Wayne and McCreary counties, see M. J. Muny, zbid.,
No. 579 (1914). For a recent discussion of oil possibilities
in Kentucky, see Fous, Bull. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1915,
No. 99, 621.

Louisiana |Petroleum is produced in Caddo Parish (Caddo field is an im-

portant producer); Calcasieu Parish (Vinton gushers in
1911); numerous wells 6 miles northeast of Jennings in
Quaternary and Miocene beds; Cameron Parish (small
quantity of oil from wells on Hackberry Islands); Iberia
Parish (small quantity in wells at Bayou Bouillon, 30 miles
northeast of New Iberia); St. Landry Parish; Pine Prairie
(gusher, 1912); St. Martin Parish (in coarse shallow sands
at Breaux Bridge, Anse-la-Butte district). In 1913, devel-
opment occurred near Mansfield in De Soto Parish.
12,498,828 bbl. of petroleum were produced in the Jennings,
Welsh, Anse-la-Butte, Vinton, and Caddo districts in 1913,
when 437 oil wells were drilled in Louisiana. In 1914,
Louisiana produced 14,309,435 bbl. of petroleum.
On occurrences of petroleum in Louisiana, see Day, OLrPHANT,
and Gremr, Manuf. Record, 1910; Harris, Perrin, and
Hopper, Bull. Geol. Survey La., No. 8, 1911 (Caddo field);
G. D. Harris, Rept. Geol. Survey La., part vi, pp. 265-75,
1902; and Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 429 (1910) (sum- |
mary of occurrences). On the geology, see E. W. Hincarp,
Am. J. Sci., (2), 47 (1869), 77 (lower Louisiana); ibid., 48
(1869), 331 (summary of results); and ‘“‘Supplementary and
Final Report of a Geological Reconnaissance of the State
of Louisiana,” New Orleans, 1873. For a recent account
 DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM IN UNITED STATES 81

of oil in Louisiana, see Haztert, Hng. Min. J., Jan. 16,

1915, 137.

Maine No reported occurrences of bitumen in any of its forms.

Maryland Retinasphalt occurs in the Eocene beds of Cape Sable; no other

bitumen has been reported. In 1914, near Parsonburg,
Wicomico County, a well was drilled to a reported depth
of 500 ft. and abandoned in quicksand.

Massa- No occurrences of any of the forms of bitumen have been

chusetts reported,

Michigan Petroleum occurs near Port Huron, Saginaw, and Allegan. In

1912, oil was struck in the city of Saginaw; much excite-
ment resulted, but the subsequent wells were failures.
There was a slight production in 1913 from the small wells
in St. Clair County, where, as in Sanilac County, oil and
gas are yielded by the Devonian. The small production of
petroleum credited to Michigan in 1914 consisted of natural
jubricating oil from a few wells near Port Huron.
On asphalt in Delta County, Mich., see A. C. Lann, Eng. Min.
J., 73 (1902), 50; and on prospects for oil in Michigan,
see Lanne, Ann. Rept. Mich. Geol. Survey, 1901, 211-
237; Mich. Miner, 9 (1907), Nos. 4 and 5. For a descrip-
tion of the ‘Baker Tract,” see WincHeLu’s “The Oil
Region of Michigan,’ Detroit, 1864; cf. WiNcHELL’s
“Geological Report on Certain Oil Lands Lying in the
Counties of Sanilac and St. Clair, Mich.,” Detroit, 1865.
The occurrence of oil in Michigan is fully considered by
SmituH, Mich. Geol. and Biol. Survey, 1914.

Minne- Temporary discharges of natural gas have been reported from

sota various counties in the State. On natural gas in Minnesota,
see N. H. Wincuety, Bull. Geol. Survey Minn., 1889,
No. 5. It has been said that oil is found in the Trenton
and lower divisions

Mississ- Petroleum has not been found commercially in this State, al-
ippi though tests have-been drilled in Covington, Jefferson, and
Lauderdale counties.

Missouri A small quantity of petroleum occurs in shallow wells in northern

Cass and southern Jackson counties; it has been obtained
in Bates County; it was discovered at shallow depths at
Swart in Vernon County in 1913; and, in 1913, a shallow
weil was drilled in Adair County which yielded a showing
82 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

of oil; but no production. Commercial production of

petroleum was limited to Jackson County in 1914.
On the geology of northwestern Missouri, see G. C. BROADHEAD,
Rept. Geol. Survey Mo., 1872, pt. ii, 1-213 and 290-402;
on Jasper County, see ibid., 1873-4, 77-96. BroaDHEAD
also described the occurrence of bitumen in Missouri in
Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, 3 (1875), 224-226. Oil boring
in Missouri was described by Ropinson in Eng. Min: J.,
4, 297; 5, 261 (1868); and SHumaARD gave an account of the
oil springs of Missouri in Trans. Acad. Sci. St. Louis, 2,
(1866), 263.
Montana Petroleum occurs in eastern Cascade County; in the Porcupine
Dome, Rosebud County, and in the northwestern part of
Teton County; there is no production, and only a few test
wells have been drilled. Oil-shales of reported commercial
value occur 60 miles northeast of Helena. Natural gas is
found near Havre.
On the probable oil in Montana, see Rown, Hng. Min. J., Apr.
10, 1915, 647; and C. F. Bowsn, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey,
No. 621F (1915).

Nebraska It was reported in 1903 that petroleum occurred in very small

quantities in Rock and Brown counties. See E. H. Bar-
BouR, Nebraska Geol. Survey, 1, Lincoln, 1903.

Nevada Oil-shale occurs near Elko on the property of C. A. Carry, and

a high-paraffin oil, resembling the distillate thereof, has
been reported as exuding from Eocene shales, half a mile
south of Elko. Bitumen is found in the andesites of the
eastern shore of Lake Tahoe, and asphalt occurs on Trout,
Pine and Willow creeks in Eureka County.
See Ropsrt AnpmRSoN, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 380, pp.
283-285 (1909); No. 381, pp. 475-493 (1910) (on oil pros-
pects in the Reno Region and in Lyon County); and I.
MacF aruanp, Proc. Am. Min. Cong., 12 (1909), 418 (on the
development of petroleum in Nevada).

New No reported occurrences of the forms of bitumen.

Hamp-
shire

New The occurrence of petroleum has not been reported. Bitumen,

Jersey however, is present in the amygdaloidal intrusives of the
Triassic beds of Newark, asphalt occurs in small amounts
in the “ash-marl” of Vincent-town, and ozokerite is found
in the Cretaceous brick-earth of South Amboy.
 DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM IN UNITED STATES 83

New Petroleum occurs near Artesia, Chaves County; south of Raton,

Mexico Colfac County; at Dayton, Eddy County; in the Seven
Lakes field, McKinley County; and in Bernalillo County.
Considerable development work has been done in Eddy
County. On petroleum near Dayton, N. Mex., see G. B.
Ricuarpson, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 541 (1912).

New York The productive horizon is in Upper Devonian sandstones. The

principal producing fields are Allegany County (Andover,
Bolivar, Wirt, and other towns) and Cattaraugus County
(Allegany, Carrollton, and Olean townships). Erie and
Steuben counties are minor producers. 948,191 bbl. of
petroleum were produced in New York in 1913, while the
1914 production amounted to 938,974 bbl.
On petroleum in New York State, see C. A. ASHBURNER, TJ’rans.
Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 14 (1886), 419; 16 (1888), 906; I. P.
Brsuop, Ann. Rept. N. Y. State Mus., 61 (1899), li, 9-63
(in western New York); zbid., 53 (1901), i, R., 105-34
(in southwestern New York); E. Orton, Bull. N. Y. State
Mus., 6 (1899), i, appendix i, 395-526; D. A. Van InerEn,
Bull. N. Y. State Mus., 3 (1896), 558; and H. E. Wrictey,
Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 10 (1882), 354 (amount of oil
remaining). On operations during 1911, see D. H. Nrw-
LAND, Bull. N. Y. State Mus., 161, (1912).

North Beds of a petroliferous character occur at several horizons in

Carolina basins containing coal beds, of Mesozoic and probably
Triassic age. These basins are the Dan River area, on the
Virginia and North Carolina border, and the Oxford-Wades-
borough field, obliquely traversing almost the entire width
of North Carolina. The deposits of petroleum are worthy
of no attention at present.

North Natural gas has been obtained from Cretaceous rocks in Botti-
Dakota neau and Lamoure counties, but no petroleum has been
reported. See A. G. Leonarp, Bull. U.S. Geol. Survey, No.
431, pp. 7-i0 (1911). In 1914, a deep test near Gettys-
burg, Potter County, proved barren of oil or gas.

Ohio There are three important fields: the Lima, or northwestern, the
central, and the southeastern. Large production from
Allen, Auglaize, Hancock, Lucas, Mercer, Ottawa, San-
dusky, Seneca, Van Wert, and Wyandot counties of the
northwestern field. Athens, Coshocton, Fairfield, Holmes,
Knox, Lorain, Muskingum, Perry, and Vinton counties of
the central field contain producing wells. Large production
84 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

from wells in the southeastern field in Ashland, Belmont,

Carroll, Columbiana, Guernsey, Harrison, Hocking, Jack-
son, Jefferson, Licking, Monroe, Morgan, Noble, and Wash-
ington counties. The production of petroleum amounted
to 8,781,468 bbl. in 1913, during which year 1,246 oil wells
were drilled in central and southeastern Ohio, and 873 in the
Lima district. The 1914 production was 8,536,352 bbl.
For an early description of the oil regions of Ohio, see J. H. A.
Bone’s ‘Petroleum and Petroleum Wells,” New York,
1865. On the fields, see especially the following reports by
J. A. Bownocxsr: Ohio Nat., 1 (1901), 49 (Corning field);
J. Geol., 10 (1902), 822 (oil-producing rocks); Bull. Geol.
Survey Ohio, No. 1, 1903 (occurrence); ibid., (4), No. 12,
1910 (Bremen field); and Econ. Geol., 6 (1911), 37 (Clinton
sand as a source). See also J. S. Newperry, Ohio Agric.
Rept., 1859, 605 (rock oils of Ohio); Can. Nat., 5 (1860),
325 (oil wells of Mecca); and Repts. Geol. Survey Ohio,
vols. 1-38, 1873, 1874, 1878. ' On the geology, see E. Orton,
Proc. Am. Assn., 30 (1881), 167 (Berea Grit); ibid., 33
(1885), 397 (horizons); and ibid., 34 (1886), 202 (sources).
On the structure of the Berea oil sand, see D. D. Connrt,
Bulls. 621-N and 621-O, U.S. Geol. Survey.

Oklahoma; The most productive areas are in northeastern Oklahoma at or

near Bartlesville, Copan, Dewey, Glenn Pool, Hamilton,
Henryetta, Ramona, Red Fork, Skiatook, Tamaha, and
Tulsa. Important producers are at Coodys Bluff-Alluwe
field; Carter County (Healdton and Wheeler); Marshall
County (Mahill); Osage County (Hominy); Muskogee
County (Muskogee); Pawnee County (Cleveland). Small
quantity is found in Comanche County (at Lawton);
Creed County (near Mounds); Greer County (Granite);
Kiowa County (Gotebo); Mayes County (spring near
Adair). 63,579,384 bbl. of petroleum were produced
in the State in 1913. 6,965 oil wells were drilled during
that year, which was marked by the development in the
Cushing pool and the opening up of the Healdton field. In
1914, 73,631,724 bbl. constituted the production.
| For an account of the oil development in northcentral Oklahoma,
see R. H. Woop, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 531 (1913); and
L. C. SntpER’s “Petroleum and Natural Gas in Oklahoma,”’
1913. On the oil fields of Oklahoma, see C. N. Goutp,
Eng. Min. J., 84 (1907), 259; Bull. Okla. Geol. Survey,
No. 1, 1908; L. L. Huvrcutson, Bull. Okla. Geol. Survey,
No. 2, 1911; J. A. Tarr and W. J. Ruep, Bull. U. S. Geol.
Survey, No. 381, pp. 504-13 (1910) (Madill oil pool);
L. L. Wrrricn, Mines and Minerals, 32 (1911), 291; and
KE. G. Wooprurr, Science, N. §., 28 (1906), 621 (region
around Cleveland, Pawnee County). On the Grand;
 DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM IN UNITED STATES 85

field district, see M. J. Munn, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey,

No. 547 (1914); and on the Glenn Pool, see C. D. Smrru,
idem, No. 541 (1912). The Cushing field has been con-
sidered fully by Burrram in Bull. No. 18, Okla. Geol.
Survey, 1914; and the Ponca City field by OxnmRN in a
bulletin issued by the same Survey in 1912. On the
Healdton oil field, see Bull..U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 621-B
(1915), 1. For a geological description of the Healdton
pool, see GarpnzmrR, Econ. Geol., 10 (1915), 422.

Oregon It has been reported that petroleum deposits of considerable

extent exist in Maheur and Crook counties; but there has
been no extensive development. See C. W. WAsHBURNE,
Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 481, pp. 22-57 (1911); Bull.
No. 590 (oil prospects of northwestern Oregon); and H.
M. Parks, Oregon Agr. Coll., Coll. Bull., Extension Series 5,
No. 2, 1912 (resources).

Pennsyl- Petroleum is produced in Allegheny, Armstrong, Beaver, Brad-

vania ford, Butler, Clarion, Crawford, Elk, Fayette, Forest,
Greene, Lawrence, McKean, Mercer, Tioga, Venango,
Warren, Washington, and Westmoreland counties. All of
the different pools have long passed their prime, but they
differ in their stages of exhaustion. The pools in Venango
County, in the Bradford Area, include those which origin-
ated the petroleum industry in the United States. The
wells in southwestern Pennsylvania have been drilled more
recently. 7,963,282 bbl. of petroleum were produced in
Pennsylvania in 1913, when 3,420 oil wells were drilled in
the State. The production increased to 8,170,335 bbl. in
1914.
the oil regions of Pennsylvania, consult the following:
F. M. L. Ginueien’s “The Oil Regions of Pennsylvania,”
Pittsburgh, 1864; C. A. AsHBuRNER, J. Frank. Inst.,
105 (1878), 225 (oil-sands); Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 2
(1878), 316 (Bradford district); Second Geol. Survey Pa.,
R., 1880 (McKean County); J. H. A. Bonn’s ‘Petroleum
and Petroleum Wells,” New York, 1865 (early account of
regions); C. Burrs, U. S. Geol. Survey, Fol. 125, 1905
(Rural Valley), Fol. 172, 1910 (Warren), Fol. 115, 1904
(Kittanning); M. R. Campsriy, U. 8S. Geol. Survey, Fol.
82, 1902 (Uniontown), Fol. 94, 1903 (Brownsville); J. F.
Cart, Second Geol. Survey Pa., 1877 (oil-well records);
tbid., 18-15, 1880-1890 (geology of regions); H. M. CHancn,
tbid., V, 1879, and VV, 1880 (Butler and Clarion counties);
F. G. Cuapp, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, Nos. 285 (362-66)
and 300; Conn and Jouns’ “Petrolia,” New York, 1870
(history); M. L. Futimr, Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey,
86 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
i —————eeeeeee — eee

22, iii, 579 (Gaines field); and M. J. Munn, U. S. Geol.

Survey, Geol. Atlas U. S., Claysville folio (No. 180), 1912.

Philip- The existence of petroleum seeps on Boudoc peninsula, Tayabas

pines Province, became known soon after American occupation.
See Press Bulletin No. 17, Bureau of Science, Government
of the Philippine Islands; and Ricumonp, Philip. J. Sci., 5
(1910), 1-7. On the petroleum of Leyte, see PRATT,
Philip. J. Sci., 10A (1915), 241; and on petroleum in the
province of Cebu, see Prarr, idem, 281. On Philippine
oil possibilities, see Petrol. Rev., November 27, 1915.

Rhode None of the forms of bitumen has been found in Rhode Island.
Island

South The occurrence of none of the forms of bitumen has been

Carolina reported.

South Natural gas along with a small amount of oil occasionally occurs
Dakota in a black shale and sometimes in a light-colored sandstone
below, at Ashton, Spink County; at Pierre, Hughes County;
and in the eastern part of Sully County. Considerable
quantities of natural gas are found at Miller, Hand County,
and at Pierre, Hughes County (used locally); but there is no
important occurrence of petroleum.

Tennes- | Petroleum occurs in Dickson County (in black Chattanooga

see shale on Jones Creek); Overton County (Netherland, Spring
Creek, and Eagle Creek); Putnam County (near Algood);
Scott County (near Glenmary); Fentress and Pickett
counties (in Spurrier-Riverton district); also in Clay,
Franklin, and other counties. There was no commercial
production in Tennessee in 1913, although much interest in
the prospects was manifested around Franklin. In 1914,
a test was started in Macon County.
On petroleum in Tennessee, see G. H. Asntry, Bull. Geol.
Survey Tenn., No. 2A, 1910; J. B. Kitiesrew, Agric.
Rept. Tenn., 1877, pp. 1-116; Proc. Am. Assn., 26 (1878),
266 (geology and topography of region); M. J. Munn, Bull.
Tenn. Geol. Survey, No. 2, 1911 (oil developments); A. H.
Purpvur, Res. of Tenn., Jan., 1916 (Central Basin); J.
M. Sarrorp, ‘Geology of Tennessee,” Nashville, 1869;
E. J. Scumrrz, Eng. Min. J., 61 (1896), 228 (oil boom);
and A. WincueLL, Mining and Manuf. J., Jan. 2, 1867.
For a consideration of the question, where may oil be found
in Tennessee, see G. H. Asuitny, Tenn. State Geol. Survey,
Resources of Tenn., 2 (1912), No. 7, 262; ibid., 273, M. J.
Munn describes the Spring Creek oil field.
 DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM IN UNITED STATES 87

Texas Petroleum is widely distributed in Texas, the producing counties

being: Clay, Duval, Hardin, Harris, Jefferson, Matagorda,
McCulloch, McMullen, Navarro, Orange, Shackelford, and
Wichita (especially the Electra field). Oil is known to
exist in many other counties, but producing wells have
not yet been brought in; these counties are Brewster,
Brown, Coleman, Gonzales, Reeves, Smith, Walker,
Wood. The Coastal Plain oils in the counties of Hardin,
Harris, Jefferson, and Matagorda are generally of heavier
gravity than the interior oils, such as in Navarro and
Wichita counties, although there is also a heavy oil in
Navarro County (Powell field). Lubricating oil in small
quantities is yielded by some wells in Bexar County, near
San Antonio, also in Brown and McCulloch counties. The
oil from the later fields (Wichita County) is much lighter
than the oil from the Coastal Plain; it probably comes
from an entirely different geologic horizon, the Pennsyl-
vanian. The Coastal Plain oils are probably from Ter-
tiary. It is likely that country south, southwest, and
west of Wichita County, will be found to be oil-bearing
in localized anticlines. The total production of petroleum
in Texas amounted to 15,009,478 bbl. in 1913, when 581
oil wells were drilled in northern Texas and 325 in coastal
Texas. In 1914, the total production of the State aggre-
gated 20,068,184 bbl.
On the oil fields of the western interior and northern Texas coal
measures, see G. I. Apams, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 184
(1901). On the oil resources, see G. A. Burr, Eng. Min. J.,
71 (1901), 687; C. A. Dinsmorn, Mining World, 32 (1909),
1118; 33 (1910), 176 (Toyah field); G. D. Harris, Science,
N.S., 13 (1901), 666; R. T. Hitz, rans. Am. Inst. Min.
Eing., 33 (1902), 363 (Beaumont field); A. F. Lucas, Compt.
rend. Cong. internat. Pétrole, 2 (1910), 341 (résumé of
fields); T. D. Mitunr, Lng. Min. J., 65 (1898), 734; Am.
Gas Light J., 83 (1905), 86; W. B. Puriurps, Eng. Min. J.,
93 (1912), 97; and H. V. Wautacn, Min. Sct. Press, 103
(1911), 260 (Trans-Pecos region). For a recent report on
Texas petroleum fields, see Haziett, Hng. Min. J., Jan.
16, 1915, 137. A “Reconnaissance Report on the Geology
of the Oil and Gas Fields of Wichita and Clay counties,
Texas,’ was prepared by J. A. Uppmn and D. M. Puriuips
for the University of Texas in 1912.

Utah There were five productive wells in San Juan County, one in
Uinta County, and three in Washington County, at the
close of 1913. No production was reported, but more or
less prospecting was carried on, particularly in Uinta
County. Petroleum has been discovered in five other
88 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

counties, namely: Emery, Grand, Wayne, Sanpete and

Summit. ’
For the geology of the San Juan oil field, see E. G. Wooprurr,
Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 471 (1912). On oil near
Green River, Grand County, Utah, see C. T. Lupron, ibid.,
No. 541 (1912). On petroleum in Utah, see G, E. Barsour,
Eng. Min. J.,.89 (1910), 88; J. M. Bourwett, Bull. U.S.
Geol. Survey, No. 260, pp. 468-479 (1905); J. Drrn, Mines
and Minerals, 27 (1907), 250; C. A. Punt, Salt Lake Min.
Rev., 11 (1909), No. 18, 19 (on Green River oil fields in
Wayne County); G. B. RicHarpson, Bull. U. S. Geol.
Survey, No. 340, pp. 343-347 (1908); A. P. Roars, Eng.
Min. J., 87 (1909), 989; A. V. Taytor, Salt Lake Min.
Rev., Jan. 15, 1916; and W. 8S. Zeurine, Mining World, 34
(1911), 596.

Vermont No forms of bitumen have been reported as occurring in Vermont.

Virginia Beds of petroliferous character occur at several horizons in the

coal fields of Virginia, of Mesozoic and probably Triassic
age. These deposits are at present insignificant. See
North Carolina.

Washing- Petroleum has been found in small quantities in the region of

ton Forks, Clallam County, in which wells have also been drilled
near Lapush at the mouth of the Solduck River and near
Taholah. It also occurs at Little Chief Mine in the Moses
district, Okanogan County; between Tenino and Grand
Mound, Thurston County; and at Happy Valley, near
Fairhaven, Whatcom County. No production has been
reported for the State, but drilling was in progress near the
mouth of the Hoh River and also near the mouth of the
Queniult River, in 1914.
On oil and gas in the western part of the Olympic Peninsula,
Wash., see C. T. Lupron, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No.
581 (1914).

West Petroleum is produced in 26 counties of West Virginia, from

Virginia Harrison County on the east to the western state line and
from Pennsylvania southwest to Mingo County. The
production in 1914 amounted to 9,680,033 bbl.; it came
principally from Brooke, Cabell, Calhoun, Clay, Doddridge,
Gilmer, Hancock, Harrison, Kanawha, Lewis, Lincoln,
Marion, Marshall, Monongalia, Ohio, Pleasants, Putnam,
Ritchie, Roane, Tyler, Wayne, Wetzel, Wirt, and Wood
counties, 1,285 oil wells were drilled in West Virginia
during 1913.
For an early account of the oil regions of West Virginia, see
 DISTRIBUTION OF PETROLEUM IN UNITED STATES 89

J. H. A. Bone’s “Petroleum and Petroleum Wells,” New

York, 1865, On its oil fields, see F. W. Brapy, Mines and
Minerals, 28 (1907), 187; 29 (1908), 207; G. P. Grimstey,
Rept. West Va. Geol. Survey, 1907; I. C. Wurrn, Am. Geol.,
7 (1892), 302; Nat. Gas J., 5 (1911), No. 9, 19; and R. V.
Hennen, “‘Doddridge and Harrison counties,” West Va.
Geol. Survey, 1912.

Wisconsin Asphalt occurs in small cavities of the Devonian Limestone in

Oak Creek township, Milwaukee, and in Fond du Lac.
Highly bituminous rock also occurs in layers in the plumb-
iferous series of like age. No occurrences of petroleum are
reported in the literature.

Wyoming Petroleum is produced in Bighorn County (Byron field); Con-

verse County (Douglas field; heavy black asphaltum oil;
local use); Crook County (Belle Fourche field, 20 miles
north of Moorcroft; local use for fuel and lubrication);
Fremont County (Dallas field); Wind River Reservation;
new field begun at Lander (many wells and two kinds of oil);
Natrona County (Salt Creek field); Powder River field not
producing; Uinta County (Labarge field, along east base
of Labarge Range, from Labarge Creek to South Piney;
Spring Valley field; numerous small wells from Spring
Valley, north, 5 miles); Weston County (several wells near
Newcastle got small quantity of oil). Johison and Lincoln
counties are no longer productive. Wyoming produced
1,572,306 bbl. of petroleum in 1912, when it entered as a
serious element in the oil industry; 2,406,522 bbl. were pro-
duced in 1913; and 3,560,375 bbl. constituted the 1914
production.
On the oil fields, see C. E. Jaminson, Salt Lake Min. Rev., Jan.
30, 1916; A. Laxrs, Mines and Minerals, 19 (1898), 80;
Mining Sci., Apr. 20, 1911; T. T. Reap, Eng. Min. J., TT
(1904), 929; A. R. Scuutrz, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey,
No. 340, 364-73 (1908). On Wyoming oil springs, see
S. AuaHry, ‘‘Report on Wyoming Oil Springs,’ Omaha,
1881, 1882; “Annual Report of Territorial Geologist to the
Governor of Wyoming,” Washington, 1886; G. E. Bartny’s
“Petroleum in Wyoming,” 1887; N. H. Darton, Bull.
U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 285 (1906) and No. 364 (1908).
On the petroleum resources, see R. Dovetas, Petroleum,
1, (1901), 1127, 1184; H. E. Havenor, Salt Lake Min. Rev.,
Jan. 15, 1911 (Byron fields); W. C. Hiaartns, ibid., Jan.
30, 1911 (Spring Valley field). On the Powder River, Wyo.,
oil field, see C. H. Weammann, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey,
No. 471 (1912). On the Douglas field, in Converse County,
see V. H. Barnet, idem, No. 641 (1912), wherein D. F.
90 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Hewett describes the Shoshone River section. On the

geology of Lincoln County, see A. R. Scuuurz, idem, No.
543 (1914). The Moorcroft field in Crook County is de-
scribed by Barnet, idem, No. 581 (1914). The Douglas oil
field in Converse County and the Salt Creek field in Natrona
County have been considered by C. E. JAm1Eson in special
bulletins issued by the State Geologist’s Office, Cheyenne,
Wyo., in 1912; and the fields in Weston, Niobrara,
Natrona and Lincoln counties by L. W. TrumBvuxu in a
report issued by the same office in 1913.. On oil near
Basin, Wyo., see Lupron, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No.
621-L (1915).
 CHAPTER IV

THE PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF

PETROLEUM

The composition of petroleum has been discussed in Chap.

I. In this chapter there are considered, first, certain of the
physical properties of petroleum, and then the analytical char-
acteristics of various American petroleums.
THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM!'
Color.—Crude petroleums are quite variable in character:
certain descriptions possess a light color (pale yellow to reddish
brown) and may be very mobile, while others are almost black
and are viscid. The color of a crude oil is generally taken by
reflected light, although, where the oil is translucent, the color
1On the physical properties of petroleum, see A. Caumsrt, J. Péir., 9
(1909), 242, 258; 10 (1910), 2, 21, 37, 51; Exauer, Chem. Ind., 8 (1885), 44;
St. CLArRE-DEvILLE, Compt. rend., 66 (1868), 442; 68 (1869), 349, 485, 686;
72 (1871), 191; and Tuomas and Watson, Proc. Inst. Automob. Eng., N.S.,
3 (1909), 429. With the exception of the last-mentioned reference, which
gives the physical properties of some commercial petrols, the papers noted
are of a general nature. For a comprehensive review of the physical
characteristics of various crude oils, see GonnRe, Rev. chim. appl., 3, 90.
For a rather full consideration of distillation, the determination of physical
constants, and thermochemistry, reference should be had to TinKLER and
CHALLENGER’S ‘The Chemistry of Petroleum and Its Substitutes,’’? Lon-
don, 1915, pp. 89, 109, 136, 146, and 292. On relations among the physical
constants of petroleum distillates, see Rrrrman and Eauorr, J. Ind. Eng.
Chem., 7, 578.
On the testing of petroleum, see AisrnMANN’s ‘‘ Taschenbuch fiir die Min-
eralél-Industrie,” 1896; ENGLER and Hoérmr’s ‘Das Erdol,’”’ 1911; Hicks’
“Mineral Oil Testing,’ 1906; Houpn’s ‘“‘Untersuchung der Muineraldle
und Fette,” 3d ed., 1909 (English translation, 1915); Lunen’s ‘“‘Technical
Methods of Chemical Analysis,” Eng. trans., 1914, 3, i, 1-57; Raxuzin’s
“‘Die Untersuchung des Erddéls und seine Produkte,’’ 1906; and Repwoop’s
““A Treatise on Petroleum,’ 3d ed., 1913, 1, 201; 2, 198, 200, 220; 3, 79.
These treatises should be referred to for full considerations of methods of
procedure and testing apparatus, and also for discussions of the determina-
tion of flash-point and solidifying-point and application of the fire test to
petroleum products. For descriptive accounts of the methods now in use
for the technical examination and evaluation of the hydrocarbon com-
plexes, natural gas, crude petroleum and oil-shale and their commercially
important products, see Hamor and Papgert’s “Examination of Petro-
leum;)’ New York, N. Y., 1920.
91
92 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

by transmitted light is usually recorded also. It is customary in

the petroleum industry to judge of the color of petroleum and
its products by examination in a 4-oz. sample bottle, approxi-
mately 114 in. in diameter and 514 in. in length, and preferably
with a plane bottom. For the exact determination of color,
use is made either of the chromometer or tintometer.+
Color by Transmitted Light.—While most crude oils are opaque,
except in very thin layers, when they are brown, many of the
thinner grades of Pennsylvania oils and oils lately found in
Alberta’ vary in color from a pale straw to various shades of
yellow, red, brown, and deepening shades of brown to black.
Color by Reflected Light—Crude oils have usually a green
cast by reflected light. Otherwise they vary in color from yellow
to black—the same as when seen by transmitted light. The
greenish colot by reflected light is an important characteristic
of crude oils, differing from the bluish fluorescence of refined
oils. It is frequently a convenient means of distinguishing
between crude oils and those which have been manufactured.
Dark crude oils can be deprived of a considerable part of their
color by filtration through fullers’ earth or clay. This is prob-
ably what has occurred in earth where ‘‘white”’ oils are found.
“White” crude oils are not common in America, although they
sometimes occur. Some “white” crudes have been found in the
Los Angeles field, California, which had a specific gravity of
0.810; some in the Placenta Cafion district, California, which had
a specific gravity of 0.740; some at Butler, Ohio, with a specific
gravity of 0.7407.
Odor.—Petroleums from various regions are so well dis-
tinguished by odor that it is often possible to determine the
source of a crude oil in this way. Thus, Pennsylvania petro-
leums possess a peculiar odor, generally described as ‘gasoline
odor;” on the other hand, the crude oils of California, while
having much less odor, possess an aromatic smell resembling
that of coal-tar oils. The petroleums of Texas and Russia have
odors similar to those of the California oils, and an odor resem-
1 The Lovizonp tintometer is most in use for the determination of the color
of lubricating oils. On this instrument, see Lovinonp, J. Soc. Chem. Ind.,
7 (1888), 424; 9 (1890), 10; and 13 (1894), 308. On the chromometers of
Witson and Srammer, see Repwoop’s “Petroleum,” 3d ed., 2, 214; and
Lunee’s “Technical Methods of Chemical Analysis,” Eng. trans., 1914, 8,
part 1, 23 and 60. On the Heuiiae petroleum colorimeter, see UBBELOHDE,
Petroleum, 10 (1915), 725.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 98

bling that of oil of cedar may be easily detected in the crude oil
from the East Indies. Very often these characteristic odors are
masked by the disagreeable smell of hydrogen sulphide; then,
too, other organic sulphur compounds impart a peculiar dis-
agreeable character to the odors of much of the petroleum from
Ontario, which, in this respect, is like the crude oils of Indiana
and Ohio.
In order to determine the characteristic odor of petroleum,
two samples should be prepared in oil bottles, carefully stoppered
and half-filled with the oil. The petroleum is shaken vigorously,
so as to impart, its odor to the air above the oil in the bottle, and,
if this resembles the odor of hydrogen sulphide, 5 ¢.c. of a fairly
strong solution of potassium hydroxide should.be added and the
oil then shaken until the odor of hydrogen sulphide disappears.
In the case of a number of the crude oils from California, agita-
_ tion with potassium hydroxide solution will give rise to an odor
of pyridine. In the second sample, the odor should be noted
after similar treatment with 5 ¢.c. of dilute sulphuric acid.
Specific Gravity.—In general it may be said that all varieties
of petroleum are lighter than water, except when contaminated
with finely divided mineral matter. Petroleum lighter than 0.780
is rarely found, and the specific gravity ranges commonly between
0.850 and 0.940. Crude oils become denser on exposure to air.
The specific gravity of American petroleums varies from 0.7684
to 0.9960, the reported determinations according to states pre-
senting the following ranges: California, 0.8875—0.9745; Colorado,
0.8092-0.8997; Illinois, 0.8260—0.9236; Indiana, 0.8500-0.9371;
Kansas, 0.8350—-0.8895; Kentucky, 0.8083-0.9021; Louisiana,
0.8065—-0.9669; Michigan, 0.8065—0.8333; New Mexico, 0.8951-
0.9186; Ohio, 0.7739-0.8500; Oklahoma, 0.7887—0.8844; Pennsyl-
vania, 0.7901-0.8861; Texas, 0.8065-0.9708; Utah, 0.8202-
0.9511; West Virginia, 0.7684-0,8895; and Wyoming, 0.7821-
0.9960. A Mexican crude oil having a specific gravity of 1.06
has been mentioned in the literature. The specific gravity of
Galician petroleum varies from 0.799 to 0.902;? and the petroleum
of the Baku district has a density ranging from 0.854 to 0.899.

1 The determination of the specific gravity of petroleum is described in the

second section of this chapter (see pp. 124 and 127).
2See Nawrartit, Dingler’s polyt. J., 246 (1882), 423.
3It may be mentioned here that a crude oil possessing the low specific
gravity of 0.650 has been found at Kudako, Russia.
 94 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

It has been found that the lighter petroleums usually yield the
larger proportion of benzine and kerosene; a high specific gravity,
on the other hand, indicates a notable proportion of high-boiling
fractions and of asphalt. Mabery and Dunn have shown!
that Engler’s conclusion that the specific gravity of petroleum
varies inversely with the depth of the well? is not fully supported
by their study of the sandstone oils of southern Ohio. The
lightest oil was found in the Berea grit, but this stratum also
contained the heaviest oil. The petroleum from the 500-ft.
sand was almost as light (specific gravity, 0.7971) as that from
the 1,500-ft. sand of the Berea grit (0.7939); but the latter was
also found to contain the heaviest oil of all the sandstones of
southern Ohio (0.8274). Probably certain descriptions of crude
petroleum have been subjected to a process of selective filtra-
tion through porous strata, whereby they have been deprived
of some of their original constituents.*
While the specific gravity gives very little indication as to the
source of a petroleum, it may serve as a useful guide in the
classification of crude oils of known origin. It has, in fact, a
considerable commercial importance for purposes of comparison
and identification, since the specific gravity constitutes the
simplest means of controlling deliveries of petroleum.
The Baumé Scale-—Hydrometers marked with the empirical
Baumé scale, instead of the graduation in units and decimals of
specific gravity, have been commonly used in the petroleum
industry from its very inception. Though the Baumé scale has
-no marked advantage over the rational scale, the refiner has
adhered to its use through custom.

1Am. Chem. J., 18, 224.

2 American petroleum technologists incline to the view that the specific
gravity of oil decreases with the depth. Cf. Raxuzrn’s conclusions on
p. 114. :
®See Day, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 86, 112; Science, N.S., 17, 1007; Cong.
internat. pétrole, Paris, 1900, 53; Day and Giupin, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 1
(1909), 449; Giuprn and Bransky, Am. Chem. J., 44, 251; and Grurrn and
SCHNEEBERGER, ibid., 50, 59.
On the effect of fullers’ earth, unburned kaolin, etc., upon petroleum, see
UspeLonpEe and Sv. Puiiuipripn, Petrolewm, 7, 1233; and anon., Chem.
Techn. Ztg., 30, 125. On the physical and chemical action of argillaceous
earth on petroleum, see GursELin and Haupricourt, Petrol. Rev., 27, 151;
and Mat. grasses, 5, 2815, 2845, and 2882. See also WASHBURNE’S paper on
capillary concentration in Bull. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1914, 2365.
 PHYSICAL
AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 95

TaBLeE VI.—EQuiIvALeNtTs oF THE Baum ScaLE AND Speciric Gravity!

—_—e——— eee ———
Baumé (Specific gravity _Lb. per gal. Baumé (Specific gravity} Lb. per gal.

10 1.0000 8.33 61 0.7329 6.11

11 0.9929 8.27 62 0.7292 6.07
12 0.9859 8.21 63 0.7254 6. 04
13 0.9790 8.16 64 0.7217 6.01
14 0.9722 8.10 65 0.7179 5.98
15 0.9655 8.04 66 0.7143 5.95
16 0.9589 7.99 67 0.7107 5.92
17 0.9524 7.93 68 0.7071 5.89
18 0.9459 7.88 69 0.7035 5.86
19 0.9396 7.83 70 0.7000 5.83
20 0.9333 “ath 71 0.6965 5.80
21 0.9272 ade 72 0.6931 ahs}
22 0.9211 7.67 73 0.6897 5.75
23 0.9150 7.62 74 0.6863 5.72
24 0.9091 Vf Bh 75 0.6829 5.69
25 0.9032 7.53 76 0.6796 5.66
26 0.8974 7.48 77 0.6763 5.63
27 0.8917 7.43 78 0.6730. 5.60
28 0.8861 HBS 79 0.6698 5.58
29 0.8805 7.34 80 0.6666 5.55
30 0.8750 7,29 81 0.6635 5.52
31 0.8696 7.24 82 0.6604 5.50
32 0.8642 7.20 83 0.6573 5.48
33 0.8589 7.15 84 0.6542 5.45
34 0.8537 Tett 85 0.6511 5.42
35 0.8485 7.07 86 0.6481 5.40
36 0.8433 7.03 87 0.6451 5.38
37 0.8383 6.98 88 0.6422 5.36
38 0.8333 6.94 89 0.6392 5.33
39 0.8285 6.90 90 0.6363 5.30
40 0.8235 6.86 91 0.6335 5.28
41 0.8187 6.82 92 0.6306 5.25
42 0.8139 6.78 93 0.6278 5.23
43 0.8092 6.74 94 0.6250 5.21
44 0.8046 6.70 95 0.6222 5.18
45 0.8000 6.66 96 0.6194 5.16
46 0.7955 6.63 97 0.6167 5.14
47 0.7909 6.59 98 0.6140 5.11
48 0.7865 6.55 99 0.6113 5.09
49 0.7821 6.52 100 0.6087 5.07
50 0.7777 6.48 101 0.6060 5.05
51 0.7735 6.44 102 0.6034 5.03
52 0.7692 6.41 103 0.6008 5.00
53 0.7650 6.37 104 0.5983 4.98
54 0.7609 6.34 105 0.5957 4.96
55 0.7568 6.30 106 0.5932 4.94
56 0.7527 6.27 107 0.5907 4.92
57, 0.7487 6.24 108 0.5882 4.90
58 0.7447 6.20 109 0.5858 4.88
59 0.7407 6.17 110 0.5833 4.86
60 0.7368 6.14

1 All densities taken at temperatures of 60°F. and referred to distilled

water at 60°F. as standard. On equivalents of the Baumé scale, see also
N. H. Freeman’s “Baumé and Specific Gravity Tables,” London, 1914; and
Circular 57, Bureau of Standards, 1916,
96 THE. AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Antoine Baumé first published his seale for liquids lighter than
water about 1768.!: He derived his values from solutions of salt
and water, and, as his methods were what would now be known
as crude, his errors were so large that an exact duplicate of his
original solutions is impossible. Since the appearance of this
first scale there have been some fourteen different scales by
various authorities, each known as the ‘‘Baumé” scale. The
scale based upon the following formulas is the best and most
desirable and has been adopted by the Bureau of Standards:

140
Degrees Baumé = 5 — 130.
specific gravity 60° F.

Specific gravity =
140 eae
130 + Bé.
60°
60°"

Table VI, on page 95, shows the specific gravity of the liquid
and the pounds in a gallon for each degree Baumé, in accord-
once with the foregoing formulas.
Coefficient of Expansion.—While coefficients of expansion do
not find a place among the generally accepted characteristic
constants of mineral oils, they are required for calculating
specific gravities to different temperatures and for determining
the expansion space to be allowed in storage vessels and for
transport.”
The expansibility of petroleum may be determined either by
taking the specific gravity at successive temperatures or by a
dilatometric method.* The coefficient of expansion of Pennsyl-
vania petroleum is 0.000840, and that of Russian oil is 0.000817;
it may be said to decrease as the specific gravity rises, the ex-
ceptions which occur being attributable to the chemical nature

10On the history of hydrometry, see Chem.-Zig., 39 (1915), 913 and 985.
* On the expansion of petroleum and on the determination of the weights
and measures of petroleum cargoes, see Davins’ “Petroleum Tables,” 5th
ed., 1912.
3 See Hoxpn’s “ Untersuchung der Mineraléle und Fette,’”’ 1909; Hoipn’s
“HWxamination of Hydrocarbon Oils,” 1915. For a full treatment’of the
coefficient of expansion of petroleum, more particularly in connection with
the deportment of heavy distillates and residues from petroleum, see Houpn,
Mitt, k, techn, Versuchsanst., 11 (1893), 45.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 97

of the oils. ‘The coefficients of expansion of a number of typical

crude oils are given in Table VII, prepared by Engler.'

TaBLe VII.—Corrricients or ExpaNsION oF Various CruDE OILS

aCe ear gel a

eele eit

g a a | “4 ala 2| 2
S mae 8 “ as] S/o 8 Fees
wae > Bole |Fol co a) 3 lg oo S| 8 _ ln
alee
Origin > | oO8 |28 Qe aa} oo] fifa melorlc,
8S! A a3] 9 lees] oO | & las ~S5/2 s/s 8 2
a 3 Ee > Be a 2.5 & | & |».m } ae SEAS aS Paley Net
q | eral mag 3) a 5S |23]. 2) | S | OS ls
8/3 i48| > a) 3 a5 a|a 25 ‘q |45/dm Se) 2 om) oa
A] O lam] E ah] & ao] | 0 [EO] SO jgtiovla™| B love
Coefficient of
expansion
X 1,000,000. . |840] 843) 843! 839 774) 817) 775) 748! 784) 772) 792) 748) 662) 647
Sp. gr. eal

Markovnikov and Ogloblin? calculated the coefficient of ex-

pansion from the specific gravity of the oil—between 0° and
39.8°C.; the results obtained with a sample of American pe-
troleum were as follows:
Density at Coefficient
15°C: of expansion
X< 1,000 . X< 100,000

Under 700 90
700-750 85
750-800 80
800-815 70
Above 815 65

The early results obtained by St. Claire-Deville? were limited

to temperatures between 0° and 50°C. All researches show that
the coefficients of expansion of liquids vary as the temperature
rises;4 therefore the formula for solid bodies—viz., V = Vo
(1 + at)—-serves only to give an approximate result between
agreed temperatures in conjunction with the specific gravity.
The results obtained by Gintl, as reported by HoOfer,® afford
confirmation to those of Markovnikov and Ogloblin regarding
the relation between the specific gravity and the coefficient of
expansion of oils; these are given in Table VIII.
1 Verh. Ver. Beford. Gewerbfl. Preuss., 66 (1887), 643.
2 J. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc., 15, 237.
3 Compt. rend., 66, 442; 68, 349, 485, 686.
4 LANDOLT and BORNSTEIN, “ Physikalisch-Chemische Tabellen,” 4th ed.,
341.
5 “Das Erddél,” 1888,
7
98 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Taste VIIL—Reuation oF CoEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION TO SPECIFIC

GRAVITY

Density X 1,000 at Coefficient

Origin of expansion
OC... 17 50 /
|

West Virginia (White Oak)..............| 873 853 46

West Virginia (Burning Spring).......... 841 808 81
Pennsylvania (Oil Creek)...............- | 816 784 82
Canadice cn sean. Ge atte eke veo ees | 870 851 44
IBUrMssCRENg GOR) eon 5 we ak. ct eee | 892 861 72
Haseley CB akw) secs f<.e ercs aon nace ren SsIm oe 920 yas
BinS Orn eG AliGiA sce aggeach ke ays 3 oe ee aN 870 836 81
Wiesterns Gach . 296. eases praca opal 855 852 iw!
RumaAnisa elorestl, Leis sa ceveces ees cee: 862 829 80
Rumania) CBOs ti2)saea.n seskic ree ae 901 869 73
Italy (Parma, Neviano de’ Rossi)......... 809 772 96
HanovernOberg) saaee unc ort ene ee 944 914 66
Elsass (Pechelbronn)...............:..%- 912 |; 880 73
Rranee:(St. Gabian). 25...¢5. 1.0. oa.8a[ See 861 69
yANoRE ele UA ee 5 SM NE EPI Ty, 952 | 921 67

Bartoli and Stracciati! examined the fractions obtained from

Pennsylvania crude petroleum, including the saturated hydro-
carbons from pentane, C;Hi2, to hexadecane, CisHss, and
obtained the following results:
TaBLE [X.—CoeEFFICIENTS OF EXPANSION OF PETROLEUM FRACTIONS

ee . Specific gravity Average coefficient of ex-

Hydrocarbon Boiling point at 0° pansion between 0° and 300°

CsHi2 +30° 0.64025 0.0015890

CisHss +278-282° 0.82873 0. 0008045

While some preliminary work had been carried out,? no

thorough investigation had been made of the expansion of
mineral lubricating oils until elaborate experiments were con-
ducted by the Charlottenburg Versuchsanstalt. The subject
is of practical importance in that it facilitates the estimation of
the specific gravity at different temperatures, and the comparison
1 Gazz. chim. ital., 15 (1886), 417.
* ALBRECHT, Ann. Gewerbe Bauwesen, 30, 234; and Vertu, ‘‘ Das Erdél und
seine Verarbeitung,” 1892.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 99

of the relation between increase of fluidity and increase of

volume. ‘The question of fluidity has an important bearing on
the value of lubricating oils; and the coefficient of expansion,
besides its interest in this particular, also serves to explain other
peculiarities observable in mineral oils, particularly the part
played by solid hydrocarbons.
Until the Charlottenburg investigation,! experiments on ex-
pansion had been based upon the formula V = V! (1 + at +
bt? + ct*), the constants, a, b, and c, having different values at
different temperatures, as shown by Kopp and others. Pre-
liminary experiments were made to ascertain the relative ad-
vantages of the determination of the coefficient, by weighing a
constant volume at different temperatures, and by direct measure-
ment of the increase in volume; the most suitable form and dimen-
sions of dilatometers and pyknometers, and the method of apply-
ing heat so as to produce and maintain a constant and equable
temperature throughout the oil under test, being also considered.
The use of a dilatometer with a bulb holding 30 c.c. and a tube
of a diameter of 1.7 to 1.8 mm., was decided on, the thermometer
for the experiments being graduated to 1/10°C. This made
estimation to the fifth decimal place possible. Table X shows
the effect on the coefficient resulting from error in the dilatometer
or pyknometer and thermometer.

TABLE X.—EFrect or INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS IN THE DETERMINATION OF

THE COEFFICIENT OF EXPANSION

rotroment |Clee, | Fepperare |eere| ee, |Seana

¢ Difference in Error of Error of co-

C.C: AC c.c. eC,

10.0 20 0.5 0 0.000025
25.0 20 0.5 0 0.0000010
TRH Sater 24.0 12 1.0 0 0.0000030
30.0 10 1.0 0 0.0000030
30.0 4 1.0 0 0.0000076
24.0 13 0 0.1 0.0000056

1.5 15 1 mg. 0 0.0000600

Pyknometer
Ld 30 1 mg. 0 | 0.0000200

1See Hops, op. cit.

100 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

The formula used was:

_VWi-V+AVi
[1 + (t — 20)] (4s — de
cca Viltet= 2G —)
c being the coefficient of expansion of the glass tube, taken as
= 0.000025, the dilatometer being calibrated at 20°C. This
resolves into:
Ue), 1 ae wal at
bowie) >Uilebicle 20) suai Vi,
a=

Of which the divisions

it Vi
and V
[1 + c(t — 20)
may be disregarded in making the calculations, bearing in mind
that leaving out - causes an error of —1 to —2 units in the
1
seventh decimal, and that the omission of has the
[1 + e(¢ — 20)]
following effect:
When ¢t — 20 = 10, the error is +1 to 2 units in the seventh
decimal.
When ¢ — 20 = 20, the error is +3 in the seventh decimal.
When t — 20 = 40, the error is +6 in the seventh decimal.
The formula, thus simplified, becomes:

en ae
a= OV + ¢.

The results given in the tables prepared by Holde! show that

the variations in the expansive properties of mineral lubricating
oils of different origin are but slight. The rule that increase in
specific gravity is accompanied by decreased expansion holds
good in general. The presence of solid hydrocarbons has the
effect. of reducing the specific gravity of the oil,? the coefficient
of expansion being simultaneously raised.
The German oils have a comparatively high rate of expansion
at low temperatures, but do not expand more than the Russian
oils at a higher temperature (between 30° and 50°C.); whereas
the coefficient of expansion of the Scottish oils, and such Ameri-
1 Loc. cit.
* Owing, according to ALBRECHT, to their high rate of expansion on solution
in liquid hydrocarbons.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 101

can oils as are rich in paraffin, increases with the temperature,

and exceeds that of the German and Russian oils. The thick
blackish oils of various origins which were examined by Holde
and his co-workers gave irregular results in the confirmatory
experiments, the discrepancies being accounted for partly by
the irregular distribution of the solid particles in suspension, and
probably also by differences in consistency, especially in the
case of one sample, which appeared to be composed entirely of.
residues. It does not appear from Holde’s results that any
simple relation exists between change of fluidity and expansion.
The variations of fluidity were, of course, greater in oils con-
taining paraffin (solid at low temperatures) than in paraffin-
free oils. In fact, the presence of solid paraffin and asphalt
exerts a peculiar influence on the fluidity of the oil,! especially
when the temperature of the sample is reduced, as these bodies
require a long time to separate completely, and the establish-
ment of normal testing-conditions is therefore difficult.
The general characteristics deducible from the experiments
of the Charlottenburg Versuchsanstalt may be thus summarized:
The heavy viscous mineral lubricating oils of various origins,
of a minimum specific gravity of 0.908, present very little varia-
tion in the rate of expansion between 20° and 78°C., the co-
efficient ranging between 0.00070 and 0.00072.
Those containing paraffin, and solid below 20°C., such as the
German oils, have between 12° and 20°C., on the melting of the
paraffin, a higher coefficient, viz., 0.00075 to 0.00081.”
The less viscous oils, for lighter machinery, of specific gravity
lower than 0.905 at 15°C., have a higher coefficient than the first
class, viz., 0.00072 to 0.00076 between 20° and 78°C.
The completely fluid oils exhibit, with rising temperature, a
gradual increase in the rate of expansion. The oils containing
paraffin have a decreasing coefficient with increasing temperature
until completely fluid, when they follow the above rule.
In the case of kerosene; the practice in the trade in Great
Britain is to add or to subtract from the specific gravity at 60°F.
0.0004 for every 1°F. above or below that temperature. Accord-
ing to Redwood’s experience, the following corrections for each

1 On the temperature coefficient of expansion of petroleum residuums, see

RosspacHer, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., T (1915), 577.
2 ALBRECHT found the following differences of the coefficients: 0.0004 for
German, 0.0007 for Russian, and 0.0005 for American oils.
 .

102 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Y
ay

|
00050

Sy

30:

Sy
ao
> fie
5
a
f .00045 eS
32 3
§
Q aad
A4
a a
PI
°
SE
au
g Pau
a © a
fy.
4
2:
4 Ne Ry
&
°
fee

Fee:
2
a iS
a >
18.62.
° VFL 19,3°2.
12} iy | 3
a.
00040 Ah)
=
Toss
Yy.
WIS
We 3o/eB
- |
Ke of

KE
BY
AG
50.82
| Se

7.1B
i
wy zea ae |
02.

.00035
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150
Temperature
Home Oil Co,, Coalinga Well*® 4;6-C; Sunset
Well? 35;8-C; Sunset Well #16;23-4; Sunset

i
Well?#10;5-C; Sunset
Well#7;23-4; Sunset
Well#1;35-4; Ooalings
Well*5;6-C; Bunset
Well#16;11-.4; Sunset

Fie. 13.—Curves showing coefficients of expansion for California oils

various grades at various temperatures.
of
:
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 103

1°F. should be made: for products lighter than kerosene,

0.00040 to 0.00048; for kerosene, 0.00040; for gas oils, 0.00036;
and for lubricating oils, 0.00034.
Tables based upon a formula of Gay-Lussac have been in use
in the United States for calculating the alterations in volume
of crude petroleum under variations of temperature. At the
-present time American refiners usually figure temperature
allowances as follows: light gasolines—subtract or add 1 per
cent. for every 15° above or below 60°F.; all other naphthas
and gasolines and illuminating oils—1l per cent. for every 20°
from 60°F.; gas and lubricating oils—1 per cent. for every 25°
from 60°F.! :
Boiling Point——The boiling points of petroleums and the
amounts of distillates obtained at specified temperatures there-
from, differ considerably, as will be shown in the next section

Taste XI.—Borntinc Pornts or CrupE -PETROLEUMS AND AMOUNTS OF

DISTILLATES AT VARIOUS TEMPERATURES

>»
3
[Bo
3" 1. Per cent. by volume distilling at
ee ae °C.
He [=ire)
Oil from ahs 3.5
go | 28] Be | 130° | 150° |170° 190°| 210°) 230°| 250°| 270° |290°} Lo
oP eles Oma aton | miton |\eton| itola} ito! ito: (Nt! tos | eto. | oS
Se |.22) Hr | 150° | 170° |190°) 210° 230°) 250° 270°) 290° |300° ae
ge [Ak |

Pennsylvania,
CLS eree 0.8175} 82°/15.0 | 6.0 | 5.0 [5.0 |5.0 |5.75|4.75/6.0 | 4.75/2.0 |40.75
(2) a 0.8010} 74°/24.5 | 7.0 | 4.5 |4.5 |6.5 15.0 |4.75/3.25] 4.0 12.5 |33.5
Gali ca a
(Sloboda
Rungurska)../0.8235} 90°/16.0 |10.5 |10.25|6.5 |6.5 |7.0 |6.75|/6.0 | 3.5 |0.5 |26.5
Baku (Bibi-
Hibat).. ccs. 0.8590} 91°116.0 | 7.0 | 6.5 16.5 |5.0 |5.0 |5.0 {5.5 | 3.5 |1.0 |39.0
Baku (Balak-
RATE ie ae 0.8710) 105°) 3.75) 4.75) 5.5 |4.75/5.25|5.0 |7.0 |4.75| 5.5 |1.75/52.0
Elsass (Pechel-
DEONN)!< wiesie« 0.9075) 135°) ..... 3.0 | 4.4 |5.4 |4.5 |6.6 |7.3 |7.0 |10.3 |4.5 |47.0
Hanover
(Oelherm)
yee OO. SOOO LOS. sere lle sceseie lls arene 4.75|5.25/6.0 |4.0 {5.0 | 5.0 |2.0 |68.0

2. Average percentage yield from oil of

Product =
Pennsylvania Galicia | Rumania | Elsass | Baku

Light: oil... 10 to 20 3 to 6 Se alsiSratatayareia

ere ete 5 to 10.6
Burning oil. . 60 to 75 55 to 65 60 to 70 35 to.40 32 to 53.5
Residue...... 5 to 10 30 to 40 25 to 35 | 55 to 60 36 to 60.0

1 The coefficient of expansion of solar oil is 0.00079,

104 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

of this chapter. It is convenient to present here, however,

Table XI, the first part of which is by Engler and Levin,’ and
the second by Engler.?
Specific Heat.—The specific heats of petroleum and its
products are of importance to the refinery engineer.* By their
use one can calculate the amount of heating surface required in
utilizing the heat of steam for preheating oil prior to distillation
or in distillation itself and in dehydrating crude petroleum.
A knowledge of specific heats is also required in calculating the
capacity of a refrigerating plant for the recovery of paraffin
wax and in utilizing vapor in heating the oil in a continuous
system.
The specific heat of petroleum may be determined by several
methods. Grife? burns 0.41 to 0.48 gram of a substance of
known heat of combustion in a bomb calorimeter, in which the
sample of oil is used as the outer liquid. From the quantity
of substance of known heat of combustion taken (a), the quantity
of oil (b), the water equivalent of the calorimeter (W), and the
observed rise of temperature (7'), the specific heat may be cal-
culated from the formula

aALTS = WT + bet.
A ready method for the determination of the specific heats of
petroleum and its distillates consists in bringing into contact,
by agitation in a well-insulated glass separatory funnel provided
with a thermometer, a sample of the oil and distilled water of
the weights M, and My, respectively, and at the respective
temperatures of 7, and T,,. The oil-water mixture will come
to anintermediate temperature t, such that the number of thermal
units given out by the oil is equal to the number gained by the
1 Dingler’s polyt. J., 261, 32.
* Idem, 260, 337. For other similar data, see Kramer, Sitz. Ver. Beférd.
Gewerbjfl. Preuss., 1885, 294; and Karmarscu and Herren, “Technolo-
gisches Worterbuch,”’ 3d ed., 1876, 618. On the variations of boiling point
with altitude, see Loumann, Chem.-Zitg., 38 (1914), 897.
§ Petroleum, 2 (1907), 521. For other methods, see Kouurauscn’s
“Introduction to Physical Measurements” (Eng. trans.), 3d ed., 118; and
Reep and Gurue’s ‘Manual of Physical Measurements,” 3d ed., 113.
The specific heat may also be calculated from the elementary composition:
divide the percentages of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen by the respective
atomic weights, and multiply these quotients by the atomic heats (C =
1.8; H = 23: O = 4.0).
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 105

water, or vice versa. Then, taking S, for the specific heat of

In actual practice, it is impossible to avoid loss of heat both by

radiation and conduction, but this method is a convenient one
for the refinery engineer.
The same method may be used for determining the total heat
to be removed from a wax-bearing distillate in cooling it from,
say, the vicinity of the cloud-point to the temperature at which
the paraffin wax is to be removed from it.’ This determination
can be most conveniently carried out by the reverse operation;
that is, by first cooling a sample of the wax-bearing distillate
to its final temperature, then ascertaining the total heat required
to melt a weighed amount and raising it to the temperature in
question, by repeated additions of small portions of water of a
sufficiently high temperature, and repeated agitation, until the
exact temperature required is arrived at. For example, suppose
it is desirable to cool a wax distillate from, say, 80°F. to, say,
20°F. for the purpose of pressing. The sample is cooled down to
20°F., and a weighed portion at that temperature is put in
the insulated separatory funnel and water of a sufficient tem-
perature above 80°F., say 100°F., is added in gradual por-
tions, with agitation, until a resulting temperature of 80°F.
is indicated by the thermometer. The weight of the water
used being known, then from the above-mentioned data can
easily be computed the amount of heat used in raising the
temperature from 20° to 80°F., which result would be the same
as the amount of heat required to be removed to cool from 80°
to 20°F. To arrive at the heat to be removed per pound of dis-
tillate, letting H, = total heat per pound to be removed, one
should use the formula :
He,M. (io).
It will be noted that by obtaining the specific heat of a petro-
leum product containing in solution a series of solid paraffins
of different melting points which crystallize out progressively,
the result will be complicated by the heat absorbed in the lique-
faction of any member or members of this series or by the heat
1 For practical pvrposes, it is not essential that the specific heat and the
latent heat of liquefaction be determined separately.
106 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

given out in the solidification thereof. Consequently, at

temperatures where any paraffin wax crystallizes out, the specific
heat shown is true only for that particular range of temperature.
Grife found the specific heat of various oils to range from 0.4
to 0.5. It may be noted here that the more hydrogen an oil
contains, the higher is its specific heat; and the richer it is in
oxygen and carbon, the lower its specific heat.*
It has been found by Mabery and Goldstein? that impurities
lower the specific heats of petroleum hydrocarbons to a con-
siderable extent. These investigators have indicated that
although the paraffin series of hydrocarbons affords the best
field for study of an homologous series, little has been done in
the direction of determining the specific heats of these bodies.
During the course of an investigation of the distillates sepa-
rated from Pennsylvania petroleum, Bartoli and Stracciati* deter-
mined the specific heats of certain hydrocarbons to be as follows:
Taste XII.—Spreciric Heats or CrrtTAIN HyDROCARBONS
Temperature Specific Heat
Hexanen@ehaqucee tte tere eee 16°-37° 0.5042
Heptane, C7His RNahehe calwolan rettemehion aitennene tsae 16°-37° 0.4869

OctanesC slice ae tens oe i a oe LO 0.5111

Me cartes: Cig Hos sa teme eles yoke: One ees* 14°-18° 0.5057
‘Letra decane Cy aklan sper ean ten Meese 0.4995
Hexadecane,, Creblsas... asia varie 15°-22° 0.4963
The inference from these results was that the specific heats of
these hydrocarbons were remarkably constant.
Mabery and Goldstein’ gave the following as the results of
from three to six determinations of each hydrocarbon, made at
the temperatures 0° and 50°:
TasLe XIII.—Spreciric Heats or Certain HyprRocarBoNs
Boiling Specific Boiling Specific
- point neat point eat
OS hia mc, ae 68° 0.5272 Gistiaceae 214° 0.4997
G7 Elisaeaen 91° 0.5005 CisHos...... 226° 0.4986
(OB his noooc 98° 0.5074 CyaBigtmee. 242° 0.4973
Calis. 125° 0.5052 CycEiganse ee 260° 0.4966
Olesen
5cae 151° 0.5034 (Orgelyccsoe 275° 0.4957
CroH 22 162° 0.4951 Commercial
CipH a» 172° 0.5021 PASOMNE ae eer eas 0.5135
(Ohylsltye cee 195° 0.5013 Crude Ohio
Petroleum yer 0.4951
‘See the determinations given below and also Scumrrz, Mat. grasses, 6, 3005.
2 Am. Chem. J., 28 (1902), 67.
3 Gazz. chim. ital., 14 (1884), 548; 15, 417.
4Loc cit., 69.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 107

Table XIV gives the specific heats obtained from the series of
methylene hydrocarbons.

Taste XIV.—Spreciric Heats or MretHyLENE HypRocARBONS

Boiling ' repress Boiling Specific
point eat point heat
(Cs Gianoe 68° 0.5062 Ciao. 190° 0.4819
(OF)2Sy eae 98° 0.4879 CizHos...... 212° 0.4570
(Cpla lignes Sack 119° 0.4863 Ciz3Hos...... 232° 0.4573
CoEtgs sass 13 oe 0.4851 Cra ogee. a. 244° 0.4531
CrGHiconiesnes 160° 0.4692 CrgHisose ses 263° 0.4708

It appears from these results that there is a uniform decrease

in specific heat with increase in molecular weight. Furthermore,
the normal hydrocarbons, such as heptane, C7Hi¢ (b.p., 98°),
and decane, CioH22 (b.p., 172°), have higher specific heats than
their isomers, such, for example, as isoheptane, C7Hi¢ (b.p., 91°),
and isodecane, CyoH22 (b.p., 162°). The same variation also
appears in the methylene series, with high values for certain
members that probably indicate different structural relations.
Mabery and Goldstein call attention to the materially lower
values given by the methylene hydrocarbons as compared with
the values for the paraffin hydrocarbons; and question whether
this is due to greater compactness in the methylene molecule or
to some quality of its ring structure.

Taste XV.—Speciric Heats oF A SERIES OF HyDROCARBONS SEPARATED

FROM THE HIGH-BOILING PORTIONS OF PENNSYLVANIA PETROLEUM AND
BELONGING TO THE SERIES CypHon!
Boiling Specific Boiling Specific
point heat point heat
CyeHge5.<... . i732 0.4723 CGosblaceneee 260° 0.4612
(Cretlseaconna. (2025 0.4723 Grylls lesoaee 222 0.4586
(Craldlipens 5 AePar 0.4706

Mabery and Goldstein? also determined the specific heat in

several hydrocarbons of the series CypHon-2 and the series
CnHon—s, which had been separated from Texas petroleum, with
the following results:

1 Masery and GoLpsTEIN, loc. cit., 71. For the specific heats of the
heavier petroleum distillates at high temperatures, consult KaravayYerv,
Neftjanoje Djelo, 1918, No. 16; Petroleum, 9, 550.
SL OCuCtl alas
108 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Tasie XVI.—Sperciric Heats or SEVERAL HYDROCARBONS SEPARATED FROM

Trexas PETROLEUM
Series CpHon-> Series CpHon—4
Boiling Specifi Boiling Specifi
eit, |heat ad Boe thet
ROWE soa Hea 0.4447 GyHiaeee 218° 0.4560
G@iliosuaecs + 142° 0.4439 Ope Hasieee Patee 0.4650
(Orlakytae ac 162° 0.4426

According to Mabery and Goldstein, these findings cannot be

accepted as trustworthy, for the quantities of the hydrocarbons
were very small and the oils began to crystallize at 0°. There is
no doubt that the specific heats of these hydrocarbons are smaller
than those of the preceding series.
The same investigators determined the specific heat in the
following crude oils from various fields:

Taste XVII.—Sprciric Heat or Crupe OILs, ETC.

Specific Specific
gravity heat
Pennsylvailila sete tect ee erie ome ere ere 0.8095 0.5000
Beroas Guiting wee eres ees tee renee caren oe 0.7939 0.4690
JADANEECLVL Ye, seine Siete» hy cnamhge RR Mines oe 0.8622 0.4532
FLexass (MALCHS: Well’) eine vaern iedogtat coe no eine 0.9200 0.43815
Resin si enon anita. cine ees ae ee 0.9079 0.4355
WiOMIni ge mie torte mckereete a ateae etaice ete ar 0.8816 0.43823
CaLMOTM arene Concent ere titi or 0.9600 0.39801
PLOX Scare ceciate extuoreenteaclorehysiee, OaE RTE ES 0.9466 0.4009
OJ:foys ON eee tern a tet naam Gitta hit ORS ©Vo otASe 0.4951
Cormmercialigasolingcn panacea: oj Glue cite ons 0.5185

These values show that the specific heat of the crude oils is an
important property from a practical point of view. It would also
seem that there is no close agreement between specific heat and
specific gravity. Pennsylvania oil stands at the head, and Berea
Grit, with a much larger proportion of volatile constituents, is
next. Of the heavier oils, it appears in general that the specific
heats are much lower, but with no definite relation.
It has been found,” in the case of California petroleum, that
as the asphalt content increases, the specific heat decreases.
Latent Heat of Evaporation.—A knowledge of the latent heat
of evaporation of petroleum fractions is necessary to the refinery
1 More recently Wars (J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 6, 727) reported that the
specific heat of California petroleums varied between 0.3999 and 0.5016, the
average on twelve samples being about 0.4500.
2 By WALES, zbid.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 109

engineer for the determination of the requisite heating arrange-

ments, the dimensions of the required condensers, and the supply
of condensing water. While, in practice, these data are often
arrived at by empirical methods, occasions arise when first
principles must be resorted to.
Synievski! has devised an apparatus for determining the latent
heats as required for the calculation of distilling and condensing
plant. Grife? determines the heat of evaporation by conduct-
ing the vapor of the oil through a form of Liebig’s condenser
and measuring the rate of flow and rise of temperature of the
condenser water; he has also shown that the heat of evaporation
may be calculated from the molecular weight and the boiling
points.*
Table XVIII gives the results which were obtained by Mabery
and Goldstein,* as the mean of several observations. Mabery
and Goldstein have emphasized the practical importance of
information concerning the heats of vaporization.®

Taste XVIII—Memsers oF THE SERIES CypHon;2

Boiling point eae ae

Le oF, Calories |. B.t-u.

jeSe eeori?Oypea tava ee bea ROE 68 | 154 | 79.4 |143

Meptane MG 7 Eigen vee vee watem cere ae: 88 190 | 74.0 133
ONES TOA: erene
Oa aie 125 | 259 | 71.1 | 128

DETERMINATIONS FOR CERTAIN MrtTHyYLENE HYDROCARBONS

Boiling point A

SOL oF.
calories | Btu.

Hexamethylene, CeHiz.......... 68-70 | 154-158 87.3 157

Dimethylpentamethylene, C7H14..) 90-92 | 194-198 81.0 | 146
Methylhexamethylene C;Hi4..... 98 208 | 75.7 136
Dimethylhexamethylene, CsHys..| 118-119 245 ele 129

1Z, angew. Chem., 11 (1898), 621.

2 Petroleum, 5 (1910), 569.
3 See also KuarircuKov’s ‘‘ Physikalische Untersuchung des Erddls.”
4 Gocreit., 605:
5 This subject is again referred to in the descriptive account of condensers
in the chapter on Refinery Engineering (see p. 736).
110 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

‘These results indicate a rapid falling off in latent heat, with

increase in molecular weight.
Viscosity.\—The determination of the viscosity of mineral
oils is generally made in practice by ascertaining the times
occupied by two equal volumes of the liquids under comparison
to flow through a narrow aperture under exactly the same con-
ditions. The numbers obtained in this way are, of course, en-
tirely arbitrary? and differ with the viscosimeters employed
for the purpose. For practical purposes, the viscosity of mineral
oils has been usually compared with that of rape oil, but the use
of the latter is open to the objection that it is difficult to obtain
samples of the same viscosity.
The viscosimeters of Saybolt,? of Engler, and of Redwood,’
are the most important of the many forms which have been
devised. Saybolt’s viscosimeter is in use in the United States,
1 On the viscosity of mineral oils, see BrnurL, Bull. conserv. arts metiers,
1906, No. 6; Curercuerrsky, Rev. Chim. Ind., 12 (1901), 248; Cotman, J.
Soc. Chem. Ind., 5 (1886), 359; EpeLteanu and Dutuena, An. Inst. Geol.
Roman., 3 (1910), 490; Eneatmr, Chem.-Zig., 9 (1885), 189; Hacks, Mitt.
k.-k. techn. Gew., 15 (1905), 44; Hotpm and Stranen, Mitt. k. techn. Versuch-
sanst., 18 (1900), 157; Kisstine, Chem. Rev. Fett-Harz-Ind., 9 (1902), 202;
Mason, Chem. News, 50 (1884), 210; Nurren, Chem.-Ztg., 29 (1905), 385;
OFFERMANN, Chem. Rev. Fett-Harz-Ind., 18 (1911), 272; Rupwoop, J. Soc.
Chem. Ind., 5 (1886), 121; Samerman, Gray and Hammerscuag, J. Ind.
Eng. Chem., 1 (1909), 13; Stneur, Chem. Rev. Fett-Harz-Ind., 4 (1897),
243; Petroleum, 2 (1907), 555; StmincraBer, Petroleum, 1 (1906), 578;
UBBELOHDE, idem, 4, (1909), 861; Urn, Rept. Brit. Assn., 1839, 22; and
Wuirr, Petrol. World, 8 (1911), 499. On the calculation of the degree of
viscosity of mineral oil mixtures, see Moun, Chem.-Zitg., 38 (1914), 857; and
PyHALa, Petroleum, 7, 207. On the viscosity and rate of flow of hydro-
carbon oils, see GLAzEBROOK,. Hiaeins and nea Engineering, 100
(1915), 522; Gas World, 63 (1915), 515.
*On the expression of viscosities in absolute measure, instead of by the
arbitrary values now adopted, see especially Hiaarns, J. Soc. Chem. Ind.,
32 (1913), 568.
’See Repwoopn’s “A Treatise on Petroleum,” 2, 279. On a comparison
of the Eneier and Saysotr viscosities of mixed oils, see Gray, Orig. Com.
8th Internat. Cong. Appl. Chem., 10, 153.
‘See Eneiur, Chem.-Ztg., 9 (1885), 189; and Dingler’s polyt. J.,. 286
(1892), 210.
5See Repwoop, J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 5 (1886), 121; Hiaarns, idem, 32
(1913), 568; and Savin and Cox, idem, 35 (1916), 151.
6On the torsion viscosimeter, see Doourrrin, J. Am. Chem. Soc., 15
(1893), 173; on the ENeter-Ktnxier instrument, see Dingler’s polyt. J.,
276 (1890), 42; on the KinKuur viscosimeter, see idem, 290 (1893), 281;
for a description of the Lamansxy-Noset viscosimeter, see WISCHIN, Chem.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 111

while the instrument of Engler is used in Germany and gener-

ally on the continentin Europe,! and that of Redwood is
standard in the British Isles.
The relation between Engler and Saybolt viscosimeters is
thus given by 8. W. Stratton, Director of the United States
Bureau of Standards :?
If EH; = time in seconds for outflow of 200 c.c. with Engler,
S, = time in seconds for outflow of 60 c.c. with Saybolt,
then E; = S.P
E
and S; = ri

where the conversion factors F have the values given in the

following table:
Et St F
Secs. Secs. Conversion Factors
65 37.8 1.72
70 41.7 1.68
80 50.0 1.60
90 58.1 1.55
100 66.2 1.51
125 86.2 1.45
150 106.4 1.41
175 125.9 1.39
200 146.0 ° 1.37
2,400 1,765 1.36
Example 1.—Suppose the observed time of outflow of 60 c.c.
with the Saybolt viscosimeter was 1,000 sec. The conversion
factor corresponding to S; = 1,000, taken from the above table,
is about 1.365. Hence, the corresponding Engler time is
1,000 X 1.365 = 1,365 sec.
Rev. Fett-Harz-Ind., T (1900), 73; and on the Paguianr, Drermar, and
GoopMAN apparatus, see Fra, Proc. Int. Assn. Testing Materials, 2, xxis.
Instruments for measuring the viscosities of fluids are discussed in
principle by MacMicwaen in J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 7 (1915), 961. Mac-
MicuHaeu has devised a viscosimeter which, like the earlier instruments of
CovETTe and of Ciark, operates on this general principle: the force re-
quired to produce a definite relative movement of the fluid particles in a
given time. A disk is suspended in a cup of fluid, and the force exerted
by the rotation of the fluid itself is measured. Accuracy, rapidity and
convenience are claimed.
1In France, however, Barsey’s “ixométre”’ is employed.
2See ‘Petroleum and Natural Gas Resources of Canada,’’ Bull. 291,
Canada Dept. of Mines, Mines Branch, 1914, p. 52. On conversion tables
for. SayBouT Universal, EncLer and Repwoop viscosimeters, see WAIDNER,
Proc. Am. Soc. Test. Mat., 16 (1915), 284; and McIuuiney, J. Ind. Eng.
Chem., 8 (1916), 434.
112 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Example 2.—Suppose the observed time of outfldw of 200 c.c.

with the Engler viscosimeter was 185 sec. The conversion
factor corresponding to EH; = 185, taken from the above table,
is about 1.38. Hence the corresponding Saybolt time is

“ne 134 sec.

The above table was found to hold for all the oils tested, ranging
from light machinery to heavy cylinder oils, and at all tempera-
tures, 70° to 210°F. The table must not be used below E; = 65
sec., as none of these viscosimeters is adapted to low viscous
oils, as, ¢.g., illuminating oils.
In the use of the Engler instrument, the so-called Engler
numbers are very often used instead of the time in seconds.
The Engler number is the time of outflow of 200 ¢.c. of the oil
at the test temperature divided by the time of outflow of 200
c.c. of water at 20°C. With Engler instruments, having the
standard dimensions specified for these instruments, and in which
the variations do not exceed the specified limits, the time of out-
flow of 200 c.c. of water at 20°C. is between 50 and 52 sec.
Example—Suppose the observed Engler time (for 200 c.c. of
oil at the test temperature) is 1,000 sec., and that the time of
outflow of 200 c.c. of water at 20° has been found to be 51 sec.
Then the corresponding Engler number is
100
see 1.96.

The above conversion table is given for the time of outflow of

200 c.c. of oil, which is the standard method of using the Engler
instrument. When viscous oils are tested at low temperatures,
however, the time consumed for the outflow of 200 c.c. is very
long. The test can be very much abbreviated by observing
the time of outflow of 50 c.c. or of 100 c.c. and multiplying by
a suitable factor to reduce to the equivalent time for 200 c.c.,
in the way explained by Holde in his book on “ Untersuchung
der Mineraléle und Fette,’’ 2nd ed., 1905.
Although the viscosity of petroleum products of similar chem-
ical characteristics increases with the density,! oils of the same
specific gravity from different localities often differ in viscosity.
1 STHINGRABER, Petroleum, 1 (1906), 578.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 113

Table XIX,! showing the relative viscosity of water and various

oils, brings out this fact.
TaBLe XIX.—ViscosiTy-SECONpDS FoR 50 c.c.?

Spee Lege
= = mineral o1 mineral 01

rele Water ea Sperm Spa Beef fia ba

ture rape oil oil tallow Sg sg
oF, oil oe = Sp. gr.|Sp. gr.| Sp. gr. |Sp. gr.
0.885 |0.913 0.923 |0.909 | 0.915 |0.8843

BOM hot ae POMS Ns Gaaece C2ONR ean dae 145 [425 |1,030 |2,040 | 2,520
60 2544 |540 177 ALON etal tagcrsite 105 |295%]| 680 |1,235 |1,980
AUD) Ulerst sea? 405 L869. S66) Wl ecercraves 90 |225 485 820 |1,320
SOME livin 326 113 DSOnN Tiere 73 «(|171 375 580 900
(Ue = regercr eee 260 96 PLOT G sparse 63% |136 262 426 640

BOOT acctaae 213% | 80% 74340 | coe :| 54 |111 200 315 440 1,015
DUO) ilar srare< 169 70% |14736 |...... 50 894%} 153 226 335 73946
TIO) Vane es 8 147 60% TZO a etarts.es 47 78 126 174 245 531
POPU rere ee 123% | 57 EL Zee toa 4434) 6314] 101 135%} 185 39816
TN catesarese 1053% | 5034 sherk Aon Ge 41 58 82 116 145 317%

LO Nateacs 95% | 49 WTB aero aie 3746) 52 70% 95 115 250

TRG lla tans 85 AT COP Acre olacheacectie 46 634%) 83% 93% | 200
T7O! Alencar 76 46 (eat BG ech chain area 58 70% 77% | 161
PEO Np esas 69 444% OOVSE teeeewa
lychee ll trees 52% 61% 6714 13446
VOOR MM daroecs 64% | 43 DB Wiehe wearers rahrcael |heranese 47 56% 61 115%

ZOOM |aace.< « 58% | 42 5086 O49) WE wend bere: 42 48% 54 99%

NOW BN ccs scan 54 4034 BSB Erp eel leaned taea 4 AQ in eectslite testaretare 85
PO hoi wale 50 39 Ae s'lisres rexsndlic<aesernll ORCS SO leo pets 77
230% iter 474% | 3634 BOG55 rosea Monniereias| tresciete indexes. 2 artaretat Siecie avers 704%
240 454% | 3534 BaD Ga srerctr ach oyperorey| ey
reitetene tions keel ake aa Shanes sae 6434

O50 we tiseah: 43% | 343%4 44 LO ONE recyaellisivecae lreeeters nel theeate patente oleae 594
ZOO ailtiatecctace|lalsteckous 3334 AS aval or rasetetltey euPcciliaie wene cu aiaxede eats Giseaavail eramalecetet ane 54
LUN alle ercuare ite skessvers 3234 SID PR secver soles 2,-sltauev Dera teas, ohetl sheets waitlakaicene cabot 48%
DSO ONG. oetcasel| Sons suabs SLaVAGM| MEETS acest Hi ate cell ermotca meus eee eeae ale cuore enter 4616
DOOR Wl naaleke
fogs Waletncced 3034 BAT Vi iactete stalltepartaicl| lapestexcateel ees seitetellGasrent cesslester oe aticron 4414

SOON wilecheiete
|'sstances « 30 SOae Miser ePSKA | eee ccntacme ee aes.cteeveil eet ovat ee oateerote 4236
SO el ache covall ekecs easdelleas cnienstess 35
SIX0 jeeel| oye Bred ieeeeratns|Secacentere 3346

The viscosity of petroleum is of value in determining the

facility with which the oil can be pumped with or without heat
through pipe lines. It may be noted here that surface tension
is a constant not yet of value; this is owing to the fact that there
is a lack of knowledge regarding the variations caused by the
1 Determinations of Repwoon, op. cit.
2 Results with Rrepwoon’s standard viscosimeter.
3 Semi-solid at ordinary temperatures. It may be noted here that a lubri-
cating oil which remains fluid at —55°, is described in Nephtanoje Djelo,
1912, 14.
8
114 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

probable presence of small quantities of certain substances in

crude petroleums.
Optical Activity—Certain petroleums and their distillates
slightly rotate the plane of polarization; the specific rotatory
power of mineral oils is generally 0° to +1.2°, and it rarely
rises to +3.1°. The determination is made with the usual
polarimetric apparatus.
Zaloziecki and Klarfeld! examined a number of Galician oils
and one each from Pennsylvania, Russia and Germany. They
found that the last three named were inactive, while the light
pale descriptions of Galician oils were generally inactive and the
dark heavy ones were usually active.
Engler? has expressed the opinion that the optical activity of
petroleum is, in most cases, caused by the presence of an in-
dividual substance, probably the product of a destructive dis-
tillation of cholesterin or a cholesterin-like substance; but
Koss?, who made a number of experiments with Ledok and
Gogor (Java) petroleum, opposes this view.
Rakuzin‘ concludes that crude oil is dextro-rotatory, the rota-
tory power being proportional to the depth of the oil-yielding
strata, and that the rotatory power of the oil is due to its forma-
tion from compounds containing asymmetric carbon atoms.
Out of ten Japanese petroleums examined by Rakuzin,® only one
(Amaze field) was polarimetrically inactive. It had a specific
gravity of 0.7877 at 15°C., and was described as a remarkable
example of an inactive oil obtained at a great depth (2,100 ft.).
Rakuzin® regards the optical activity of petroleum as the most
important factor in determining the genesis and geological age
of a crude oil. The results of the investigations of 120 petro-
leums from Caucasia have led Rakuzin to declare that the
specific gravity increases with the depth at which an oil is found;

1 Chem.-Ztg., 31 (1907), 1155-1156, 1170-1172.

2 Z. angew. Chem., 21 (1908), 1585-1597. See also ENGLER and Bosrzyn-
sx1, Petrol. Rev., 27, 41.
3 J. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc., 43 (1911), 697-707. Cf. EnauErr and
SreinKorr, ibid., 1820.
4 J. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc., 41 (1909), 483-500.
5 Petroleum, 6 (1911), 1048. On the relation of the optical activity of
petroleum to petrologenesis, see p. 29; and on the significance of optical
activity, see Busnona, Science, 38, 39.
° Orig. Com. 8th Internat. Cong. Appl. Chem., 25, 721. See also RaKuzin,
J. Russ. Phys.-Chem. Soc., 44, 1737; Petroleum, 7, 288.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 115

that the carbonization values! decrease; that the yields of similar

products of distillation are closely associated with depth; and
that the paraffin content of crude oil decreases with depth.
Zamyatin,? however, has indicated that an increase in depth does
not always increase the specific gravity of petroleum.®
Refractivity—tThe refractive index is of technical importance
in that it permits of the detection of rosin oil in lubricants.
The refractometer of Zeiss is generally employed for this
determination.
Refractivity has also petrologenetic significance. For in-
stance, Engler,* who has devoted considerable attention to the
determination of the power of refracting light possessed by
petroleum, is authority for the statement that the most char-
acteristic physical properties indicative of the locality from which
an oil is obtained are the refractive index and the specific gravity.
In support of this statement he has prepared the following table
(Table XX), in which it will be observed that the refractive indices
of the oils of Tegernsee and Pechelbronn approach that of
Pennsylvania petroleum, while the Oelheim oil affords results
not differing greatly from those given by Baku petroleum.
TABLE XX.—RE5FRACTIVE INDICES OF PETROLEUM DISTILLATES

Fraction Fraction Fraction Fraction

140°-160° 190°-210° 240°-260° 290°-310°

Sg Ref. Ss Ref. |a Ref. S Ref.

Doe 7 | sind. Pee) ind ais| ieee lenindsanfey oo (eins

Tegernsee.....|0.7465 |1.427 |0.7840 |1.487 |0.8130 |1.451 |0.8370 |1.465

Pechelbronn
(Elsass)..... 0.7550 |1.421 |0.7900 |1.440 |0.8155 |1.454 |0.8320 1.462
Oelheim (Han-
over)........|0.7830 |1.485 |0.8155 |1.450 |0.8420 |1.468 |0.8620 |1.480
Pennsylvania |0.7550 |1.422 |0.7860 |1.439 |0.8120 |1.454 |0.8325 |1.463
Ba kta es 0.7820 |1.486 |0.8195 [0.454 |0.8445 |1.467 |0.8640 |1.475

Moreover, in determining the origin of a petroleum or its

products, Chercheffsky® notes the refractive index. He presents
1The degree of opaqueness determines the carbonization value of a crude
oil. Thisis, according to RaKuzIn, associated with the period of formation of
the oil.
2Ann. géol. et min. de la Russie, 14 (1912).
3Cf. p. 94. :
4 Verh. Ver. Beford. Gewerbfl. Preuss., 1887, 637.
5 Compt. rend., 150 (1910), 1338,
116 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

the following illustrative results obtained with distillates below

300°C. :
Taste XXI.—Rerractive InpIces or PETROLEUM DISTILLATES
igi . BF. Indi f
ae AURA o<telsavton
at. 15°C.

INTER Non en pee 6d AOR OIOSS G0 HS CRS 0.780 1.4345

DATHLCTI CAI Acree Sac yas Reels, fae reletecote ererece 0.800 1.4453
IATHETICATI WHA keer tener eneketetave eherars eons 0.820 1.4564

RUSSIAN reeds aera cinta terns 0.780 1.4309

RUSSIAN cee. ce ceed elaineere 0.800 1.4419
IRUSSIATO oe Lae ene eae 0.820 1.4533

FRU ATU Tete ee en eee ne ene 0.780 1.4334

Rumanian esses oe. cee meee oie 0.800 1.4458
RUIMAnaTMeS seer ee he acne terere eee 0.820 P4572

GraliGian free ccetccarria tehe r eaes entero 0.780 1.4356

Galletanss rakes ack eee aoe 0.800 1.4466
Galician. cae cath he can tt oto Mare 0.820 1.4586

Shales see tl. Forces + sean ote 0.780 1.4373

Shales ee cc ets eee. ae 0.800 1.4469
Shale: senor cece acre one ene eee eee 0.820 1.4568

The following results were obtained with lubricating oils and

solid hydrocarbons:
Russian spindle oil, ref. ind. at 15°C................ 1.4888
American cylinder oil, ref. ind. at 15°C.............. 1.4954
Petroleum paraffin, ref. ind. at 15°C:............... 1.4185
phale parafinyrehaind at lb Con emer ecce eters 1.4161
Ceresin (ozokerite), ref. ind. at 15°C.!...........4.. 1.426

Using the Zeiss-Abbé refractometer, at the temperature of

15°C., Le Roy? obtained these values:
Refractive
index
AMOricAn ucrud OLOll been acer tne eee Caan aera
1.4540
American petroleum spirit (sp. gr., 0.720)........ 1.3995
Americankwhite DuUurnitigyollen ete nnere teen 1.4430
Russian Crude: Olly. mee taster hee eerie teatCe eet 1.4595
Russian petroleum spirit (sp. gr., 0.720).......... 1.4105
RUSSIAMew OCs UnmIng Olle serrate. ean ees 1.4530
lanubaneymenacernialwenllo oy oe kwon Gepaoo dp aSe hubs boc 1.4639
Rumanian petroleum spirit (sp. gr., 0.720). ....... 1.4055
Rumanian white burning oil. .30)...55.e0s0e seer 1.4560
1On the refractometric properties of technical paraffins, see also Hops,
Petroleum, 9, 669.
2 Ann. chim. anal., 16 (1911), 12.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 117

According to Kind and Valgis,! the refractive index is de-

pendent not upon the boiling point but upon the density. In
fact, recent work? shows that refractive indices vary in the same
inchon as specific gravities.
Radioactivity. Hurmuzescu’ found that the lightest varieties
of certain Rumanian oils examined were the most active and that
the activity decreased with time.
Calorific Value.5—The examination of fuel oils® usually con-
sists in the determination of the calorific value, the specific
gravity and the flash-point. The calorimetric value, or calorific
power, may be determined in a Berthelot,’ Kréker,® or Mahler®
bomb, orina Parr calorimeter.'° It may be calculated from the ele-
mentary composition;'! but calculations based upon the ultimate
analysis of a sample may be quite misleading, since the heat of

1 Nephtanoje Djelo, 12 (1912), 26.

2 Ritrman and Eauorr, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., T (1915), 582.
3 Petroleum, 3 (1907), 235.
4On the radioactivity of petroleum, see also Himstept, Ber. nat. Ges. Frei-
burg t. Br., 14 (1904), 181; Hurmuzmscu, Z. angew. Chem., 24 (1911), 26;
Compt. rend. Congress internat. Pétrole, sess. 3,2 (1910), 771; and Porucic,
Ban. Kohasz. Lap., 41,163. On a radioactive gas from crude petroleum, see
Burton, Phil. Mag., (6), 8 (1904), 498.
5 On the determination of calorific values, see ArTu, Bull. soc. chim., (3),
31 (1904), 576. For a consideration of calorific standards and calorimetry,
see Cosrn’s ‘‘The Calorific Power of Gas,” 1911. On the accuracy obtain-
able in fuel calorimetry, see Huntiy, Chem. Eng., 13 (1911), 147. On the
calorimetry of volatile liquid fuels, see Rawius, J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 26
(1907), 665; and Rosmnwatn, idem, 25 (1906), 239.
® Crude petroleums, liquid still-residues, “‘Masut,” ‘‘Ostatki,” tar resi-
dues, etc., which are used, where economic considerations permit, for steam-
raising purposes. See ZaLoziecKi and Livov, Naphtia, 12 (1904), Nos. 21
and 22; and Boortu’s “Liquid Fuel and Its Apparatus,” 1912. A select
index to the literature of fuel oil is given in Horman’s ‘‘General Metallurgy,”
1913, 288; and good accounts of the present use are given in ‘Mineral
Resources of the United States,” 1913, ii, 950-60; in Lewxs’ “Oil Fuel,”
1913; in Burier’s “Oil Fuel,” 1914; and in Scumitz’s “Die Fliissigen
Brennstoffe,”’ 1914.
7 Compt. rend., 104, 875.
§ Ber., 30 (1897), 605.
* Compt. rend., 113, 774.
30 See Wurrn’s “Technical Gas and Fuel Analysis,” 1918, 175.
11 For formulas used in calculating the heating values of fuels, see GEB-
HARDT’s “Steam Power Plant Engineering,” 4th ed., 34; CarPENTER and
Diepericus’ “Experimental Engineering,” 7th ed., 510; and W. A. Bons,
TuorPr’s ‘Dictionary of Applied Chemistry,” revised ed., 1912, 2, 605.
118 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

combustion is dependent upon the state of combination of the

elements in the substance and is never equal to the sum of those
of its elements taken proportionately.!
Table XXII gives the ultimate analyses of certain petroleums,
with their determined calorific powers.

TaBLe XXIJ.—Uutimate ANALYSES OF PETROLEUMS

Kind and locality Bés|) eC He |OEN 1 8 Cee

Heavy oil, Pennsylvania?....... 28 S49 Waa) eA ee 10,672

Light oil, Pennsylvania......... 39! 82nO eT Sot Se 2i ll crete 9,963
Heavy oil, West Virginia?.......| 80 | 88.5] 18.3] 3.2 |...... 10,180
ight oil, West Virginia.........| 36 | 84.3] 14.1) 1.6 |...7.. 10,223
Heavyaoily Ohio2eemcrme msn aan 28) |pSke cil Loe Weed lerretete2 10,399
Rothwell @anada25eeneae enters 83) || S&I3+) LS shy 253. Mewes 11,399
Califor aicr caveiset ea iaere nas ee eaters POON LI S71 eslle deem |everctses 11,728
Californias ramette tata cores Ee} S125") 10:30) “629 0.55 | 10,360
Beaumont, Texas*............. 22 | 84.6) 10.9} 2.9 | 1.63) 10,578
Heavy oil, Baku?.............. {7 PREG) 12:5 TSR 10,800
Light oil Bakute eee og 186.18 6p Os pees 12,650
Refuses Baku yeasts cee acs telece eel Olyas) cee ee 2 Seer 10,700

The investigations begun in 1869 by St. Claire-Deville® on

the physical properties of crude petroleums from the important
oil districts then in operation, showed that the oil of Baku
possessed a higher calorific value than that of other districts,
and that the practically ascertained heating power was lower
than that found by calculation from the known composition
of the oil.
Determinations of the calorific values of various descriptions
of Texas crude petroleums, made in the laboratory of the Uni-
versity of Texas Mineral Survey,® have furnished the following
results (Table XXIII):

‘See Luckn’s “Engineering Thermodynamics,” 1912, p. 671, for a con-

sideration of calorific power as calculated for oils from ultimate analysis or
from density.
? Pootn’s “Calorific Power of Fuels,’”’ 1900, 251.
* PeckHam ‘Report on Production, Technology and Uses of Petroleum,”
10th Census U. S., 1885.
* Metvitze, “Report U. S. Naval Fuel Board,” 1904, 68.
* Comp. rend., 66, 442; 68, 349, 485, 686; 72, 191.
°See Puituips, Bull. Univ. of Texas, 1900, No. 5.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 119

Taste XXIII.—Catoriric Vauturs or Texas Crupr OILs

Source of sample Bie B.t.u.}

Lucas well, Spindle Top, Jefferson County............... 10,874 | 19,574

Higgins Oil and Fuel Co., Spindle Top, Jefferson County..| 10,992 | 19,785
poursduakembarciny@ ountymemmemeerr ti aes ete © te 10,201 | 18,362
Sour ake warding Counter orice stm eo ra aren atv 10,305 | 18,694
Northeast of Fort Stockton, Pecos County..............} 9,655 | 17,387
Near Dunlay-sViedina Countyimec. adie seen Sane 9,372 | 16,807
Duallnreiwellswbexar Coun tyne ase oc sade 8,531 | 15,356
Wralsheorachmpexarm CoUumtyina cee miec icici create 9,177 | 16,518

The heating values of various crude petroleums of the oil

fields of California are given in the tabular presentment of the
analyses of these oils in the next section of this chapter.’
Determinations of the calorific values of fuel oils from Burma,
Borneo and Texas, of kerosene and solar oil from Russia, and of
petroleum spirit from the United States, have given the follow-
ing results by the bomb calorimeter:
pater B.t.u.
(BUI Awe kor Meret eaters Me Perec ie eee reese 10,794 19,429
Barmiatuelvoilsg cote ve utls does eee oes oie aneee 10,924 19,663
Borneowie oily aes chee ae Nhe ie Laks ee a Oe 10,371 18,668
IBOLNCOMUE! OI Ae AnwiEyn pe:Tek ark e tin Ge etek ak 10,340 18,612
WVexas tuel oil; ‘specific gravity 0:919...2...4.244..--.--: 10,670 19,206
Texas fuel oil, specific gravity 0.923................... 10,755 19,359
Texas fuel oil, specific gravity 0.935................... 10,748 19,346
Texas fuel oil, specific gravity 0.941................... 10,957 19,722
Russlanek CrOsenememeraienit ss Poetic es aoe reek 11,260 20,208
Russian solar oil, specific gravity 0.873................ 10,920 19,656
American petroleum spirit, specific gravity 0.684........ 12,210 21,978
American petroleum spirit, specific gravity 0.694........ 12,220 21,996

1 The gram-calory, or small calory, is the heat required to raise the tem-
perature of 1 gram of water 1°C. From 0° to 1°C. is usually specified, yet
it is practically assumed that the specific heat of water is constant; if the
calory were defined in terms of the degree from 20° to 21°C., it would more
accurately represent the meaning in use. The British thermal unit (B.t.u.)
is the pound-degree, or the amount of heat required to raise a pound of water
from the temperature 50° to 51°F. (Tarr) or from 62° to 63°F. Gram-
calories multiplied by the factor 9% (the relation of 1°C. to 1°F.), or 1.8, gives
the calorific value in B.t.u. (pound-degrees F.) per pound of combustible.
On thermochemical nomenclature, see RicHarps’ ‘ Metallurgical Calcula-
tions,’”’ 2d ed., pt. 1, p. 13.
2See p. 131.
120 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Taste X XIV.—Catoriric Power oF VARIOUS DESCRIPTIONS OF

Prtroteum, Erc.!
ee
Chemical Amount Calorific
eae composition Coeffi- | of water power
Description of oil ae °BE. apes pA
r bios ae Oxygen | Pansion oy ate sea B.t.u.
gen

Heavy petroleum from

West Virginia....... 0.873 |30.0 |83.5|13.3] 3.2 0.00072 14.58 |10,180 |18,324
Light petroleum from
West Virginia....... 0.8412/37.5 |84.3)14.1| 1.6 0.000839| 14.55 10,223 |18,401
Light petroleum from
Pennsylvania....... 0.816 |41.5 /82.0|14.8| 3.2 0.00084 14.05 | 9,963 |/17,933
Heavy petroleum from
Pennsylvania....... 0.886 |28.0 |84.9/138.7| 1.4 0.000721} 15.30 |10,672 |19,210
American petroleum../0.820 |40.5 |83.4/14.7| 1.9 0.000868| 14.14 | 9,771 |17,588 -
Petroleum from
(PATIGe seers)oyace 0.786 |48.0 |84.0/13.4) 1.8 0.000706} 13.96 |10,121 |18,218
Pechelbronn...... 0.912 |23.5 |86.9/11.8) 1.3 0.000767| 14.30 | 9,708 |17,474
Pechelbronn...... 0.892 |27.0 |85.7|12.0) 2.3 0.000793} 14.48 |10,020 |18,036
Schwabweiler..... 0.861 |32.5 |86.2/13.3) 0.5 0.000858} 15.36 |10,458 |18,824
Schwabweiler..... 0.829 |39.0 |79.5|13.6} 6.9 0. QOS43 bentinck hon SIT Eee
Hanover, Eddesse.|0.892 |27.0 |/80.4|12.7| 6.9 1}QOOTTSt soe choc kh Phe
Hanover, Wietze..|0.955 |16.5 |86.2/11.4] 2.4 |0.000641]........]......]......
East Galicia ...... 0.870 |31.0 |82.2)12.1) 5.7 0.000813} 14.23 |10,005 |18,009
West Galicia ..... 0.885 |28.0 |85.3:12.6) 2.1 0.000775| 14.79 |10,231 |18,416
(N,O.)
Shale-oil from :
Ardéche, Vagnas..../0.911 |23.5 |80.3)11.5| 8.2 0.000896) 12.24 | 9,046 |/16,283
(O,S,N.)
Coal-tar from Paris
waseworke.ciscaas eo. (OE Noa, ts 82.0) 7.6} 10.4 0,000743| 12.77 | 8,916 |16,049
Petroleum from
Balaleh andj. secre alsin 0.822 |40.75/87.4/12.5) 0.1 0 OOOS Tiles, oerere ce 11,700 |21,060
Light petroleum from
Wate cviearegiesisiein 0.884 |28.5 |/86.3)13.6| 0.1 0.000724; 16.40 |11,460 |20,628
Heavy petroleum from
BARU aycrc shea euchousieiets 0.938 |19.0 |86.6)12.3) 1.1 0.000681 15.55 |10,800 |19,440
Petroleum-residues
from the Baku fac-
LOLIOR das Gane aaes 0.928 (20.0 (87. LitL.7) 1.2 OL OO0SL oiiaeieeee 10,700 |19,260
Petroleum from Java..|0.923 /21.5 |87.1|12.0 9 0.000769| 15.02 |10,831 |19,496
Heavy oil of pine |
(ia naes hockses 0.985 |12.0 )87.7|10.4| 2.5 0.000685| 14.75 |10,081 |18,146

Description of fuel Solid fuels

Coale chisel aie Nah sicicihe sirovhe |Ro ri ani nesoriees |

Mewar silitlecoreter 7,500 |13,500
OK ae eer tieue, tha wits suere, Wa 8 cous sllaisPacene'l| Deeeatell arsParelies vermin |uatomatere ctl he reer 6,500 |11,700
PRR Te oases P0 sallalososarene) 2)lee sw;bre featsell farere tellouetie alllwecxtenace teferent aeeee owes et|PRN Pe eas ae 4,500 | 8,100
Tar (AITHATIER) jePhyo oleae 9 oe|area teal are agellPeverel |
«scarce avtausts eadealibcst eve.tlla wreeebaegs 3,800 | 5,400
Wisociclei Ms A sorte
Clin eeebeef] WON ea ak 2,800 |5,040
1 Based upon the table of determinations given in Vrrru’s ‘Das Erdol und seine Verar-
beitung,’”’ 1892. For other data see Pooun’s ‘‘ Calorific Power of Fuels,” 1900, pp. 251 and
252; and Horman’s ‘‘General Metallurgy,” 1913, p. 286.
2 It will be observed that the calorific power of petroleum is usually about 10,000 calories.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 121

Inchley! has given the data presented in Table XXV.

Taste XXV.—CompositTion AND CaALoriric Powrr or SomME PretTroLEuM
Ors
Composition Calorifie power

Name [Steel bon

Taeyaro| Orveen, |SURER™ |Baw. | Baw
gen Obes per Pes pes
etc. laloarant pound gallon

“Royal Daylight”’
(American)...... ONTO S570 4s 20a ee, 11,167 | 20,100 | 159,000
Kerosene (Ameri-
CAT ere teers cook 0.780 |85.05 |14.40| 0.55 11,163 | 20,095 | 156,500
Refined (Baku)...|0.825 |86.00 /14.00]....... 11,270 | 20,300 | 167,000
Russole, R.U.O.. ./0.890 |85.95 |13.50|) 0.45 10,901 | 19,620 | 174,500
Solar oil ........./0.896 |86.61 |12.60| 0.79 10,783 | 19,450 | 174,000
——E—E—E—EEE——————— ES ee ee ees Sees See eee

The following formula has been found by Sherman and Kropff?

to express approximately the relation between the specific
gravity and the calorific power (in British thermal units per
pound) of American petroleum oils:
B.t.u. = 18,650 + 40 (Baumé degrees — 10).
The relation between calorific power and specific gravity for
similar oils is also indicated below, the calorific powers being
expressed in calories per gram.
Specific gravity Calorific power
0.70-0.75 11,700—-11,350 calories.
0.75-0.80 11,350-11,100 calories.
0.80-0.85 11,100-10,875 calories.
0.85-0.90 10,875-10,678 calories.
0.90-0.95 10,675-10,500 calories.
Brame* has reported the calorific values and specific heats
given in Table X XVI.
TaBLE XX VI.—Catoriric VALUES AND SPECIFIC Heats oF CERTAIN
PETROLEUM OILS
Kilogram B Eye ae
£. : Fun B.t.u. .
Nuime Specific calories per per Specific
gravity kilSoran pound gallon heat

“Royal Daylight”
(“Tea Rose’’)...| 0.8055 11,100 19,980 160,500 | 0.450
“Water White”
(“White Rose’). .| 0.800 11,140 20,050 160,400 0.457
JR GIBV NES 4 pe oraSeon 0.8248 11,060 19,910 164,000 0.436
Rumanian’ 2....- 0.8127 10,900 19,620 159,500 0.444

1 Hngineer, 111 (1911), 155.

2 J. Am. Chem. Soc., 30 (1908), 1626.
3 “Fuel,” p. 170.
 122 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Constam and Schlapfer! have made a very complete inves-

tigation of the chemical and physical properties of 109 samples
of petroleum of Galician, Alsatian, and North and South American
origin. Their report should be consulted by those interested in
oil for power purposes.

THE ANALYTICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AMERICAN PETROLEUMS

The following tables (X XVII and XXIX), with the exception

of the analyses of the crude petroleums of the oil fields of Cali-
fornia (Table XXVIII), are based upon the extensive com-
pilation given in Mineral Resources of the United States, 1913,
ii, 1121. Commenting upon this presentment, David T. Day
states that,
“The degrees of accuracy and the methods of expressing the results
differ greatly in the analyses gathered from the general literature of the
subject. In arranging the analyses, effort has been made to show the
variation in specific gravity, in percentage of sulphur, of asphalt, and of
paraffin, and in distillation products. Other analytical data are given
under ‘Remarks.’
“On the whole, tne tables are very incomplete and show clearly the
necessity for much additional work. The analyses cited show very
full work in some fields and almost nothing in others. In Pennsyl-
vania, New York, Ohio, Indiana, and the newer fields information is
lacking as to even the exact locality from which many of the samples
came and the conditions under which any particular specimen was
obtained. Usually there is no statement as to care used in avoiding
evaporation from the sample. Up to 1897 the analytical methods of
the older analysts varied to such an extent that as much as 30 per cent.
difference in the proportion of naphtha will be shown in two samples
from the same region, and thus a far greater difference will be shown
between two samples from the same pool, as analyzed by the older
analysts, than between the oils from widely separated districts. Yet
there are no explanatory statements to make these differences intellig-
ible. No more conclusive argument could be offered for the need of a
general review of the analytical characteristics of all American oils.”

This need was recognized by sending Day to the Third Inter-

national Petroleum Congress, held at Bucharest, Rumania,
in 1907, where he aided in organizing for the first time an in-
ternational commission for establishing uniform methods of
examining crude petroleum and its products. The international
1 J. Gas Lig., 124, 596.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 123

commission considered, during the week in which the congress

was held, the various methods used by different authorities and
formulated and recommended to the congress for international
adoption a provisional system of analysis. This system was
adopted by the congress and it was recommended to the various
nations for general adoption, pending any modifications which
might be made by an international commission which the con-
gress created for this purpose. This action was reported to the
Congress of the United States, in response to a resolution of the
Senate, and the rules for analysis were printed as a Senate
document.! Since 1907 this international commission has
held two general sessions, one in London in 1909 and one in
Vienna in 1910. At each of these meetings the system adopted
at Bucharest was confirmed, with slight additional rules de-
signed to increase accuracy, the fundamental system remaining
fixed.
With this uniform system as its basis, the United States
Geological Survey, in cooperation with various state geologists,
immediately began the collection of samples under uniform
conditions from the various fields of the United States. These
were then examined by exactly the same methods in order
that they might be entirely comparable. The work was limited
to crude oils, so that these various natural oils might be classified
and be made to show their relations to the rocks in which they
occur. The study of the composition of the products manu-
factured from them, as well as the processes by which they are
refined, has been undertaken by the Bureau of Mines. A
collection, complete at that time, was made of the oils of the
Mid-Continent field, including Kansas, Oklahoma, Caddo, and
north Texas. The samples were collected at the wells by mem-
bers of the Survey. Average specimens were also collected in
each field from pipe-line tanks, because this showed the actual
average, in which the largest wells were given fairer weight than
by an arithmetical average of large and small wells. Efforts
were made, in collecting these samples from pipe lines, to select
those in which the oil had had chance to be well mixed. The
samples were, therefore, as representative as possible. The
samples from Illinois and other states were similarly collected
by members of the Federal or State surveys.
1No. 469, 60th Cong., Ist sess., 1908.
124 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

METHOD OF ANALYSIS

Gravity.—A set of very delicate specific gravity spindles

was made especially for the investigation of the United States
Geological Survey by C. Tagliabue & Sons. The samples are
brought to a temperature of 15°C., in a cylinder cooled in a
water bath. The specific gravity is then taken.
‘Distillation..—The samples are then distilled by Engler’s
method as modified by Ubbelohde and adopted by the inter-
national commission. ‘Thus 100 c.c. of the crude oil, measured
at 15°C., are delivered by a pipette into a distilling bulb hold-
ing about 125 c.c. The dimensions of this bulb are those
prescribed by Engler. The thermometer used is a nitrogen
thermometer, reading to 550°C., which has been carefully stand-
ardized by the United States Bureau of Standards. The con-
denser tube, as prescribed by Engler, is 75 em. long and has an
inclination of 75° from the horizontal. The point of initial boil-
ing is taken when the first drop of oil falls from the condenser
tube into the receiving flask. To avoid loss by evaporation, the
condenser tube is ground to fit into the graduated receiving flask,
which is provided with a stop cock to draw off the oil at 150°C.
and again at 300°C. Note is also taken of the proportions
boiling within each range of 25°C., but these details are not
published in the tables given herewith. The fraction between
the initial boiling point and 150°C. (302°F.), constituting the
gasoline fraction, and the fraction between 150° and 300°C.
(802° and 572°F.), constituting the kerosene fraction, are
examined as to specific gravity witha pyknometer. The residuum
is weighed as soon as cool; then its specific gravity is taken in
the usual way and the volume calculated. As will be noted,
the total thus obtained for the different fractions includes the
sum of all variations in the determinations. This total for
many samples slightly exceeds 100 per cent., due to errors in
coefficient of expansion, etc.; but for a greater number is con-
siderably below that amount, owing to the presence of water,
loss of volatile gasoline, ete.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons.—The method of Kramer and
Béttcher is used for determining the unsaturated hydrocarbons
1 On the fractional distillation of petroleum, see Sanpmrs, J. Chem. Soc.,
105 (1914), 1697. On the analytical distillation of petroleum, see especially
Rirrman and Duan, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., T (1915), 754. See, also, Hamor
and Papcert’s “The Technical Examination of Crude Petroleum, Petro- ‘
leum Products and Natural Gas,” New York, N. Y., 1920.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 125

present in the crude oil and in the distillate between 150°C.

and 300°C. The quantity of gasoline in many samples was too
small for systematic determination of the percentage of un-
saturated hydrocarbons in it. The method consists in shaking
25 c.c. of the crude petroleum with 25 c.c. of sulphuric acid of
specific gravity 1.83, corresponding to ordinary strong sulphuric
acid, about the equivalent of that used in petroleum refining.
The acid and oil are shaken in a small flask with a long neck,
the neck holding 25 c.c. The flask is then filled with strong
sulphuric acid until the oil which remains uncombined with the
acid can be measured in the neck of the flask. The loss in volume

TaBLE XXVII.—ANALYSES OF PETROLEUM FROM ALASKA, DISTILLATION BY

ENnecireR’s Mrtuop
By volume

Ho 180°C. | canner Lota

duum Sul-
Location
Be-well Remarks

Stel distil
oce.
Specific
gravity to (°C.)
at
Begins
meters
centi-
Cubic meters
Cubic
centi- gravity
Specific meters
centi-
Cubic meters
centi-
Cubic

Katalla Bay!/0.8280]..../21.0'0.7573/51.0)0.8204/28.0 |100.0}..... Residuum, paraffin-

base.
Katallatc Oi GO8! vo. toseOle werner SueO acca 30.5 |100.0| Tr. |Residuum, all over
285°C.; cold test—
did not chill at 3°F.
Katalla...../0.8000|..../84.2/...... Sas Aes cee Sb.0 | 996i cca.
Cold Bay’. .|0.9547/225 |....]...... 13.3/0.8772|86.7 |100.0|0.116|86.7 per cent. re-
siduum includes 8.1
per cent. coke and
loss and products
distilled under 120
mm. pressure up to
350°C., and also
products by destruc-
tive distillation.

Oil Bay’... ./0.9557/230 |....|...... 13.2|0.8777|86.8 |100.0\0.098/86.8 per cent. re-

siduum includes 5.6
per cent. coke and
loss and products
distilled under 120
mm. pressure up to
350°C., and also
products by de-
structive distilla-
tion.

1 PENNIMAN and Browne, Bull. U. S, Geol. Survey, No. 225, 1904.

2 Mineral Resources of the United States, 1902, 583.
3 PENNIMAN and Browne, Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 250, 1905,
126 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

between the original 25 c.c. and the oil which remains undissolved
by sulphuric acid is taken to represent the unsaturated hy-
drocarbons.
Paraffin Wax.—This was determined by the Engler-Holde
method. Two parts of absolute alcohol and one part of absolute
ether are used as the solvent, from which the paraffin wax is
precipitated on cooling to —20°C.
Asphalt.—The asphalt was determined by Holde’s method,
by weighing off 1 gram of residuum and shaking this with 40
c.c. of gasoline which was free from unsaturated hydrocar-
bons and which boiled between 65° and 95°C. After shaking,
this was allowed to stand for 48 hours and the precipitated as-
phalt was dissolved in benzol, dried at 105°, and weighed.
Accuracy greater than 1 per cent. was not claimed for these
analyses.
Sulphur.—The sulphur is sometimes determined by Burton’s
method of burning in a lamp, collecting the SO, and H.SO,
in a solution of sodium carbonate, and titrating with methyl
orange; and sometimes by the bomb. When both methods are
used on the same sample the results are consistent.

THE CRUDE PETROLEUMS OF THE OIL FIELDS OF CALIFORNIA

About 600 analyses of samples of crude petroleum from various

districts in the oil fields of California, have been reported to
date in the literature.t| However, the most comprehensive in-
vestigation of the physical and chemical properties of the
petroleums of the state was that recently conducted by the
Federal Bureau of Mines, and accordingly the results of the work
of Allen, Jacobs, Crossfield and Matthews? are presented in some
detail below.
_ The methods of collecting samples and making analyses em-
ployed by Allen and his co-workers, merit brief description.

1 For a compilation of these analyses up to 1914, see Mineral Resources of

the United States, 1913, ii, 1127-1177.
* Technical Paper 74, Bureau of Mines, 1914. For additional data, see
Raupex ARNOLD and Ropert ANDERSON, ‘Geology and Oil Resources of the
Coalinga District, California, with a Report on the Chemical and Physical
Properties of the Oils by I. C. ALLEN,” Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 398 (1910),
264-272; also I. C. ALLun and W. A. Jacoss, “Physical and Chemical Prop-
erties of the Petroleums of the San Joaquin Valley of California,” Bull,
19, Bureau of Mines, 1912,
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 127

Sampling.1—The samples, collected at the wells, were put in

l1-gal. tin cans that were soldered tight and shipped at once
to the laboratories where the analyses were made. The samples
were taken, where possible, by allowing the oil to run from the
outflow of the well directly into the sample can; where this
method was impracticable, a dipper was used. After the can
was filled it was soldered tight as soon as possible. Oil that had
been exposed to atmospheric influences for even a short period
was not collected.
Specific Gravity.—The specific gravity was determined by
means of the Westphal balance.
Flash-Point.—As most of the crude oils examined contained
at least a trace of water, they showed a marked tendency to
froth when heated and gave considerable difficulty with the
closed Pensky-Martens? flash tester, many frothing over at
temperatures much below the flash-point of the oil. For this
reason, and to obtain comparative tests, it was considered ad-
visable to determine the flash-point of all the crude samples in
an open Pensky-Martens cup, carefully screened from air currents.
On account of the frothing of the samples, the temperature had
to be increased slowly; a rise of 2° to 3°C. per minute was found
to give good results. The gas test flame, of the size and form
recommended for the Abel tester,? was exposed for one second
1 cm. above the surface of the oil, at each rise of 1°C., beginning
at 10° below the flash-point, as determined by a preliminary test.‘
Burning Point.—After the flash had been determined, the
heating was conducted without interruption, exactly as before,
until the “flash”? became permanent, that is, until the oil ignited
and continued to burn quietly.
Viscosity——The viscosity was determined in an Engler
viscosimeter® at 20°C.
1 For detailed methods of sampling, see I. C. Atumn, ‘‘Specifications for
the Purchase of Fuel Oil for the Government, with Directions for Sampling
Oil and Natural Gas,” Tech. Paper 3, Bureau of Mines, 1911.
2 BeNEDIKT-UuzErR, ‘Analyse der Fette und Wachsarten,’”’ 1908, pp.
386-388. Boverton Repwoop, “Petroleum and Its Products,’ 1906, 2, pp.
593-594. Hoxpn, “Untersuchung der Mineraléle und Fette,” 1909, p. 133.
3 BoverTon REeDwoop, ‘Petroleum and Its Products,’’ 1906, 2, pp. 566-567.
4J. C. AnuEen and A. S. Crossriezp, “The Flash-point of Oils, Methods
and Apparatus for Its Determination,” Tech. Paper 49, Bureau of Mines,
1913, pp. 17-21.
5 BENEDIKT-UuzEr, “Analyse der Fette und Wachsarten,” 1908, pp. 58
61. Bovrerton Repwoop, op. cit., pp. 602-603.
128 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Calorific Value——The calorific value was determined in a

Berthelot combustion bomb! (Dinsmore-Atwater model). The
British thermal units per pound were calculated by multiplying
the calories per gram by 1.8.
Sulphur.2—Sulphur was determined by carefully washing out
with distilled water the contents of the bomb after the com-
bustion, the sulphuric acid being precipitated with barium
chloride in the usual manner, and the percentage of sulphur
calculated.
Water.*—Water was determined during the course of an
ordinary fractionation; it distilled over in those fractions having
a boiling point between 100° and 150°C. under atmospheric
pressure, and could be removed readily from the receivers with
a micropipette and weighed. Usually a few drops of water
adhered to the condenser and failed to run into the receivers;
in this event, a small pellet of absorbent cotton moistened with
water, squeezed as dry as possible and weighed, was fastened
to a wire and run up into the condenser to remove these last
traces of water. The weight of the drops was determined by
the increase in weight of the cotton pellet.
Fractionation.—The fractionation was made in an electrically
heated still,> and was conducted as follows:
1“ Report on the Operations of the Coal Testing Plant of the United States
Geological Survey at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition, St. Louis, Mo.,
1904;” U. S. Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 48, 1905, p. 179; and J. A. Bow-
nocKkER, N.-W. Lorp, and E. E. Somermermr, ‘Coal,’ Bull. Geol. Survey
of Ohio, No. 9, 4th ser., 1908, pp. 420-424.
2 For detailed methods for the determination of sulphur, see I. C. ALLEN
and I. W. Rosrrtson, “Methods of Determining the Sulphur Content of
Fuels, especially Petroleum Products,” Tech. Paper 26, Bureau of Mines, 1912.
57. C. Auten, ‘Relative Values of Fuels used on the Pacific Coast,’’ Min.
Sci. Press, Dec. 8, 1900, p. 569. R. ArNotp, R. AnprErson, and I. C.
AutEn, “‘Geology and Oil Resources of the Coalinga Oil District, California,’
Bull. U. S. Geol. Survey, No. 398, 1910, p. 265.
‘For detailed methods for the determination of water, see I. C. ALLEN
and W. A. Jacoss, ‘‘ Methods for the Determination of Water in Petroleum
and Its Products,” Tech. Paper 265, Bureau of Mines, 1912. On the use of
calcium carbide in estimating water in petroleum and its products, see
Roserts and Fraser, J. Soc. Chem. Ind., 29 (1910), 197; and ALLEN and
Jacoss, Orig. Com. 8th Inter. Congr. Appl. Chem., 10 (1912), 17.
5 For detailed description of the still and method of distillation, see I. C.
ALLEN and W. A. Jacoss, ‘‘ Physical and Chemical Properties of the Petro-
leums of the San Joaquin Valley of California,” Bull. 19, Bureau of Mines,
1911, pp, 29-33.
 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM 129

Two hundred grams of the sample of oil were weighed into a

Y4-liter flask of the dimensions shown in Fig. 14. The flask
was then connected to.a Liebig condenser placed vertically, and
the distillates were collected in weighed receiving tubes placed
in a Bruehl receiver. The oil was distilled under atmospheric
pressure at increasing temperatures up to 325°C., the receivers
being changed at each increment of 25°. The temperature was
then allowed to drop to 125°C., to keep the oil from boiling
over when the vacuum was used, and the distillation was again
continued under a vacuum of 10 to 20
mm. mercury pressure till the tempera- h | f
ture within the flask reached 325°C. |
Refining..~—The oils—naphthas, lamp 20mm. »| H |
oils, and lubricants—were further refined
as follows: 250 grams of the oil were
put in a l1-liter separatory funnel and
shaken vigorously; that is, 120 to 150
shakes per minute for 15 min. in a shak-
ing machine, as follows: four times with
10 c.c. of concentrated sulphuric acid
(or until the oil was not appreciably
colored by this acid treatment), once
with a 10 per cent. solution of sodium
Fig. 14.—Flask for distil-
carbonate to remove the free acids, and ling petroleum.
three or four times with water to remove
the last traces of soda, etc. The oil was then dried with Glauber
salt and distilled. This refining acid treatment yielded a water-
white, practically odorless product of excellent quality.
Because of their high viscosity, the heavier fractions (those
distilled under a vacuum at temperatures above 250°C.) were
diluted with one part of chemically pure benzene before sub-
jecting them to the acid treatment.
Naphtha Distillates (Unrefined Naphthas).—Those fractions
that boil at temperatures up to 150°C., under atmospheric pres-
sure, comprise the ‘‘unrefined naphthas.”’
Kerosene Distillates (Unrefined Lamp Ozls).—Those fractions
boiling between 150° and 300°C., under atmospheric pressure,
comprise the “unrefined lamp oils.”
Unrefined Lubricants.—Those fractions boiling between 300°C.,
1 On the separation and determination of paraffin, see Technical Paper 74,
Bureau of Mines, 1914.
9
130 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

under atmospheric pressure, and 325°C., under a vacuum of 10

to 20 mm. mercury pressure, comprise the ‘unrefined lubricants.”
Asphaltum Residue.-—That part remaining in the flask, undis-
tilled, is termed “‘asphaltum residue.” In practically all of the
oils examined this residue was a jet-black, lustrous mass, that
was brittle at room temperatures and had a consistency much
like ordinary taffy. It could be chewed, but was very sticky
when slightly warmed; on solution in benzene it left no appre-
ciable quantity of carbon flecks. This showed that these
asphaltum petroleums, after removal of the oils distillable at
temperatures up to 325°C., under a pressure of 10 to 20 mm. of
mercury, leave a residue of solid elastic asphaltum usable for
commercial purposes.
Refining Losses.—The above acid treatment causes a total
loss of approximately 11 per cent. in the oil treated. This loss
is too high and should be reduced.
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PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PETROLEUM

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195

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196 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Taste XXX.—Comparison oF REPRESENTATIVE CRUDE

PETROLEUMS FROM DiFFERENT O1n Frexps!

Distillate by volume
Source vente
0°—150°C, 150°
— 300°C.

Per cent. | Sp. gr. | Percent.| Sp. gr.

IRenmsy vcs see earner tenes 0.820 | 21.0] 0.718 | 41.0 | 0.798
Ohior (ims) evar mee eo ee 0.838 OFT O25 ote la On ee
Illinois (Randolph County)...... 0.842 | 14.0] 0.729 | 37.0] 0:797
Kansas (Wilson County)........ 0.885 } 19.0} 0.720} 38.1 | 0.808
Oklahoma (Glenn Pool)......... 0.846 8.5 | 0.756 | 42.0] 0.800
WesthVirginian sem. cence corse 0.787 | 16.5] 0.711 | 41.0 | 0.769
California (Coalinga) ........... 0.915 ere (MWeaK Ih eZ Sal aa ES
California (Kern River) ........ O96") Reatileeeee 20.2 | 0.862
California (Los Angeles)........ 0.971 BEA PN Watoa 26.3 | 0.885
California (Whittier Field)...... 0.929 4.2.) Osi/3 || 38.0. |e0. 820
DEX AS tiem ietieers tae is che toon tacit: 0.910 2.9 | 0.794 |\ 39.8 | 0.876
Russian (Giron) seer mieneee ae 0.869 | 13.4 | 0.730 | 25.6 | 0.808
Rumania (Bustenari)...........| 0.842 | 35.4 | 0.734 | 29.8] 0.840
Rumania (Campina)............ 0.824 | 37.7} 0.729 | 30.5 | 0.823
Burma (Venanpyab) cee eel ROCAO ummcoils eee AO cA spe es
Inelbie (CAUEEM a mnadaaoon bance cou Marasee al tM) lo oAne 42) Ota acter
Apopoyin, (SIE) ons cognonueocsae ORS62 Neo osama Catena |len geo

1A. B. THompson’s “ Petroleum Mining,’ 1910.

 CHAPTER V

THE HISTORY OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE

UNITED STATES

The Early History of American Petroleum.—While the

petroleum industry of America is of recent origin, the crude oil
was long used by the Indians.!' The earliest mention of the
occurrenceof petroleum occurs in a letter dated July 18, 1627,
and published in G. Sagard’s “‘Histoire du Canada et Voyage des
Missionatres Récollets,” 1636, which describes a visit of a Fran-
ciscan missionary, Joseph de la Roche d’Allion, to the oil springs
of what is now the town of Cuba, in Allegany County, New York,
and mentions that the Indian name of the place signifies ‘‘there
is plenty there’? and that there is ‘‘a good kind of oil called
Antonotons.” In 1748, North America was visited by Peter
Kalm, a naturalist, who, on his return, published an account
of his travels,? together with a map on which the oil springs of
Oil Creek, Pa., were indicated.
1 Ancient oil-pit heaps, sometimes supporting trees of the growth of cen-
turies, have been found in the vicinity of Oil Creek, Pennsylvania. The
primitive methods adopted for the collection of petroleum may be briefly
mentioned in this place. The earliest system undoubtedly consisted in
skimming the oil from the surface of water upon which it had accumulated.
It has been stated that at Paint Creek, in Johnson County, Kentucky, a Mr.
Gror@e and others were in the habit of collecting oil from the sands, by
making shallow canals 100 or 200 ft. long, with an upright board and a
reservoir at one end, from which they obtained as much as 200 bbl. per year
by stirring the sands with a pole. These so-called ‘‘stirring places”’ re-
sembled similar spots at Burning Springs, in West Virginia, which were
similarly worked early in the last century. Larger quantities of petro-
leum were obtained in remote times by the sinking of dug wells or shafts.
Evidences of very old workings are to be found not only along Oil Creek, Pa.,
but elsewhere in America. It may be noted bere that Str WALTER RALEIGH
published an account of the Trinidad pitch lake in 1595.
2 See, in this connection, Peckuam, ‘‘The Production, Technology, and
Uses of Petroleum and Its Products,’’ Washington, 1884.
3 “Bin resa til Norra Amerika,” Stockholm, 1753-1761. The map made
by the missionaries DoLLinr and GALIN&SE in 1670 (reproduced in “‘ Histoire
de la Colonie Frangaise,” Paris, 1866, 3, 305) has marked on it ‘“Fonteaine
de bitume,’”’ near where the town of Cuba is now located. ‘This is probably
the first mention of petroleum made on a map of this country.
197
198 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

The statement has been made that in 1750 the Commander of

Fort Du Quesne (Pittsburgh) wrote a letter describing certain
religious ceremonies of the Indians wherein advantage was taken
of the inflammability of crude petroleum. It is now known that
this letter was fictional, and owed its origin to Judge J. Thomp-
son and Dr. Cyrus Dickson, who conjointly published in 1830
an imaginary history of northwestern Pennsylvania in a Frank-
lin weekly paper.?
David Leisberger, a Moravian missionary, who visited the
Allegheny regions in 1767, made the following report: ‘‘I have
seen three kinds of oil springs—such as have an outlet, such as
have none, and such as rise from the bottom of the creeks. From
the first, water and oil flow out together, the oil impregnating
the grass and soil; in the second, it gathers on the surface of the
water to the depth of the thickness of a finger; from the third it
rises to the surface and flows with the current of the creek.
The Indians prefer wells without an outlet. From such they first
dip the oil that has accumulated; then stir the well, and when the
water has settled, fill their kettles with fresh oil, which they
purify by boiling. It is used medicinally, as an ointment for
toothache, headache, swellings, rheumatism and sprains. Some-
times it is taken internally. It is:of a brown color, and can
also be used in lamps. It burns well.’ General Benjamin
Lincoln, in a letter written in 1783 to Rev. Joseph Willard,
president of the University of Cambridge, stated: ‘In the north-
ern parts of Pennsylvania there is a creek called Oil Creek, which
empties itself into the Allegheny River, issuing from a spring,
on the top of which floats an oil, similar to what is called Bar-
badoes tar, and from which may be collected by one man several
gallons a day. ‘The troops in marching that way, halted at the
spring, collected the oil and bathed their joints with it. This gave
them great relief and freed them immediately from the rheumatic
complaints with which many of them were affected. The troops
drank freely of the waters—they operated as a gentle purge.”
At one time, petroleum was used in America as a cure for
rheumatism,” burns, coughs, sprains, etc., under the name of

1J. J. McLaurin, ‘Sketches in Crude Oil,” Harrisburg, Pa., 1896, 17.

2 This use is referred to by G. H. Losxrut in his ‘‘ Geschichte der Mission
der Evangelischen Brider Unter den Indianern in Nord Amerika” (1789)
and in F, Cumrne’s “Sketches of a Tour to the Western Country”’ (1807).
See also Scorr’s “Gazetteer of the United States,’”’ Philadelphia, 1795.
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 199

‘Seneca oil,’ which was obtained near Lake Seneca, Allegany

County, New York, the vicinity of which provided the earlier
supplies. This oil spring was thus described in 1833 in the
American Journal of Science’ by Benjamin Silliman, Sr.: “The
oil spring, or fountain, rises in the midst of a marshy ground;
it is a muddy and dirty pool of about 18 ft. in diameter. The
water is covered with a thin layer of petroleum, giving it a foul
appearance, as if coated with dirty molasses, having a yellowish
brown color. They collect the petroleum by skimming it like
cream from a milk pan. For this purpose they use a broad flat
board, made thin at one edge like a knife. It is moved flat
upon and just under the surface of the water, and is soon covered
by a thin coating of the petroleum, which is so thick and ad-
hesive that it does not fall off, but is removed by scraping the
instrument on the lip of a cup. It has then a very foul ap-
pearance, like very dirty tar or molasses; but it is purified by
heating and straining it while hot through flannel or other woolen
stuff. It is used by the people of the vicinity for sprains and
rheumatism and for sores on their horses, it being in both cases
rubbed upon the part. It is not monopolized by anyone, but
it is carried away freely by all who care to collect it, and for this
purpose the spring is frequently visited. I could not ascertain
how much is annually obtained; but the quantity is considerable.
It is said to rise more abundantly in hot weather than in cold.
Gas is constantly escaping through the water, and appears in
bubbles upon its surface.”
The existence of petroleum over a considerable area in the
United States was, in fact, known at a very early period. There
are, however, no records of the systematic collection of the oil
before it was obtained in comparatively large quantities from the
brine wells or springs which were worked for the production of
salt. Many of these wells, which were extensively bored on the
banks of the Kanawha River in West Virginia, were drilled to a
great depth, and nearly all yielded petroleum and natural gas
to a greater or less extent. So noticeable, in fact, was the asso-
ciation of oil and brine, that surface indications of the occurrence
of petroleum often led to the selection of the locality for boring
1(1), 23, 97.
2 For a detailed account of the very early discoveries of petroleum , see J.
D. Henry’s “History and Romance of the Petroleum Industry,” 1914, 1,
43-53.
200 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

a brine well. While the presence of the oil was invariably re-
garded as objectionable and often resulted in the closing of the
salt works, it was collected and sold by a few as a curiosity and
for medicinal use.
In 1833, 8. P. Hildreth wrote as follows regarding the early
use of petroleum: ‘From its being found in limited quantities,
and its great and extensive demand, a small vial of it would sell
for 40 or 50 cts. . . . In neighborhoods where it is abundant
it is burned in lamps in place of spermaceti oil, affording a bril-
liant light, but filling the room with its own peculiar odor. By
filtering it through charcoal, much of this empyreumatic smell
is destroyed, and the oil greatly improved in quality and appear-
ance. It is also well adapted to prevent friction in machinery,
for, being free of gluten, so common to animal and vegetable
oils, it preserves the parts to which it is applied for a long time
in free motion; when a heavy vertical shaft runs in a socket, it
is preferred to all or any other article. This oil rises in greater
or less abundance in most of the salt wells of the Kanawha, and,
collecting as it rises in the head of the water, is removed from
time to time with a ladle.”! In 1828, the use of petroleum for
lighting the city of Pittsburgh was earnestly advocated; and in
1845 Lewis Peterson, Sr., of Tarentum, Pa., entered into a
contract with the Hope Cotton Factory at Pittsburgh, by which
he was to supply 2 bbl. of crude petroleum per week for use as
a spindle lubricant in mixture with sperm oil. This mixed
lubricant was used at the Hope Factory for 10 years.
A chapter (XII.) written by J. P. Hale, of Charleston, W. Va.,
for the volume prepared by M. F. Maury and W. M. Fontaine,
and issued in 1876 by the State Centennial Board, on the ‘“ Re-
sources and Industries of West Virginia,’ contains an account of
the drilling of “the first rock-bored brine well, west of the
Alleghenies, if not in the United States,” by the brothers Ruffner,
about 1806.2 This well, referred to as “the legitimate precursor
1Am. J. Sci., (1), 24, 63. See also the interesting account in CHartEs B.
Trrao’s ‘Geography of Pennsylvania,” 1843.
* The work of the Rurrnurs may be briefly described here. In their first
attempt they employed a “gum,” consisting of a straight, hollow sycamore
tree, about 4 ft. internal diameter; this was sunk down by cutting away
the quicksand beneath, until it touched rock at a depth of 13 ft. After
cutting through this, the water rose freely, but was found to contain less
salt than was obtained in the upper layers of quicksand, and the hole was
abandoned. They then made another attempt, about 100 yd. from the
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 201

of all the petroleum wells of the country,”’ was bored on the bank
of the “Salt Lick,” or ‘Great Buffalo Lick,” to a depth of about
58 ft., and was followed by the drilling of large numbers of wells,
the Muskingum and Duck Creek Valleys soon becoming noted.
To quote further from this report, ‘‘ Nearly all the Kanawha salt
wells have contained more or less petroleum, and some of the
deepest wells a considerable flow. Many persons now think,
trusting to their recollections, that some of the wells afforded as
much as 25 to 50 bbl. per day. This was allowed to flow over
from the top of the salt cisterns to the river, where, from its
specific gravity, it spread over a large surface, and by its beautiful
iridescent hues, and not very savory odor, could be traced for
many miles down the stream. It was from this that the river
received the nickname of ‘Old Greasy,’ by which it was for a long
time familiarly known by Kanawha boatmen and others. At
that time this oil not only had no value, but was considered a

river, but the brine obtained was still too weak, and they returned to the
first ‘‘gum,”’ which they succeeded in driving to a depth of 17 ft. By dint
of careful trimming and the use of thin wedges, they succeeded in preventing
the influx of water from the quicksands above the bed-rock, which they
finally penetrated by the use of a spring pole, formed of a sapling 40 or 50 ft.
long, fixed at an angle of about 30°, with its upper end over the well. The
drilling tools, which comprised a long iron drill with a 214-in. steel chisel-bit,
were suspended from the pole; and, by pulling the end of the pole and then
releasing it, the requisite motion was imparted to them. At a depth of
17 ft. in the rock, the drill penetrated a fissure, an increased flow of stronger
brine resulting, but the drilling was continued, additional lengths being
welded to the drillfrom time to time, until a sufficient supply of strong brine
was obtained at a depth of 58 ft. from the surface. To raise the stronger
brine without dilution by that which filtered in from above, the Ruffners
constructed a long tube of two semi-cylindrical strips of wood, carefully
fitting the edges and binding them together by a wrapping of twine. The
tube thus formed was passed down the 214-in. bore-hole, with a bag of
wrapping at the bottom to form a tight joint below. The brine then rose
through the tube into the ‘“‘gum,” and was removed by buckets as from an
ordinary well. This simple arrangement was soon replaced by tin tubes
soldered together as they were lowered, and these again were superseded by
copper pipes which screwed into each other. The wrapping consisted of a
piece of buckskin or calfskin sewn up like a sleeve, about 12 or 15 in. long.
This was slipped over the end of the tube, and, having beensecurely bound at
the lower end, was filled to a depth of 6 or 8 in. with flaxseed, either alone or
mixed with gum tragacanth. The upper end was then bound loosely to the
tube, to permit the bag to empty itself if it became necessary to withdraw
the tube, and the arrangement was lowered. The seed soon swelled from the
absorption of water and formed a perfectly water-tight joint.
202 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

great nuisance, and every effort was made to tube it out and get
TLCVOLeb
A well bored in 1814 to a depth of 475 ft. at Duck Creek period-
ically discharged from 30 to 60 gal. of oil, together with large
quantities of natural gas, at intervals of from two to four days.
The following description of the ‘‘American”’ well, bored in 1829
for brine at Little Pennox Creek, is from WNiule’s Register:'
““Some months since, in the act of boring for salt water on the
land of Lemuel Stockton, situated in the County of Cumberland,
Kentucky, a vein of pure oil was struck, from which it is almost
incredible what quantities of the substance issued. The dis-
charges were by floods, at intervals of from two to five minutes,
at each flow vomiting forth many barrels of pure oil.

Tra. 15.—The Tarentum, Pa., brine wells, according to J. D. Henry.

These floods continued for three or four weeks, when they sub-
sided to a constant stream, affording many thousand gallons per
day.” This well yielded plentifully until 1860, and the oil was
sold as “The American Medicinal Oil, Burkesville, Kentucky.’
About 1849, 8. M. Ker, a druggist of Pittsburgh, Pa., noticed
the close similarity between the ‘American Oil” prescribed for
the sickness of his wife and the petroleum obtained by his father
from a brine well drilled to a depth of 400 ft. at Tarentum, Pa.,
and commenced to bottle and retail the latter oil for medicinal
use, soon effecting a sale of about 3 bbl. daily. ‘‘Kier’s Petro-
1 (3), 18, 4.
2 Burkesville Courier, Oct. 11, 1876.
’ The wells of Samurn and JaAmps Kiur yielded about 2 bbl. of petroleum
a day. On an adjoining property, the well of Irwin and Prrprson pro-
duced at irregular intervals, in 1857, from 2 to 10 bbl. of oil per day.
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 203

leum”’ was sold at 50 cts. per half-pint bottle. Finding that the
production far exceeded the sale, Kier began about 1855 to
refine the oil in a roughly constructed still. The “light, wine-
colored”’ distillate which first came over, was found useful for
illuminating purposes, as “‘carbon oil,” while the heavier product

Celebrated for its W onderful Curative Powers.

A NA’PURAL REMEDY 3
Procured from a Well in Allegheny County, Penn'a..
FOUR HUNDRED FEET BELOW THE EARTH'S SURFACE.
PUT UP AND SOLD BY

SAMUEL M, KIER,
No, 369 LIBERTY STREET, PITTSBURGH: PA.
The healthful balm, trow Nature's secret spring,
The bloom of health, and life, te snan will bting:
As from her depths the magic liquid Hows,
To cali our sufferings, and assuage our wpes,

Fig. 16.—Reproduction of a circular issued by Samuel M. Kier, in 1850.

was employed at a factory in Cooperstown for cleansing wools.

Kier adopted the Downer process of refining in 1860, obtaining
more satisfactory results.
Petroleum vs. Oil from Coal.—Shortly after the introduction
of James Young’s process for obtaining paraffin and paraffin
 204

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 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 205

3 6In.1

Scale
RETORT AND MAIN.- SECTION,
Fig. 18.—Retort employed in the distillation of bituminous coal (1860).

Gin. 1Foot 2 3 4 5 Feet

ne a 7

Fie. 19.—Plan of a revolving aa the distillation of bituminous coal

(1860).
 206 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

oils by the distillation of coal and shalein Scotland,' a considerable

number of ‘coal oil” refineries were erected in the United States.
Abraham Gesner claimed to have been the first to produce
illuminating oil from bituminous materials in America ; he

(ES TE C7

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Fia. 20.—The plan of a crude oil condenser (1860).

stated? that at public lectures delivered in Prince Edward

Island
in August, 1846, he burned in lamps the oil obtained by distilli
ng
coal. Patents granted to Gesner nine years later? passed
into
1See p. 809.
? “A Practical Treatise on Coal, Petroleum and Other Distilled Oils,”’
2d ed., 1865, 9.
3U. S. Patent 12612, Mar. 27, 1855.
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 207

the hands of the North American Kerosene Gaslight Company,

which manufactured the oil at its works at Newtown Creek,
Long Island, and-sold it under the name of “kerosene oil.’’!
‘Scotch “boghead” coal was distilled and a shipment was re-

|
A

END ELEVATION U
Fig. 21.—A crude oil condenser of the type in general use in the coal oil
industry.

ceived monthly. The agents of this company encountered

considerable difficulty in disposing of their products.
In 18538, the United States Chemical Manufacturing Company
began working coal tar for the manufacture of lubricating oil
1The North American Kerosene Gaslight Company, which was organized
in 1854, first worked under the patents of J. H. and G. W. AustIn.
208 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

at Waltham, Mass., and in 1857 the Downer Kerosene Oil

Company! first made mineral oils from albertite, mined in New

FrrT] MOC
Z lm anmly
J inn Gy /y

SECTION OF BROKEN LINE 4-B OF PLAN (FIG. 23)

REFERENCES

5B -Stills P-Drain
F'- Worms Q-Chimney
G-Worm Tanks R- Water Pipe
H- Boiler S-Steam Pipe
I - Engine T - Washer Gearing
J-Steam Pump U- Pipe from Agitators to Stills
K- Still Furnace V- Ventilators
L ~-Washers, or Agitators W- Tail Pipes
M - Receivers X- Still House ‘
N- Market Tank y - Refinery
O-Syphon of Still Pipe
Fia, 22.—The plan of an 1860 coal oil refinery, having a daily capacity of
600 gallons.

Brunswick.2 The large works of Downer in Boston were erected

at a cost of half a million dollars, and at Portland, Me., Downer
1 This Company was founded by Samurt L. Downmr, of South Boston.
The latter first put an oil on the market using the process of LUTHER ATWoop,
which consisted in distilling coal tar (1850). The product was sold under
the name “‘coup oil” and was used for lubrication (CHANDLER, J. Soc. Chem.
Ind:, 19, 612).
* The lightest distillate obtained from albertite was termed “‘keroselene;”’
this was first prepared by Josaua Mrrrtrut in 1857 and was used in the auto-
matic gas machines of that day.
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 209

CS | 0
seseu K K |
x
|
|
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ise]|

Fig, 23.—The plan of an 1860 coal oil refinery, having a daily capacity of
600 gailons.

14
210 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

erected a smaller works for distilling imported coal. About this

time, the New Bedford Company, of New Bedford, Mass.,
commenced the distillation of “‘boghead” coal, imported from
Scotland, but later substituted domestic Breckenridge coal and
West Virginia coal for the imported material.
In 1859, six plants were erected by various companies near
Pittsburgh, Pa., and one of these, the Lucesco Company, had a
distilling capacity of 6,000 gal. of crude oil per day. This
company had $120,000 invested in its works, and in 1860 ten
large revolving retorts were in operation. Sixteen 2,000-gal.
stills were used in the refinery. Many of the companies in
operation worked under licenses from the Young Company, of
Scotland. In 1860 there were 53 coal oil companies in existence
in the United States; these were as follows:

Adair & Veeder, Pittsburgh, Pa.

Aladdin Company, Kiskiminetas, Pa.
Anderson Company, Darlington, Pa.
Atlantic Company, New York, N. Y.
Beloni & Co., New York, N. Y.
Boston & Portland Company, Boston, Mass.
Breckenridge Company, Cloverport, Ky.
Brooks Company, Zanesville, O.
Carbon Company, New York, N. Y.
Cornell & Co., Canfield, O.
Covington Company, Covington, Ky.
Cox Company, Zanesville, O.
Dean Company, Cleveland, O.
Downer Company, Boston, Mass.
East Cambridge Company, East Cambridge, Mass.
Empire State Company, New York, N. Y.
Enon Valley Company, Enon Valley, Pa.
Eureka Company, New York, N. Y.
Excelsior Company, New York, N. Y.
Falling Rock Company, Kanawha, Va.
Forest Hill Company, Kanawha, Va.
Franklin Company, New York, N. Y.
Glendon Company, Boston, Mass.
Grasselli Company, Cincinnati, O.
Great Kanawha Company, Kanawha, Va.
Great Western Company, Newark, O.1
Greers Company, Kanawha, Va.
Hartford Company, Hartford, Conn.
Himebaugh & Co., Coshocton, O.
Kerosene Oil Company, New York, N. Y.
1 Min. Mag., 9, (1857), 175.
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 211

Knickerbocker Company, New York, N. Y.

Long Island Company, New York, N. Y.
Lucesco Company, Kiskiminetas, Pa.
New Bedford Company, New Bedford, Mass.
New York and Wheeling Company, Wheeling, W. Va.
New York Coal Oil Company, New Galilee, Pa.
North American Company, Kiskiminetas, Pa.
Orion Company, New York, N. Y.
Page & Co., Boston, Mass.
Palestine Company, Palestine, Pa.
Peasley Company, Boston, Mass.
Pictou Company, New York, N. Y.
Pinkham Company, Boston, Mass.
Phoenix Company, Cincinnati, O.
Preston Company, Virginia.
Ritchie Company, Ritchie County, Va.
Robinson Company, Perry County, O.
Sherwood Company, Canfield, O.
Stamford Company, Stamford, Conn.
Staunton Company, Kanawha, Va.
Union Company, Maysville, Ky.
Western Company, Monongalia County, Va.
Zephyr County, New York, N. Y.

On Mar. 4, 1858, A. C. Ferris sold the Kerosene Oil Company

9 bbl. of Tarentum petroleum for $275.19, and Luther Atwood
and Joshua Merrill, then in the employ of the Kerosene Oil
Company, became very enthusiastic over the results which were
obtained from the distillation of this crude petroleum. On Apr.
3, 1858, Ferris made a shipment of 19 bbl. of crude oil to New
York, for which he obtained $581.47; but the supply being
limited, no more ‘‘carbon oil”? could be supplied to the New
York company. When Drake demonstrated that petroleum
could be secured by drilling and that it afforded an illuminating
oil superior to any that could be manufactured from coal, the
“coal oil” industry became paralyzed. All that had been
invested by the Kerosene Oil Company in contracts for Scotch
coal and in expensive equipment became a total loss. However,
many of the other coal oil refineries were converted into petroleum
refineries and continued the business of manufacturing illuminat-
ing oil.
On Feb. 11, 1858, an agreement was made between MacKeown
& Finley, of Pittsburgh, and A. C. Ferris & Co., of New York,
by which the first party agreed to sell the second two-thirds of
1 Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., September, 1859.
212 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

their whole manufacture of ‘carbon oil” at 60 cts. a gallon.

On July 7, 1858, A. C. Ferris & Co. contracted to take the re-
maining third of the Pittsburgh company, less 2 bbl. a week, at
75 cts. a gallon. The agreement was afterward extended
for two years from Jan. 1, 1859.
A. C. Ferris & Co. by this time had succeeded in obtaining a
good lamp for burning the new oil and were manufacturing in
New York a fair quality of illuminating oil from the petroleum
they secured through Mac-
Keown & Finley from the
Tarentum wells. The firm
had likewise worked up a good
market for the sale of their
lamps and oil in the vicinity
of New York. Colonel Ferris
then visited Tarentum and
commenced an oil shaft on the
property of Irwin & Peterson
at that place. This shaft was
sunk to a depth of 220 ft. at
NS
tated _—=
S an expense of $20,000. Later
SStt
. S&S
SS=
on Ferris purchased this en-
aySS
pir
Atos
=
tire property for $150,000 and
aS organized the ‘‘Tarentum Oil,
Salt & Coal Company.” He
Tig Cale Coben stated that the first barrel of
‘carbon oil,’ as it was termed,
was sold to Stout & Hand, grocers, at Gowanus, South Brooklyn,
for 70 cts. a gallon. The early sales were generally in small
quantities, together with a lamp to each invoice.

THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PETROLEUM INDUSTRY!

Having been shown some petroleum from Cherrytree Town-

1 For reviews of the status of the petroleum industry of the United States
at various times, the reader is referred to the annual volumes of Mineral
Resources of the United States and of Mineral Industry, and also to the
following reports: 1870: BurKart, Berg.-Hwitt. Z., 29, 373. 1872: Faucx,
idem, 31, 351. 1876: Mostmr, ‘‘Die Petroleum-Industrie der Vereinigten
Staaten von Nord-amerika im Jahr 1876,” Halle, 1876; CHANDLER, Am.
Chemist, 6, 251. 1877: Horer, “Die Petroleum Industrie Nord-amerikas
in geschichtlicher, wirtschaftlicher, geologischer und technischer Hinsicht,”’
Vienna, 1877; Berg.-Hutt, Z.,36, 16,21. 1879: Bouuss, “Industrial History
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 213

ship, Venango County, Pennsylvania,! George H. Bissell, an at-

Fia@. 25.—George H. Bissell.

of the United States,’”’ Norwich, Conn., 1879. 1884: A. N. Lex, ‘“Petro-

leum Distillation,” New York, 1884. 1885: S. F. Pecxuam, ‘‘Census Re-
port of 1880 on Petroleum and its Products.” 1886: ZincKEN, Oesterr. Z.
Berg. Hiitt., 34, 51, 73, 88, 109, 125, 141, 175. 1887: B. Crew, ‘Practical
Treatise on Petroleum,” Philadelphia, 1887. 1888: TcurnatcHev, Rev.
deux Mondes, 89, 632; Hun, Gorn. jurn., 2,100; Stoop, Jaarb. Mijnw. Ned.
0.-Ind., 17,5. 1894: Rrcum and Roumn, Ann. Mines, (9), 5, 67; Bre~iaMIn,
Iz. Obsch. Gorn. Injen., 1894, Nos. 5 and 6; GutiscHamBarovy, ‘‘The
Petroleum Industry of the U.S.,” Petrograd, 1894. 1895: Wm. T. BRANNT,
“Petroleum and Natural Gas,” Philadelphia, 1895. 1902: SurHERLAND,
Petrol. Rev., 4, 633, 661. 1904: Zauoziuckt, Naphta, 12, 212. 1906: Wuirs-
sHoT, ‘“The Oil-Well Driller,” 17, 134. 1905-1907: Prerrusxy, Petroleum,
1, 401; 2, 481; 3, 630, 735; 4, 864; 5, 825. 1906: Wixpa, Naphta, 14, 349.
1910: Burroveus, Eng. Min. J., 89, 921; H. C. Goran, idem, 89, 131; 91,
93; 93,97. 1911: Leroy-Brautixu, J. Pétr., 11, 36; Lazarn, idem, 11, 243.
1The first oil lease on record is said to be the following:
“* Agreed, this fourth day of July, A. D. 1853, with J. D. Angier, of Cherrytree township,
in the County of Venango, Pa., that he shall repair up and keep in order the old oil spring on
land in said Cherrytree township, or dig and make new springs, and the expense to be
deducted out of the proceeds of the oil, and the balance, if any, to be equally divided, the
214 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

torney-at-law of New York, joined Jonathan G. Eveleth of the

same city in organizing a company, which was incorporated
in New York, Dec. 30, 1854, as the Pennsylvania Rock Oil
Company, with a capital stock of $250,000. Some of the oil
from the Cherrytree deposits was sent to Benjamin Silliman, Jr.,
who, in a report dated Apr. 16, 1855, addressed to Messrs.
Eveleth, Bissell, and Reid,! gave the results which he had ob-
tained by a study of this “rock oil or petroleum.” Silliman
fractionated the crude oil by distillation, and, on examining the
distillates, he came to the conclusion that certain of the bodies
which they contained were products of distillation and were not
present in the crude oil. He studied the action of various rea-
gents on the fractions, the behavior of the distillates when cooled,
one-half to J. D. Angier and the other half to Brewer, Watson & Co., for the full term of five
years from this date. If profitable.
“BREWER, WATSON & CO.
“J. D. ANGIER.”
Under this agreement, Angier proceeded to dig ditches and pits, and in
doing so frequently struck “pockets” of oil (Some of which contained a
quart) in the gravel 3 or 4 ft. beneath the surface. When the ditches
were first opened, from 4 to 6 gal. per day could be collected; but so much
work was required to keep the oil flowing that the expenses consumed the
profits, and, after a few months, the experiment was abandoned.
The deed of the first property sold for oil purposes in Pennsylvania was
made by Brewer, Watson & Co., of Titusville, and conveyed to George H.
Bissell and J. G. Eveleth, of New York, 105 acres of land in Cherry-
tree Township, Venango County, Pennsylvania. Actual consideration,
$5,000 ($25,000 was mentioned in the deed). This deed was dated Nov.
10, 1854, but was not fully executed until Jan. 1, 1855.
The following copy of an early agreement is of interest:
“This Agreement, made this 11th day of October, in the year 1861, by and between Henry
H. Rogers and Charles P. Ellis, of Fairhaven, Massachusetts, and Hamilton McClintock, of
McClintockville, Pennsylvania.
““Witnesseth, that the said Henry H. Rogers and Charles P. Ellis, in consideration of the
covenants in the part of the party of the second part to be performed, do covenant and agree
to and with the said Hamilton McClintock, that they will refine and deliver to the said H.
McClintock in the best manner so much good oil, together with the naphtha and waste as
may be extracted from 50 barrels of crude petroleum oil by one distillation; and they fur-
thermore agree to cooper and glaze upon the inside, paint and mark the heads of the barrels
furnished by the said H. McClintock for the refined oil.
‘‘And the said Hamilton McClintock covenants to pay to the said Henry H. Rogers and
Charles P. Ellis, sixteen cents for each gallon of crude petroleum oil so refined, upon delivery,
and the said H. McClintock furthermore agrees to furnish new iron-bound barrels for the
refined oil and to stand his own insurance upon his oil and barrels while upon the premises of
the said Henry H. Rogers and Charles P. Ellis, In witness whereof, we have hereunto set
our hands and seals the day and year first above-written.
“Witness: “Henry H. Rogers.
““W. Ashbaugh. “Charles P. Ellis.
““H. McClintock.”
1 Republished in 1871 in Am. Chemist, 2, 18.
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 215

the value of the different oils as illuminating agents and lubri-

cants, and their suitability for employment as a source of gas.
His report—the presentment of the results of the first systematic
investigation of petroleum—gave important information on the
chemistry of petroleum and determined its economic value; it
is indeed a technochemical classic.
Harmony did not prevail among the members of the Pennsyl-

Fre. 26.—Benjamin Silliman, Jr., the author of technochemical classics

on Pennsylvania petroleum (1855), California petroleum (1865 and 1867),
and on the combustion of fuel (1860).

vania Rock Oil Company and but little was done at the Venango
oil springs. Accordingly, in March, 1858, Bissell and certain
other members of the Company organized the Seneca Oil Com-
pany,! which leased a plot of land on Oil Creek from the parent
1 In the summer of 1856 BisspLu conceived the idea of drilling for petroleum
at Titusville, Pa., and consulted with EveLeru, who favored the project.
Not being so situated that they could undertake the experiment them-
selves, they mentioned the matter to a Mr. Havens, of New York, who be-
came so favorably impressed that he offered them $500 if they would secure"
him a lease of the property of the Pennsylvania Rock Oil Company. After
216 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

company and started operations at Titusville, Pa., for obtaining

the oil by means of artesian wells. After many delays, the super-
intendent, E. L. Drake, engaged two drillers who had been
employed in boring salt wells at Tarentum, Pa., and at the

Fia. 27.—Col. E. L. Drake.

beginning of 1859 work was commenced. Finding all attempts

at digging through the surface deposits to the rock, which was

considerable delay the lease was obtained. Havrmns was required to pay
12 cts. per gallon for all the oil raised in 15 years, and was given one year in
which to commence operations. He did not comply with the terms, and on
Dee. 30, 1857, another lease was made by some of the directors, contrary to
the wishes of the others, to KE. E. Bowprrcen and E. L. Draxx, at a royalty of
514 ets. per gallon. This was soon supplemented by another restoring the
royalty to 12 cts. and extending the time to 45 years. On this lease the
“Seneca Oil Company” was formed Mar. 23, 1858; it had the honor of
drilling the Drake well—the first “wildcat” in the Pennsylvania oil regions
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY 1N THE UNITED STATES 217

to be penetrated by the drill, to be futile on account of the caving

in of the shaft, Drake successfully adopted the expedient of
driving an iron tube through the quicksand and clay to the rock,
a system which has since been largely employed. After drilling

Fig. 28.—The Drake Well. Below, on the right, Drake; on the left, his
driller, Smith; above (insert), Drake.

to a depth of 69 ft., the drill suddenly dropped, on Aug. 28,

1859, into a crevice, and on the following day oil was found to
have been struck. At first the well yielded about 25 bbl. daily
to the pump, but its production rapidly diminished, until, at
218 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

the close of the year, it did not amount to more than about 15
bbl. daily. The total yield during 1859 was under 2,000 bbl.
The success of the Drake well directly induced the rapid
development of the petroleum industry. Bissell immediately

‘SS.
ym
~<
5>

iS\
==
ASiS
AN
us
fs ¥)
)

Ot ha\ hk ANN WS

ee etal EAS
INS PAVIA i.

Me

ia. 29.—A view of Triumph Hill, near Tidioute, Pa., according

to J. D. Henry.

secured all the available leases down the creek along the Alle-
gheny River, and largely bought up the stock of the Pennsyl-
vania Rock Oil Company. Others also secured many valuable
leases, usually no rent being charged, but a royalty of one-eighth »
to a quarter of the oil obtained being paid by the lessees. Cone
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 219

and Johns! and Henry? have collected a large amount of interest-

ing information on the development of the industry along Oil
Creek and its vicinity. According to Cone and Johns, “Com-

pearay
v
WU:
e
SSS
NS e \ ANY
Sandstone
peel De WN 25 Fe

Sie
eg
he
DEK

ore By,
cae
Slate
: bx: ——— _, 125K

“ NCC< 3rd
LOSS andstone
\\
Fig. 30.—Section of a well on O il Creek, Pennsylvania (1864).

mencing at Titusville in 1859, the tide of development swept over

the valley of Oil Creek and along the Allegheny River, above
and below Oil City, for a considerable distance. Cherry Run
in 1864 furnished the first subsequent excitement. Then
1 “Petrolia,” N. Y., 1870.
2 “Harly and Later History of Petroleum,” 1873.
220 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

came Pithole Creek, Benninghoff and Pioneer Run. The Woods

and Stevenson farms on Oil Creek, near Petroleum Centre, ,
came in like succession in 1865 and 1866. Tidioute, or rather
Dennis Run and Triumph Hill, was a promising candidate for
public favor in 1867, and in the latter part of the same year,
Shamburgh, on Upper Cherry Run, made its brilliant début.
For 1868 the Pleasantville oil field furnished the chief excitement.”
In January, 1860, a pump was put into the Hamilton McClin-
tock well, 2 miles above Oil City, and it started off at 60 gal. a
minute. Operations then extended rapidly to Tidioute, Franklin,
Warren and Tionesta, and a heavy oil well was struck at

Fra. 31.—A view on Oil Creek, Pennsylvania, about 1865. The scene
shown was the property of the McKinley Oil Company, of New York.

Franklin.!' Barnsdall, Meade, Abbott and Rouse struck oil

near Drake’s well, at a depth of 80 ft. At that depth, however, a
supply of only about 5 bbl. was obtained; but in February,
1860, at a depth of 160 ft., a second supply was struck, which
yielded 40 to 50 bbl. daily.2 Most of the early wells on Oil
Creek were sunk by means of the ‘‘spring pole,’’ which was used
even to a depth of 400 or 500 ft.
+ Considerable interest was manifested in the oil business at Erie and
several refineries were located there soon after the striking of the Drake well.
Among the first refiners was Ricuarp Gaaarn, who began operations in 1860.
In the early sixties, the upper valley of Mill Creek, near Erie, was a cluster of
small petroleum refineries, among which were those of Jonns and Murray,
Hueues and Wricut, Stoan and Dovatass, and Hammonp and WILKINS.
* From this well, between Feb. 1 and June 1, 1860, 56,000 gal. of petro-
leum were sold for $16,800. The total cost of drilling, etc., was $3,000.
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 221

It is worthy of mention that, during the early days of the pe-

troleum industry in America, drilling was carried on in quite an
unsystematic manner, without regard to any geological or other
features of the
country, ex-
cept such de-
lusive indica-
tions as were
furnished by
superficial
outflows of
oil, the rising
Fic. 32.—Machinery employed in boring
petroleum wells, in use about 1865. of gas and oil
H in wells drilled
q
H
y
q
\
for water or brine, or the appearance of exudations of
\
i
\
\ oil and semi-solid bitumen. The number of wells
Rope
\
drilled was frequently far in excess of the number
\
\
\
\
i)
which should have been sunk. This was especially
the case along Oil Creek, where leases of only a
quarter of an acre were often worked upon, thus en-
suring the sinking of about twenty times as many
FRope
Sockec
wells as there should have been.
The appearance of gas and oil in the brine wells at
Tarentum, Pa., and elsewhere, and the subsequent
drilling of wells for the express purpose of obtaining
Stnker
Bar
petroleum, were the most potent factors in the early

|
5 e/orr

development of the industry in America; and the

successive boring of neighboring wells, together with
Jarsblo the energy displayed by the speculative “wildcat”’

prospectors, who drilled wells in untested territory,

and in many cases regardless of any oil indications
whatever, soon led to the mapping out of a large
22/07
area of producing country in Pennsylvania and New
Auger
Stem York. The drillers in Venango County quickly as-
Ble!
certained that petroleum was contained in a series
=
a
Bit of sandstones embedded in shale; and three of these
deposits, respectively termed the first, second, and
third sands, and all included under the general name of oil-sands,
were recognized.
The first ‘flowing well” in the oil regions of Pennsylvania, was
obtained in the summer of 1860 on the Buchanan farm, near
 222 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Rouseville; it was called the “Curtis well” and

was a little less
than 200 ft. deep.
On Apr. 12, 1861, Kincaid and Co. struck a 10-bbl.
flowing
well on the Clapp farm, and two days later Sheare
r and Co. got
a 20-bbl. flowing well on the same farm at a depth
of 165 ft.

Fie. 33.—Inside view of an early

derrick.

The “Fountain well,” which was sunk

on the Upper McElhenny
or Funk farm, produced 300 bbl. daily
for six months, and then
stopped short, having, it was said,
become choked by the solidi-
fication of paraffin. The Empire well, drilled to the
on the same farm, was complete same depth
d in September, 1861, It
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 223

commenced to flow at the rate of 2,500 bbl. daily, and six weeks
afterward its regular daily product amounted to 2,200 bbl.; but
in May, 1862, the flow suddenly ceased. The well was ulti-
mately cleaned out and yielded 300 bbl. daily to the pump for
about nine months.
The Lower McElhenny farm gave, among others, the ‘‘ Davis
& Wheelock well,” flowing at the rate of 1,500 bbl. daily, and the
Densmore wells, Nos. 1, 2, and 3, which daily yielded 600, 400,
and 500 bbl., respectively.
The “ Maple Shade well,” struck on Aug. 5, 1863, on the Hyde
& Egbert farm at Petroleum Centre, started off at 1,000 bbl.

= wats : a - Ss

Fig. 34.—A view of the McClintock or “Coal Oil Johnny” Steele farm,
perhaps the most famous oil property of Pennsylvania. The insert is a
picture of Steele.

daily, and is said to have given $1,500,000 profit to its owners.

The J. W. McClintock farm, afterward covered by the city of
Petroleum Centre, consisted of 207 acres, and was the site of
not less than 150 wells, nearly 80 per cent. of which was
remunerative.
At a depth of 491 ft., the Phillips No. 2 well, on the Tarr farm,
was struck in September, 1861. It gave a stream of 4,000 bbl.
daily, the yield being maintained at nearly that amount for
months. The well, which is estimated to have yielded 750,000
to 1,000,000 bbl., flowed for a year, and was then pumped. It
produced largely for 12 years, but was finally shut down in 1873.
224 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

The Woodford well, a few rods from the Phillips, yielded 3,000
bbl. daily in December, 1861, and was found to be connected
with that well, for, when either ceased working, only water could
be obtained from the other.
On the Farrel farm was the Noble & Delamater well, which
flowed at the rate of 3,000 bbl. daily. It was sunk in January,
1863, and continued to yield until 1865, having, it 1s estimated,
produced $3,000,000 worth of oil. The Sherman well, on the
Foster farm, Oil Creek, commenced at the rate of 1,000 bbl.
on Mar. 18, 1862; it is said to have yielded 900 bbl. daily for two
years.
The excitement at Pithole commenced on Jan. 8, 1865, when

Fia. 35,—The Phillips and Woodford wells on the Tarr farm.

the celebrated United States or Frazier well was struck on the

Thomas Holmden farm in a ravine on Pithole Creek. This well,
the property of the United States Oil Company, produced at the
rate of 250 bbl. daily and oil was sold at $8 a barrel; but the yield
gradually diminished and ceased in November of the same year.
On the same farm were the Twin wells (800 bbl. daily), the No.
54 well (800 bbl.), the Grant well (450 bbl.), and the Eureka well
(800 bbl.; total production during life, 50,000 bbl.). Other
flowing wells were struck on the adjoining Rooker farm, and on
the adjacent Hyner and Copeland farms; but, although all
gave excellent results at the commencement (the Holmden farm
producing from 3,000 to 4,000 bbl. when at its best), none of
the wells yielded for more than a few months. Pithole City was
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 225

a typical “oil country” city.'| Built up in an incredibly short

time, it had a population estimated at 14,000 before the end of
September, 1865, and its post office ranked next in importance
in the State to those of Philadelphia and Pittsburgh. As,
however, its production fell off, its prosperity rapidly declined,
and within two years of its foundation it was practically deserted.
Throughout the ‘‘oil country,” as the producing fields changed,
the population shifted with the fields, and the towns that had
sprung from the wilderness vanished almost as quickly as they
had grown. :
Borings in the valley of the Muskingum, in Ohio, and on the
little Kanawha were also attended with success. The develop-
ment of the Mecca field in Trumbull County, Ohio, dates from

Zo F
Tia § Waray eee
oe
CLEZES
DARCY
What
Uatre.
a 5
es
ee ~
ae

Fig. 36.—The ‘Red Hot” field, known primarily as the Twombley

Tract, which first yielded petroleum in 1869. ‘This field was the scene of
the operations of the firm of Winsor Brothers. (J, D. Henry.)

1860, when boring operations were started on a large scale.

Several thousands of barrels were taken out yearly for some time,
but the greater number of the wells, which were very shallow,
rarely exceeding 100 ft. in depth, were soon abandoned, and sub-
sequent operations did not result in any large increase. In
1860, an old brine well at Burning Springs, West Virginia, was
reopened and yielded about 50 bbl. of oil daily; and the follow-
ing year the Llewellyn well, with a depth of only 100 ft., flowed
over 1,000 bbl. daily, and subsequently at the rate of 1,400 to 2,000
bbl. daily for some months. Oil was also obtained in 1860 and
1861 at Oil Springs, on the Hughes River. The occurrence of
petroleum in brine wells in Washington County, Ohio, is referred
to by Hildreth,? and several wells were drilled from 1860 to 1865
at Cowrun and elsewhere in that district.
1‘ The History of Pithole”’ was prepared by C. C. Lonarp in 1867.
2 Am. J. Sci., 24 (1833), 63; 29 (1836), 87.
15
 226 THE, AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Fic, 387.—William H. Abbott, a pioneer of the Pennsylvania oil fields.

Fre, 38.—C. D. Angell, a large pro- Fria. 39.—B,A. Funk, who played
ducer of petroleum in the early devel- a prominent part in the early de-
opment of the Pennsylvania fields, velopment of the Pennsylvania pe-
troleum industry.
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 227

Fria. 40.—Hamilton McClintock, one of the most prominent of the early

oil operators of Pennsylvania. Mr. McClintock was born on January 19,
1820, and died on July 29, 1882.

Tia. 41,—Orange Noble, a well-known operator in the early Pennsylvania

oil fields,
228 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Although wells had been drilled near the junction of the

Clarion and Allegheny rivers as early as 1863, the development
of the “lower country” lying in Butler, Armstrong, and Clarion
counties, Pennsylvania, did not commence until 1868.
The following statement shows approximately the early growth
of the American petroleum industry: In 1859, the total pro-
duction, which was wholly obtained from Oil Creek, amounted

oD S) Mic
lx : : 55'8 2 ae

n Es

Stair,
35/02

Receiver) |
D

Petroleum
Settler
——
________-
<—__-
—_--
—
37
———__-

| ‘VfA! Dy \| tl fe
Bal | |
Super- ; Il
\ es
tll \| Super-
heater
VAM
=
Water ie heater | -
AE LUT, i
Tank
3 in :

Boilers

=
35.0 Still House

ae ie -— 58'0" ; ar
A
Fia. 42.—A plan of the type of petroleum refinery erected in the early
sixties.

to about 2,000 bbl. In June, 1860, the wells along Oil Creek
yielded about 200 bbl. daily, and in September, 1860, about 700.
The yield then rapidly increased, owing to the discovery of
flowing wells, until, during the winter and spring of 1861 to
1862, it amounted to about 15,000 bbl. daily. The price ob-
tained for the oil then fell so low that production was largely
arrested, until, according to Cone and Johns, “the production
of 1863 was scarcely half-that of the beginning of 1862, and
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 229

ELEVATION

22
6

|
oO
i=)
we

a
6.
'

Drain
SECTION ON LINE C-D OF FIG, 42
Fic. 43.—A plan of the type of petroleum refinery erected in the carly
sixties.
230 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

that of 1864 still less. In May, 1865, the production had de-
clined to less than 4,000 bbl. a day, the valley of Oil Creek being
the only producing locality at that time.’”’ It is estimated that
some ten million bbl. of petroleum ran to waste in Pennsylvania
prior to and in 1862, owing to the absence of a market therefor.
The Oil City Register for June, 1, 1862, gives the following es-
timates for the Oil Creek valley at that date: Daily production,
5,717 bbl.; flowing wells, 75; wells sunk and in process of being
drilled, 358; amount of oil in hand, 92,450 bbl.; total production
prior to May, 1862, 1,000,000 bbl.; cost of sinking wells, $495,000;
cost of machinery, buildings, tanks, etc., $500,000; total number

of refineries, 25. In 1865, a refinery capable of handling 2,000

gal. of crude petroleum per day cost about $11,230.
After the middle of the year 1864, the petroleum industry be-
gan to expand, and the production has since steadily increased.
For some years the Pennsylvania fields remained the principal
source of supply,’ but a small quantity of petroleum soon began
1 Vor further information regarding the history of the oil regions of Penn-
sylvania, the following literature should be consulted:
Bonn’s ‘Petroleum and Petroleum Wells: Guide-book and Description
of the Oil Regions of Pennsylvania, West Virginia, and Ohio,” Philadelphia,
1865; Bucx’s “Karly History of Pennsylvania,” 1876; Caruu’s “The Oil and
Gas Region,” Ann. Rept. Geol. Survey Pa., 1886, 575-786; Conr and Jouns’
“Petrolia. A Brief History of the Pennsylvania Petroleum Region, its
Development, Growth, Resources, etc., from 1859 to 1869,” New York,
1870; GittuLen’s “The Oil Regions of Pennsylvania,” Pittsburgh, 1864;
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 2381

to be produced in the states of Ohio,! West Virginia,? Kentucky,’

Harris’ “History of the Venango Oil Regions,” Titusville, Pa., 1866;
Rineway’s ‘Reporton the Oil District of Oil Creek in the State of
Pennsylvania,” J. Frank. Inst., 45 (1863), 269-73; and Wricur’s “The
Oil Regions of Pennsylvania,” New York, 1865. The chronology of the
Pennsylvania oil regions is given in detail in ‘‘The Derrick’s Hand-book of
Petroleum,” Oil City, Pa., 1898, 1, 18 et seg. For a curious history of the
Venango oil region, see Earon’s “‘ Petroleum,” 1866.
The following table gives the range of the market for Pennsylvania pe-
troleum, 1860 to 1913:

Year |Highest |Lowest | Year | Highest | Lowest Year | Highest | Lowest

1860 |$20.00, |$2.00 |1878 |$1.8714|/$0.7834| 1896 | $1.50 | $0.90

1861 isha 0.10 |1879 | 1.2834) 0.6314] 1897 0.96 0.65
1862 2.00 0.10 |1880 | 1.243} 0.7114] 1898 1.19 0.65
1863 4.00 | 2.00 |1881 | 1.0134] 0.7214]1899 | 1.66] 1.13
1864 14.00 3.75 | 1882 | 1.35 0.4914| 1900 1.68 1.05
1865 10.00 4.00 |18838 | 1.2434) 0.83814) 1901 1.30 1.05
1866 5.00 1.65 |1884 | 1.155¢| 0.5144) 1902 1.54 1.15
1867 4.00 1.50 |1885 | 1.125¢) 0.68 |1903 1.90 1.50
1868 5.50 1.80 |1886 | 0.9214) 0.60 | 1904 1.85 1.50
1869 7.00 4.25 |1887 | 0.90 0.54 |1905 iG 1.27
1870 4.90 2.75 {1888 | 1.00 0.713} 1906 1.64 1.58
1871 5,15 3.40 |1889 | 1.1244] 0.7914] 1907 1.78 1.58
1872 4.10 3.00 |1890 | 1.077%} 0.6034) 1908 1.78 1.78
1873 3.05 1.00 |1891 | 0.813¢| 0.50 | 1909 1.78 1.43
1874 1.90 0.45 |1892 | 0.6414] 0.50 |1910 1.43 1.30
1875 1.65 0.90 |1893 | 0.80 0.527%} 1911 1.35 1.30
1876 4.2314) 1.4834] 1894 | 0.9534! 0.7814) 1912 1.95 1.30
1877 38.70 1.5334/ 1895 | 2.96 0.9414| 1913 2.50 2.00

1 Writing in 1887, Epwarp Orton, State geologist of Ohio, thus de-

scribed the production and promise of the Lima field: ‘‘Drilling in the
Lima field was begun in the spring of 1885. It was a year, however, before
the oil producers entered vigorously upon its development. The wells on the
Shade farm, south of the town, made the first significant departure from the
day of small things with which the work was begun. All these were flowing
wells. The early summer of 1886 marked the beginning of rapid develop-
ment. The production of single wells increased from 60 and 70 bbl. to 100
bbl. a day, and presently, in the Hume well, to 250 bbl. a day, and a little
later to 700 bbl. in the Tunget well. To the southward, great wells were
presently found. The Ridenour farm, the Hueston, Moore, Ditzler, Ballard,
Lehman, Goodenow, and Spear farms all became centers of large and certain
production. By Oct. 1 the character of the field had come into clear view
as second to none yet found in the United States in volume of production.
During September, 1886, 33 wells were added to the 128 previously drilled.
Of these one was dry. The total production of the new wells was 2455 bbl.
daily, showing an average of 75 bbl. to the well. Six of these wells were
232 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Pal

—_, a
: \
poof
Y YA,
ATTA HR

CLL EP LPLE PL.

BERGE Beene

45.—Section
Fia.
still
of
condenser,
and
such
about
used
1865.
were
as

credited with an aggregate production of 1,300 bbl. daily. In November

, a
number of other great wells was brought in, and the Douglas,
Crumrine,
Boop, Mechling, McLaid, and other farms were added to
the prolific areas.
A well drilled during this month on the Alonzo McLain
farm, Section 13,
Shawnee Township, reached a production for its first day of
nearly, or quite,
1,000 bbl. This well is still flowing (1887) at the rate
of 150 bbl. a day.
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 233

MUNN
Sel
= INV. Gl MMM
= =
i] —
:

||

|
Fan
WY
| | Fan

=r ( Fan ut Fan

fh
U
3 6In.1 2 3 Ft.
SE
Scale
Fic. 46.—The section of a vertical washer of the type in use in 1865.

The largest production in the Lima field for a single day is that of a well on
the J. W. Ridenour farm, Section 18, Perry Township. It put into tanks
in the first 24. hr. 2,760 bbl. of oil. . . . On the Ist of May there were 444
wells in the Lima fields” (8th Ann. Rep. U. S. Geol. Survey, 1890).
2 Up to 1876 West Virginia is estimated to have produced 3,000,000 bbl.
In 1889, the output from its 623 producing wells amounted to 544,113 bbl., of
which the Turkey Foot and Mount Morris fields gave about two-thirds.
In 1892, the production was 3,810,086 bbl., while in 1893 it amounted to
8,445,412 bbl. and in 1903 to. 12,899,395 bbl., after having reached upward
of 16,000,000 bbl. in 1900. From 1903 to 1907 the production steadily
declined, and was somewhat in excess of 9,000,000 bbl. in the last of these
years. During the following two years there was a slight increase to
10,745,092 bbl. for 1909.
3 In Kentucky much prospecting was carried on prior to 1890 in Barren,
Clinton, Cumberland, Pulaski, Russell, and Wayne counties, but the only
production reported in 1889 was from Boyd’s Creek, in Barren County, and
this amounted to 5,400 bbl. In 1891, 9,000 bbl. were produced, but the
234 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Tennessee,! and California.” After 1884 the production of Ohio

n
oS

een

uy
100000 Ew |

— Tl
NESTE

a aw
Ht Till \}

Fia. 47.—The end elevation and section of a horizontal washer and tanks
(1865).

output then declined, until in 1897 only 322 bbl. were obtained; the pro-
duction then began to increase very rapidly until 1905, when the output from
Kentucky and Tennessee was 1,217,337 bbl., of which Tennessee only pro-
duced about 10,000 bbl.
+ The operations in Tennessee date from 1893, but for 10 years the only
important results were those obtained in the Bobs Bar well, drilled in 1896,
which at first yielded 5,000 to 6,000 bbl. annually; practically all the oil
produced in Tennessee came from this well down to 1904, In that year
some development took place at Poplar Cove, Fentress County, a few miles
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 235

te. =e 0- “f e

|B SS
2 EN =
Zz.
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a” 55" “Y= 3 j Ste
( 92s 9412"
9+9 a" Vy 9+9
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mn Z

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Zs Ax 14"
Y = =
= =i ee
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BS

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Fie. 48.—The longitudinal section of a horizontal washer and tanks (1865).

north of Bobs Bar, and several good wells were obtained, leading to the
extension of the Cumberland pipe line into the new district in 1905. In
spite of this, the production declined rapidly; in 1915, however, Tennessee
again became a producer.
2 Until 1881 the production of petroleum in California was not large, the
output in 1880 being but 40,552 bbl., mainly derived from Ventura, Los
Angeles, and Santa Barbara districts. Since that time it has rapidly
increased, and California became first in the rank of petroleum-producing
states, the yield in 1903 being nearly 24,382,472 bbl. In 1907 and 1908
Oklahoma produced more petroleum than California, but in 1909 the
latter again held first place with 54,433,010 bbl. and in 1910 the production
was over 73,000,000 bbl.
236 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

rapidly increased, and that of West Virginia after 1890; from the
same date that of California also increased steadily to nearly
30,000,000 bbl. in 1904, and Colorado and Indiana began to con-

Fia. 50.—A West Virginia petro-

leum well of 1865. Depth, 150 ft.
The cost of sinking a petroleum well
600 ft. was estimated, at that time, at
$7,000.
tribute appreciable quantities to the
total supply. Very small productions
were also recorded from Illinois,!

In a memorandum on the subject of the

duration of the supplies of Californian pe-
troleum, addressed to the Secretary of the
Interior, GrorGr Oris SmitH, the Director
of the U. 8. Geological Survey, estimates
the quantity of petroleum remaining under-
ground at about 7,000,000,000 bbl.
1 Down to 1902 the only production of
petroleum in Illinois was near Litchfield,
Montgomery County, where some 1,460
bbl. were obtained in 1889, and several
hundred barrels each year till 1902, when 200 bbl. were obtained. The
whole of this oil was used as a lubricant, but no production was recorded
in 1903 or 1904.
During the early ‘oil rush” in Pennsylvania, some wells were drilled in
Clark County, Illinois, a few miles north of the town of Casey, at a place
called Oil Field, and these were reported to have met with small showings
of oil. In 1904, a Pittsburgh group drilled a well very close to these old
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 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 237

Kansas,! Texas,? Missouri,* and Indian Territory at the begin-

ning of the last decade of the nineteenth century, but toward
its close, Kansas and Texas began to develop their petroleum
resources to a fuller extent, and Wyoming also appeared on the
list of producing states.
From 1901 to 1904, while the eastern fields showed a decline,
California, Texas, and Louisiana, with the Indian and Oklahoma
tests, obtaining a slight showing of oil and gas. A second boring resulted
in a 35-bbl. well, and in 1905 some 300 wells were drilled, extending the
field through Clark to Cumberland and Crawford counties. There were
three principal areas, one between Casey and Westfield in Clark, another
southeast of Casey, and the third near Robinson in Crawford. The first of
these was in 1905 connected by pipe line to the Cincinnati, Hamilton and
Dayton Railroad at Oil Field Station. The production in 1905 was 181,084
bbl.
1 Operations have been carried on in Kansas since 1865, when two wells
were sunk about 10 miles east of Paola. In 1873, a boring, 7 miles from
Paola, near a large tar spring, met with a strong flow of gas at 320 ft. and
was abandoned. In 1888, a very heavy black oil was found, and in May,
1889, a good oil-sand was struck at 330 ft. In 1890, 13 producing wells
were in operation in the Russell tract, and in 1894 the output amounted to
about 40,000 bbl. More active developmert then commenced, and in 1896
the production was 113,571 bbl., though it declined in 1899 to 69,700 bbl.
After 1900 the industry began to develop with the discovery of new sources
of oil at Chanute in Neosho County, and at Humboldt in Allen, the previous
. production being almost entirely derived from Neodesha in Wilson County.
2 The first development of the petroleum industry in Texas was in the
sixties, when oil was found near Nacogdoches at a depth of about 100 ft., and
a few wells flowed to a very limited extent. A pipe line was constructed,
and storage tanks built; but the industry remained in a stagnant condition
for many years. In 1895, the amount of oil obtained was only 50 bbl. In
1893, however, petroleum had been found at Sour Lake, at a depth of 230 ft.,
and in 1894 it was discovered near Corsicana, from which neighborhood
about 1,000 bbl. were obtained in 1896. In 1897, the output had increased
to nearly 66,000 bbl. and the next year to 546,000 bbl.
In Missouri only 20 bbl. of oil were reported as produced in 1889. The
product resembled that of Paola, in Kansas, and was all obtained from one
well in Boone Township, Bates County. Much prospecting for gas has
been carried on in the State, but the only commercially available supplies
have been obtained in-Bates, Cass, Clay and Jackson counties. The wells
are about 400 ft. deep, and are supplied by a reddish sandstone from 10 to 40
ft. thick, which sometimes also contains a thick black oil. Gas to the value
of $35,687 was produced in 1889, but only to the value of $2,154 in 1902,
which was, however, more than in any year since 1895. In 1902, oil of good
lubricating quality was found at Belton, Cass County, together with natural
gas, which is utilized for heating and illuminating purposes. The gas was
obtained at a depth of 366 ft., and the oil from 340 to 490 ft.
238 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Territories, Kansas, and Indiana,! increased their production

to a remarkable extent. Down to the end of 1904 the entire
output of petroleum in the United States since its discovery in
quantity in 1859 was estimated at 1,382,815,006 bbl., which
sold for $1,363,069,897, an average price of 98.6 cts. per barrel.*
According to the annual reports of the United States Geological
Survey, the most important features in connection with the
production of petroleum in this country during the five years
1904-1909 were as follows.
In 1904 there was a continuation of the remarkable increase
in the production of an inferior grade of petroleum in California,
Texas, and Louisiana, and of the increase in Kansas and Indian
Territory of the production of a fair grade of petroleum; for the
first time in the history of the petroleum industry the quantity
produced west of the Mississippi River was greater than that
produced east; there were new fields developed in Texas, Cali-
fornia, and Kansas; the regularity of the sum of production of
the older fields continued to be remarkable; there was an in-
crease in the demand for refined petroleum throughout the
United States, especially for the lighter grades used in internal-
combustion engines, and there was an increased quantity of the
heavier crude petroleum produced in Louisiana, Texas, and
California consumed as fuel.
In 1905, the development of the Mid-Continent field and the
extension into Illinois of the Lima-Indiana field indicated a great
increase in the future production of the lighter grades of oil,
while the production of the eastern fields showed signs of per-
manent decrease. The completion of the pipe line from Hum-
boldt, Kansas, to Whiting, Indiana, marked another step in
1 The oil industry of Indiana developed with remarkable rapidity between
1891 and 1904, but since that date the production has declined with even
greater speed. In 1871, T.Srerry Hun (Am. Nat., 5, 576) stated that a well
sunk at Terre Haute for water was carried to a depth of 1,900 ft. and yielded
about 7 gal. of oil daily. A second well, a quarter of a mile east-by-north from
the first, yielded 25 bbl. daily, at a depth of 1,625 ft. FPormany years only very
small results attended the efforts of prospectors. The output during 1889
from the districts of Terre Haute in Vigo County and Montpelier in Black-
ford County, the only fields included in the Eleventh Census Report, was
33,375 bbl. In 1890, the output from the whole of Indiana was 63,496
bbl.; in 1891, 136,634; in 1892, 698,068; in 1893, 2,335,293 bbl. And from
that time it steadily increased to 5,757,086 bbl. in 1901, and 11,339,124 bbl.
in 1904. The production in 1909 was only 2,296,086 bbl.
?OuipHAaNntT, Mineral Resources of the United States, 1904.
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 239

the transportation of oil. In 1906, there was an extension of the

area of the Mid-Continent field, and an increase in the daily
production of oil in that region; an expansion of the area in Illinois
from which oil was being produced; considerable growth in the
consumption of fuel oil in California; decline in the production
from the Coastal Plain district of the Gulf States; and further
decrease in the average daily production from the Appalachian
field. Additional transport facilities were provided by the laying
of a second pipe line across the Isthmus of Panama for the
delivery of the oil from the Californian field to the Atlantic
Ocean. In 1907, there was a total output of crude oil far in
excess of that of any previous year, with an unparalleled ac-

Fria. 51.—The north extension of the Cushing field (1915).

cumulation of stocks; and great increase in production in the

new Illinois field, in the Glenn pool in Oklahoma, and in Cali-
fornia. In 1908, there was a steady growth in the production in
Illinois and California, and a decline in the production in the
Glenn pool and in various Texas and Louisiana pools. In
1909, California was the chief center of attraction, the production
increasing to the extent of 21.85 per cent., but Oklahoma and
West Virginia also showed some gain. In 1910, a further increase
of 31.62 per cent. was recorded in California, and Louisiana more
than doubled its output; the production of oil in Wyoming also
began to assume importance.
The Cushing pool, in Oklahoma, was extended in various
directions in 1913; its output decreased for a few months, and
240 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

then, with active drilling to establish extensions on the south,

southeast, and north, the product, which had declined from
30,060 to 16,000 bbl., gradually rose again to over 30,000 bbl.
a day. Just at the close of the year a well on the edge of the
Cushing region was drilled 600 ft, deeper, to the Bartlesville
sand, and a sensational flow was encountered. ‘This started the
general policy of drilling to the thick and prolific Bartlesville
sand, and oil came with a rush. Stocks were accumulating
heavily at the end of the year. Late in September a small
amount of oil was obtained in a well drilled near Healdton,
Carter County, in the southern part of the State. By the close

Fia. 52.—Oilton, Oklahoma, on January 20, 1915. (Courtesy of Edward

E. Bartlett, Sapulpa, Okla.)

of the year several other wells had been drilled in that locality
which were sufficiently successful to arouse the excitement that
proved justified in 1914. The prices of Mid-Continent oil began
to decline on Apr. 8, 1914; and as the ever-increasing flood of
Cushing petroleum began to invade the markets of the Appa-
lachian crudes, they, too, began a retrograde movement on
Apr. 17, 1914. :
At the close of 1912, consumption in California had so nearly
balanced production as to encourage the producers and to defeat
concerted effort toward the restriction of drilling. Many of
the wells of 1913 were gushers of the phenomenal type and
aided greatly in increasing the supply. The efforts to increase
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 241

consumption succeeded fairly well, so that, except during the

month of greatest production, September, when about 9,000,000
bbl. were produced, consumption almost kept pace with output
and the quantity sent to storage was less than 1,000,000 bbl.
The Fullerton field continued to yield large gushers with suffi-
cient frequency to justify the expense in reaching the unusual
depth of the oil sands. The “‘ West Side” fields of Kern County
continued as strong factors in increasing the output of the
State, and the Buona Vista Hills, Eik Hills, and other new dis-
tricts gained in interest. Even the comparatively old Kern
River field, near Bakersfield, sustained interest by wildcatting

Fie. 53.—Oilton, Oklahoma, on March 20, 1915. (Courtesy of Edward E.

Bartlett, Sapulpa, Okla.)

to the northwest, where the Standard Oil Company’s well went

into oil and aroused geologic and financial speculation over a
large area. The product of the field, however, declined. Coa-
linga’s year had many eventful features, including extensions of
territory to the east and the discovery of additional deep sands
yielding oils containing paraffin. In 1914, California markets,
though exempt from the specific influences affecting markets in
the Eastern States, were, however, subjected to depressing
influences of local origin, resulting from an increased output of
lighter gravity oils in the Whittier-Fullerton district.
As to Texas and Louisiana, the Electra and the Burkburnett
fields in Texas progressed satisfactorily in 1913, and a new field
16
242 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

was developed at Moran, in Shackelford County. In the Gulf

field, Sour Lake furnished a surprise by yielding gushers sufficient
to increase the total yield and to contribute to a decline in prices.
It became evident during the year that the prospects of increase
in the Gulf region, together with the abundant Mexican field,
presage a plentiful supply of fuel oil. The Caddo field proved as
irregular as in previous years, but gushers were so frequent and
so large as to keep up the supply. To the south the De Sota
region furnished several large gushers. The consequent ex-
citement was tempered by the advent of water from a substratum,
but the importance of the region was demonstrated. °

: : —
110,000,000 == + = 4 : 0
100,000,000 = : a 100
«90,000,000 20
=: 80,000,000 == - === 9 3:
oO + = i = = =O.
~ 70,000,000 : = 70 #
a = : é
© 60,000,000} = + = : = 60 2
nin — - = = oe
2 | = : = g
"S 40,000,000 = 0 5
5 s
30,000,000 : = == 30 fs
20,000,000 =: == =: 20
10,000,000 4
errs
==
===
= a
aah= ; 10
4" 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 19001901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 19081909 1910 1911 1912 1913
Years

Fig. 54.—The relation of price, storage, consumption, and production of

California crude petroleum, 1895-1913.

The study of the domestic production of petroleum yields a

story of progressive maxima, until in 1913 the product reached
248,446,230 bbl., or 33,126,164 metric tons. The yield of 1912
was 222,935,044 bbl., or 29,724,673 metric tons. Although the
product of 1912 exceeded all previous records, the yield of
1913 surpassed it by the greatest gain in any year since 1910.
In fact, the increase of 1913 over 1912—more than 25,000,000
bbl.—was greater than the total production in any year until
1880, and the output of 1913 equaled the total production of the
United States for the first 25 years of the industry. The produc-
tion of the United States in 1913 was greater than the world’s
production in 1906.
Still more remarkable in regard to the growth of the domestic
oil industry is the amount of money received by the producers.
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 243

In 1912 this amounted to $164,213,247, or an average.of 73.7

cts. a barrel, and in 1913 this average was 95.4 cts. a barrel, or a
total of $237,121,388, a gain of $72,908,141 over 1912. ‘This was
the greatest gain for any year in the history of the industry, and
the gain alone outvalued the total receipts for oil in any year up
to and including 1899 and was greater than the value of the oil
in all years combined up to and including 1866.
Measured by the marketed production (265,762,535 bbl.) the
year 1914 was the greatest in the history of the crude petroleum
industry. Second in importance to the phenomenal yield of
*petroleum in 1914 was the trend of the crude oil market during
that year, which was characterized by a depreciation in price
affecting in varying degrees every type of high-grade oil produced.
Statistics show the quantity of oil produced in the United
States from the beginning of the industry in 1859 down to the
end of 1914 to be 3,335,457,140 bbl. and the total value to be
$2,789,829,745. According to John D. Northrop, of the United
States Geological Survey, the marketed production of petroleum
in the United States in 1915 approximated 267,400,000 bbl., and
the total yield approximated 291,400,000 bbl., about 24,000,000
bbl. of oil brought to the surface during the year being placed
in field storage by the producers.
In 1914, the conditions of oil production in the United States
developed into a position involving in all probability radical
change in the economic conditions of the oilindustry. The pro-
duction and the known productive capacity of the oil lands in
Oklahoma increased beyond all expectation and reasonable de-
mands, and the extension of oil fields in Texas and Louisiana
indicated a possibility of further floods of oil that would require a
rearrangement of the productive system. The condition in
Oklahoma threatened the axiom that ‘‘oil has an instant spot
value.” So long as oil can be taken from the ground and sold
for more than the cost of production, so long will active drilling
be continued and so long will agreements as to limiting produc-
tion fail. The point at which the exploration for oil in a new
region is no longer logical and the drilling should, therefore,
naturally cease, depends upon the yield of the wells when drilled.
Oil was probably profitable at 10 cts. a barrel in Texas in 1901
on account of the size of the wells yielding it at Spindletop.
But at. this price all pumping wells would now be unprofitable,
and even small flowing wells would not tempt the driller. It is
244 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

the uncertainty of the size of the well which may be obtained

that tempts the speculators in a new region and clouds any clear
and rational plan of development of oil territory. The specu-
lative tendency is well illustrated by the fact that in many parts
of the United States (e.g., in Colorado and Nevada) oil-shales!
could be mined and distilled for the production of oil on a basis
as safe and sane as the mining of coal. Nevertheless, few
prominent oil producers would leave the speculative thrill of
the oil fields for the unexciting development of oil-shales.
According to the United States Geological Survey, the solution
of the problem of sufficient stock of oil for the enormous refining
capacity of the United States must in the future rest chiefly on
more accurate knowledge of the supplies of oil under ground, and,
based upon this, the consequent application by the State of rigid
rules whereby it shall become impossible for one operator to
interfere with the oil contained in the property of another.
The Transportation of Petroleum.?—One of the first problems
which confronted the oil producer was that of transportation.
The oil wells along Oil Creek and the Allegheny River, in Pennsyl-
vania, were many miles from a railroad, in a lumber district
where there were often no roads, or at best very poor ones,
scarcely more than trails. Oil City was the nearest shipping
point and Pittsburgh was the largest distributing center. Crude
oil was put into iron-hooped barrels made of oak and holding 40
to 42 gal., was loaded on trucks, and then hauled to Oil City.
Barges were then loaded with barreled oil or were made into
tank boats and the load floated down Oil Creek to the Allegheny
River at Oil City. During most of the year Oil Creek was,
however, a shallow stream, and the novel plan of slack-water
navigation was resorted to. The water in the streams tributary
to Oil Creek was held back by dams until sufficient quantities
1 See pp. 807 to 844.
2¥or a general consideration of the transport of petroleum, see BaxTrr
and Atkins, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 9 (1917), 978; Caumut, J. Pétr., 1 (1901),
3, 21, 40, 55, 71; on its transport in bulk, see FLANNERY, Proc. Second
Internat. Marit. Cong., 1898, sect. B, 62; and Henry, Compt. rend.
Cong. Internat. Pétrole, sess. 3, 2, 853 (1910); on the evolution of the
tank steamer, see Hmnry’s ‘Thirty-five Years of Oil Transport,” London,
1907; on the transport of petroleum in Pennsylvania about 1880, see Hzrr-
MANN, Wochenschr. Ver. Deutsch. Ing., 1880, 393; G. H. Lirrur is the
author of a work on “The Marine Transport of Petroleum,’’ London, 1890;
Repwoop has discussed the subject at length in Proc. Inst. Civ. Eng., 116
(1894), 177. See also p. 450.
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 245

had accumulated; and then, at a fixed hour, each body of water

was in turn released, filling the main stream for a short time with
a flood. On this the barges of oil were carried down to their
destination, warning having been given so that the boatmen
along the stream might be ready to take advantage of the tide
as it passed.
In 1862, the Atlantic and Great Western Railroad was extended
into the oil region. In 1866, the Allegheny Valley Railroad was

ee
woh
ia st ty, amt “Ds, 3: a8

Fria. 55.—The first large pumping s

regions. This was located at the National Wells, about two and one-half
miles from Pleasantville, and was operated by the Titusville and Tidioute
Piping Line Company. The station was equipped with a 50-hp. Woodbury
and Booth boiler, and a 30-hp. portable boiler, and with two Niagara
pumps. Petroleum was pumped to Titusville, Tidioute, and Pithole.
(Henry’s ‘‘ History and Romance of the Petroleum Industry.”’)

opened up from Oil City, at the mouth of Oil Creek, to Pitts-

burgh, and a number of narrow-gauge lines were constructed as
feeders into the heart of the producing country. At first the
barrels were loaded on flat cars; but the leakage was so great that
wooden tank cars were built in 1865, which had two wooden
tubs or vats, each holding about 2,000 gal., placed on an ordinary
platform car. In 1871, cars consisting of a horizontal cylindrical
tank of boiler plate, mounted on a four-wheei platform or rail-
 246 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

road truck, appeared.' These were at first of no greater capacity

than the wooden cars they displaced, but have been gradually

A portable engine and boiler

in common use in the oil fields
in 1865.

‘An engine (‘‘Long

~ John'’) and boiler
‘cof the type}
employed by @
eee :

One of the steam pumps manufactured by Reed and Cogswell, engineers,

Liberty Street, New York, for use on the first pipe
line,
Fie, 56.—Engines and pumps in use during the early development of the
oil fields of northwestern Pennsylvania.

increased in size, until many are now of 8,000 gal. capacity each.
1 There were, in 1873, on all the railroads that handled petroleu
m, about
2,500 iron bulk cars, of an average capacity of 85 bbl. to
a car.
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 247

But the magnitude of the petroleum industry made it necessary

to find some inode of transportation even cheaper than a railroad,
and the pipe line displaced the car and boat. The introduction
of this mode of transporting oil marks an era in the petroleum
industry. When this system was introduced, the cost of trans-
portation was so much reduced that a few enormous refineries
were built at the seaboard near New York, Philadelphia, and Balti-
more, and on the shores of Lake Erie, near Buffalo and Cleveland,
to accomplish what the almost countless small refineries in the
oil region had heretofore done.
8. D. Karns, in November, 1860, proposed to lay a 6-in. pipe
from Burning Springs to Parkersburg, W. Va., through which the
oil would flow by gravitation to the Ohio River, a distance of 35
miles. This pipe line was never constructed; but in 1862 L.
Hutchinson, of New York, laid a line on the Tarr Farm to convey
the petroleum over a. hill to the refinery, on the syphon principle,
and a year later constructed another, 3 miles long, from the
Sherman well to the railroad at Miller Farm. This line was
provided, at intervals of every 50 or 100 ft., with air chambers to
equalize the pressure; but the excessive leakage at the joints of
the pipes rendered this and Hutchinson’s previous attempt
unsuccessful.
In 1865, Samuel Van Syckel, of Titusville, Pa., put down a
working line, the sections of which were joined by carefully fitted
screw-sockets. It was only 4 miles long, extending from Pithole
to the railroad at Miller’s farm, and carried but 80 bbl. per day.
It demonstrated, however, the thorough practicability of trans-
porting petroleum in this way. ‘This line, together with another
laid by Henry Harley in 1865 to 1866 from Benninghoff Run to
the Shaffer farm, passed into the control of a corporation known
as the Allegheny Transportation Company, by which it was
operated.1 Lines were first laid only to the refineries in the oil
region and to the railroads taking the oil out of the region.
With the lengthening of the pipes and the increase of pressure to
force the liquid to greater distances, an organization called the
Pennsylvania Transportation Company in 1875 obtained a

1 The owners and drivers of oil wagons saw that this mode of transporta-
tion must soon deprive them of occupation, and they cut the lines, set fire to
the tanks with which they were connected, and even threatened the proprie-
tors and managers with personal violence. An armed patrol and the arrest
of the ringleaders by detectives soon quelled this outbreak.
 248

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 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 249

charter with power to construct a pipe line to the seaboard. The

only outcome of this venture was the building of various lines
within the oil region. Short lines multiplied, and pipe after
pipe from the producing fields to the refineries and railroad
shipping points crossed and paralleled one another in every
direction. Competing companies waged war upon one another,
cutting rates to the point where business was done at an actual
loss. The United Pipe Lines Association, first known as the
Fairview Pipe Line, organized by J. J. Vandergrift and George
V. Forman, became the starting point for concentration. Into
it were merged, from time to time, the other local lines. The first
trunk line was laid in 1874 from the lower oil country to Pitts-
burgh; it consisted of 60 miles of 4-in. pipe. The trunk line to
Cleveland next followed. Pipe lines were then extended from
the Pennsylvania oil fields to Cleveland, Buffalo, New York,
Philadelphia, and Baltimore; and from the Ohio fields to Cleve-
land and Chicago. The conveyance of crude petroleum to these
centers rapidly acquired such importance that a combination
was effected among the United Pipe Lines Company, the Stand-
ard Oil Company of Cleveland, the American Transfer Company,
and others, the National Transit Company being thus formed.
Subsequently a number of additional trunk pipe line companies.
were organized.
1 The pipe lines of the United States, comprising those of seventeen sub-
sidiary companies of the Standard Oil Company, and eight independent
lines, owned and operated pipe lines, were estimated by the United States
Bureau of Corporations in 1907 to total more than 45,000 miles of pipe
ranging from 2 to 12 in. in diameter. The majority of the lines are 6 or 8 in.
in diameter. The longest continuous line reaches from Oklahoma to New
York City. See Report of the Commissioner of Corporations on the Trans-
portation of Petroleum, May, 1906. In the Kansas and Oklahoma oil fields,
there were in September, 1913, 1382 tank cars in use among refiners and
small shippers. In addition to the cars owned by the railway companies, the
Standard Oil Company and the Texas and Gulf Companies, certain other
refining companies had a large number of tank cars in these states and they
were used also in connection with eastern plants. In 1904, the Union Tank
Line Company, a subsidiary of the Standard Oil Company, had about 9,000
tank cars, while the Waters-Pierce Company had about 1000. The
capacity of the tank cars in the Kansas and Oklahoma fields ranges from
4,000 to 10,000 gal. (see also p. 452).
By sea, crude petroleum is transported in tank steamers or tank barges.
Fuel oil from the Texas and California fields is piped to the seaports and
distributed to the various markets by tank steamers. From the eastern
seaboard of the United States some crude oil is shipped to Europe in tank
250 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

In 1907, the rifled pipe line was introduced. This pipe line,
the invention of J. D. Isaacs and Buckner Speed, has greatly
facilitated the transport of the more viscous crude petroleums;
it is provided with spiral grooves, or rifling, through which a
lubricating current of water is pumped with the oil.

Fria. 58.—Tank steamers of the Gulf Refining Company.

steamers and in tank sailing vessels, but the main employment of tank steam-
ers is for shipping in bulk refined oils, askerosene. On the Caspian sea, early
in 1913, there were 168 vessels engaged in the transport of oil to and from
different parts of the Russian empire. The vessels fitted with Diesel engines,
owing to their low consumption of fuel, are replacing the other forms of power
boats. Since 1905 the Standard Oil Company has also used tank barges. A
tank steamer carrying 400 tons of oil tows a tank barge carrying 6,000 tons
of oil, by means of a 600-fathom steel-wire hawser, fitted with winding
drums which automatically take in or pay out the hawser depending on the
strain upon it. Both steamers and barges are constructed entirely of steel,
divided into compartments by bulkheads and provided with means of escape
for the oil gases, and with supply tanks to make up any loss of oil in the
tanks by leakage or evaporation. On tank ship construction, see MorRRELL,
Int. Marine Eng., 1915, 71.
Where an oil field has a small yield, as when a small output of oil is inci-
dental to natural gas production, and the market is purely local and the oil
is used in a crude state, the means of transportation and distribution are
likely to be correspondingly simple and primitive. For instance, in the gas
fields of New Brunswick some of the wells yield a few gallons of petroleum
per day. This is piped to a loading tank by the roadside, from which it is
transferred to tank wagons which distribute it.
Some heavy lubricating, or otherwise peculiarly valuable oils which do
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 251

Statistics of Production—The production and value of pe-

troleum, well records, and acreage for the United States in 1914,
by states, from statistics supplied by the United States Geological
Survey, are given in Table XX XI.
The production of crude petroleum in the United States, from
given 1859 to 1914, by years and by states, in barrels of 42 gal., is
in Table XXXV, which illustrates the historical development
of the industry in this country.
For the sake of comparison, there is provided Table XXXVI,
showing the world’s marketed production of crude petroleum,
from 1857 to 1914, by years and by countries, in barrels of 42
gal. This table serves as a presentment, in abstract, of the
general history of the petroleum industry.
Exports of Petroleum.—Practically all forms of petroleum
products, from crude oil to paraffin wax, form part of the export
trade of the United States, and petroleum products in one form
or another, especially kerosene, reach all parts of the world.
Between 4,000,000 and 5,000,000 bbl. of crude oil are exported
each year; and in 1913 about 200,000,000 gal. of gasoline and
naphtha, slightly over 1,000,000,000 gal. of illuminating oil,
over 200,000,000 gal. of lubricants, and over 300,000,000 gal.
of gas oils, and more than 27,000,000 bbl. of residuum were
exported. In all, reduced to barrels, the exports amounted to
50,868,231 bbl. in 1913 , or 20.5 per cent. of the total production.
The total exports of petroleum and its liquid products from the
United States in 1914 amounted in value to $139,900,587.
This trade, which represents essentially the overflow of prod-
not occur or are not purchased in quantity sufficient to make a separate run
in a pipe line or even to justify shipping in a tank car, or which are destined
to points away from railway or pipe-line facilities, are shipped in wooden
barrels or more generally in steel drums; but now on land the great bulk of
the petroleum products are transported in pipe lines, with smaller quantities
in tank cars, and, on the ocean, in tank steamers.
Refined oil products, lubricating oil, kerosene, gasoline and the like,
when shipped by rail, are transported in tank cars, in wooden barrels, in
steel drums, or in tincans. ‘Towns on a railway and large enough to support
a distributing wagon service, have receiving storage tanks adjacent to the
railway switch and the oil is pumped into these tanks from the tank cars.
Smaller towns, especially those without railway communication, are usually
supplied with oil in wooden barrels. In the western part of the country
considerable oil is shipped in tin cans In wooden cases, each container holding
two cans, each of 5 gal. capacity. Much kerosene is shipped to foreign
countries in such cans.
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 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES, 253

ucts beyond the consumptive requirements of the United States,

is capable of an enormous expansion, if, as Day has indicated,!
one considers the following table compiled by Boverton
Redwood, which shows the consumption of kerosene per head of
population in various countries in 1911.

TaBLeE XX XII.—ConsumprTion or KEROSENE DURING 1911 PER

HEAD oF PoPpULATION BY COUNTRIES
Gallons Gallons
United States........... Uma ECULINATATAs ones elcece oncesce 1.8
Canadamncnncati scent. ABO MEPAUSUTIAres, creek. arene eee: 1.8
IDA RNAC s 6 cand ae ose Sok Oe O SMO RDAN Crem act Ge eB.ee os1.6
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Russias eee ate cree Dae BGbESn re c rhc opera neo 0.6
SouthwAtrica-.am so ae e2S Oe SDAIN Oern. ye eee hee 0.5
1
AAO ro cone momneectemecron nero 1 Ove Chins ney ees el eee 0.4

In spite of the use of electricity and gas for illumination in

the United States, the use of kerosene is shown by this table to
amount to 7.3 gal. per year for every person in the United States.
The quantity used in other countries is in every case less; 4
gal. per capita in Canada comes next to the United States, and
England requires practically the same quantity. There is a
marked decline of the per capita used in other countries; and
when one considers that China with its enormous population
consumes only 0.4 gal. per capita, the quantity of kerosene which
might be sold before the total Chinese consumption per capita
would be brought up to the level of that of the United States
would equal 11,000,000,000 gal. per annum, or ten times the
quantity now exported from the United States, or about three
times as much kerosene as is yielded by the total quantity of
crude oil produced in the United States. Day maintains that
despite our rapidly increasing production, petroleum must be
recognized as a limited mineral resource in the world, and that
the responsibilities for properly conserving the supply are
evident from these considerations.
The following table, compiled from the records of the Bureau
of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, show the quantity and
declared value of petroleum and its liquid products (mineral
oils) exported from the United States in the years 1913 and 19141
1 Mineral Resources of the United States, 1913, ii, 1082.
254 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Taste XX XIII.—Exports or MINERAL OILS FROM THE UNITED STATES IN

THE CALENDAR. YEARS 1913 anp 1914, By Kinp anp Port

1913 1914
Kind and port
Quantity Value Quantity Value

Crude Barrels Barrels

New Y Okie cniesie taalsisvsyeueret 1,174,017 $3,957,755 507,799 $1,667,949
Philadelphia sss) -verasrererers 6 Cl POR Reem Accra aS
Galvestonits.cs qccec6 warts 495 BV GOS: Ayeroteretonsete
sito cong) lernitone =eipetenets
Other districts. . cae neva 3,455,712 4,488,998 2,462,095 3,290,889

Mota laneiest onrccderteri etre 4,630,230 $8,448,294 2,969,894 $4,958,838

Naphtha Gallons Gallons

Baltimore aes ols oom = eieeieinsis 62,965 $11,617 §2,218 $6,478
Boston and Charlestown.... 44,381 8,585 30,182 4,634
INGWAY OL Ker eect conseletersteteiers 102,869,333 16,872,213 104,489,412 14,053,210
Philadelphia cca cesses ere« 23,053,365 3,348,437 24,284,157 2,786,555
Galveston! ...ca3 cis ews ce slew 35,911 5,346 42,225 5,555
Other GistRictes: osc cceees 61,977,424 7,845,410 80,794,461 8,431,982

Totals iuate om cis ciewse cic On 188,043,379 | $28,091,608 209,692,655 | $25,288,414

Mluminating Gallons Gallons

Balennore yotitisc heii tees 139,282 $14,199 900,124 $57,000
Boston and Charlestown.... 108,963 11,668 88,246 9,742
ING AMOEK rr.wcrrna ttm resbert «3 538,619,277 40,100,916 467,633,204 34,736,938
Philadelphia, .o..000..00n8 229,282,278 13,890,288 142,498,871 9,029,794
Galveston cnc cee ccs ater 165 20 20,000 2,125
Other districta,s....0.. sen 351,291,278 18,025,016 400,308,808 20,277,173 .

Diotall tiienvar wees leteacthtans 1,119,441,234 | $72,042,107 1,011,449,253 | $64,112,772

Lubricating and Paraffin Gallons Gallons

Baltimorei.edes ows estee 12,115,947 $1,648,470 8,135,368 $1,164,547
Boston and Charlestown 94,506 18,972 102,923 21,068
INGWENOn Kee ara seach sratiasa
ie tus 138,778,365 20,227,289 139,412,476 18,822,914
Philacdelphig sen. enieniee ees 43,095,432 5,243,542 29,468,223 3,587,246
Galveston catanseaneone 552,276 114,154 268,076 51,859
Other distriotey..<. nso. 6.6 13,002,566 2,356,122 14,260,504 2,668,679

EROGBI eerpaier
acct abi Bre 207,639,092 | $29,608,549 191,647,570 | $26,316,313

Residuum Gallons Gallons

Baltimore jac cecevsnsss cats es eeteyea eeeto eo eae eetcte ctcall a ee 1,424,281 $42,894
Boston and Charlestown 2,505 $263 105,550 4,780
NewsaMork (fasinates 37,109,808 1,428,062 103,433,079 3,817,903
Philadelphia tic.sccaesees 20,220,194 742,123 18,622,616 846,572
Galveston gerne
ce atc tes 252 Keel eer
aa crore ae cane
Other districts... sicc...>- 369,539,614 8,955,331 579,923,095 14,512,101

otal gaentnaeerics Genistein é 426,872,373 | $11,125,851 703,508,621 | $19,224,250

2,136,465,721 $149 316,409 2,240,033,652 $139,900,587

eee
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 255

Recapitulation by Kinds

Gallons Gallons
CEUGB id wate estes carcietereerets es 194,469,634 $8,448,294 124,735,553 $4,958,838
Wap bthai an. smia sone aceeieate 188,043,379 28,091,608 209,692,655 25,288,414
TMluminagting 1. crac eee 1,119,441,243 72,042,107 | 1,010,449,253 64,112,772
Lubricating and paraffin.... 207,639,092 29,608,549 191,647,570 26,316,313
Resid wtim si... «ete x oer 426,872,373 11,125,851 703,508,621 19,224,250

Totals hresinee
torn eee 2,136,465,721 |$149,316,409 | 2,240,033,652 | $139,900,587

Imports of Petroleum.—For many years occasional importa-

tions of crude petroleum, and, more frequently, of some special
product have been received in the United States, but without any
particular bearing upon the trade. The first significant imports
were those of gasoline from Borneo to the Pacific coast, to supply
the deficiency which then existed for gasoline for the growing auto-
mobile consumption. The considerable supply now attainable of
lighter oils, of which the production is rapidly increasing in Cali-
fornia, will, without doubt, stop these imports of gasoline.
In 1911, the importation of crude petroleum from Mexico began
to assume significant proportions and rapidly increased in 1912
and in 1913. In 1914, 17,247,483 bbl. of crude petroleum were
imported; practically all of this came from Mexico, and was
brought in for use directly as fuel, or for refinery treatment in
the manufacture of oil, asphalt, paving cements, roofing ma-
terial, rubber substitutes and solvents. Small quantities of
crude petroleum for experimental or special limited purposes were
entered for consumption in 1914 from Canada, Peru, Trinidad,
England, Belgium, and Germany.

Taste XXXIV.—QuaANTITY AND VALUE OF PETROLEUM, PARAFFIN OIL,

AND OZOKERITE AND PARAFFIN Wax IMpoRTED FOR CONSUMPTION
INTO THE Unitep Srates, 1910-1914

Petroleum Paraffin oil teeta ee:

Year ; value
Quantity Value Quantity) Value | Quantity | Value

Barrels Barrels Pounds

LOR ysis 557,181) $1,398,861 2,952 $39,748] 15,971,672) $986,081| $2,424,690
LOVE oe 1,709,932| 2,410,884 | 4,019 43,343) 12,699,459| 749,475] 3,203,702
LOU? vomteun 7,383,229| 6,082,881 2,571 32,565| 17,617,068) 985,959} 7,101,405
LOWS) coerce 17,809,058} 12,947,280 3,676 49,458] 16,051,322) 932,894] 13,929,632
GOV ye reraus 17,247,483) 11,465,466 | 2,481 36,687| 15,516,242) 824,234,) 12,326,387
 256 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Taste XXXV.—PropuctTion or PETROLEUM IN THE UNITED STATES.

Ken-
Pennsyl- } West
Year | vania and Ohio California tucky Colorado Indiana | Illinois
Virginia and Ten-
New York nessee

2,000
1860 500,000|..........
» 1861 | 2,113,609
1862 | 3,056,690

5,260,745
1871 | 5,205,234
1972 | 6,293,194)...
1873 | 9,893,786)...
1874 | 10,926,945)...
1875 | 8,787,514
1876 | 8,968,906 31,763 120,000 12,000)...
1877 | 13,135,475 29, 888 172,000 13,000)...
1878 | 15,163,462 38,179 180, 000 15, 227
1879 | 19,685,176 29,112 180,000 19,858
1880 | 26,027,631 38,940 179,000 40,552

1881 | 27,376,509 33 , 867 151,000 UUAiBadoenaec| spqvcondor

1882 | 30,053,500 39,761 128,000 128, 636)..... Arotal Renter eo
1883 | 23,128,389 47, 632 126,000 142,857 C(t] a gated
1884 | 23,772,209 90, 081 90,000 262,000 4 LES |cram ere |
1885 | 20,776,041 661,580 91,000 325, 000 Oieuk Cos ewe nereratelsrare

1886 | 25,798,000} 1,782,970 102,000 377,145 @ C2Ol anette

1887 | 22,356,193) 5,022,632 145,000 678,572) * 4,791 76, 295|
1888 | 16,488,668) 10,010,868 119,448 690, 333 5,096) 297,612
1889 | 21,487,435) 12,471,466 544,113 303 , 220 5,400) 316,476 33,375 1,460
1890 | 28,458,208) 16,124, 656 492,578 307,360 6,000; 368,842 63,496 900
1891 | 33,009,236) 17,740,301) 2,406,218 323, 600 9,000) 665,482 136, 634 675
1892 | 28,422,377) 16,362,921) 3,810,086 385 , 049 6,500; 824,000 698, 068 521
1893 | 20,314,513) 16,249,769) 8,445,412 470,179 3,000} 594,390 2,335,293 400
1894 | 19,019,990) 16,792,154) 8,577,624 705,969 1,500); 515,746 3, 688, 666 300
1895 | 19,144,390) 19,545,233) 8,120,125 1,208, 482 1,500) 488, 232 4,386,132 200
1896 | 20,584,421) 23,941,169} 10,019,770 1,252,777 1,680) 361,450 4,680,732 250
1897 | 19,262,066) 21,560,515) 13,090,045 1,903,411 322) 384,934 4,122,356 500
1898 | 15,948,464| 18,788,708) 13,615,101 2,257,207 5,568) 444,383 3,730, 907 360
1899 | 14,374,512) 21,142,108) 13,910,630 2,642,095} 18,280) 390,278 3,848,182 360
1900 | 14,559,127) 22,362,730) 16,195,675 4,324,484) 62,259) 317,385 4,874,392 200
1901 | 13,831,996] 21,648,083) 14,177,126 8,786,330) 137,259) 460,520 5,757, 086 250
1902 | 18,183,610} 21,014,231) 13,513,345 13,984,268] 185,331) 396,901 7,480,896 200
1903 | 12,518,134) 20,480,286) 12,899,395 24,382,472) 554,286; 483,925 0186) S0L reorient
1904 | 12,239,026) 18,876,631] 12,644,686 29,649,434) 998,284; 501,763 AL; 3395124 lca. contami
1905 | 11,554,777] 16,346,660) 11,578,110 33,427,473/1,217,337| 376,238 10, 964, 247 181,084
1906 | 11,500,410] 14,787,763) 10,120,935 33 ,098,598)1,213,548) 327,582 7,673,477) 4,397,050
1907 | 11,211,606} 12,207,448) 9,095,296 39,748,375) 820,844) 331,851 5,128,037) 24,281,973
1908 | 10,584,453} 10,858,797) 9,523,176 44,854,737) f727,767| 379,653 3,283,629) 33,686,238
1909 | 19,434,300} 10,632,793) 10,745,092 55,471,601) £639,016} 310,861 2,296,086) 30,898,339
1910 | 9,848,500} 9,916,370) 11,753,071 73,010,560} 468,774] 239,794 2,159,725) 33,143,262
1911 | 9,200,673) 8,817,112) 9,795,464 81,134,391] £472,458] 226,926 1,695,289) 31,317,038
1912 | 8,712,076) a8,969,007) 12,128,962 987,272,593] 484,368] 206,052 970,009] 28,601,308
1913 | 8,865,493} 8,781,468) 11,567,299 97,788,525) 524,568} 188,799 956,095} 23,893,899
1914 | 9,109,309} 8,536,352) 9,680,033 99,775,327] 502,441) 222,773 1,335,456) 21,919,749
Total|754,180,213| 432,762, 004/260, 232,815 741
,273,559) 9,095,970)10, 649,143 102, 823, 800) 232,326,
616

a Includes the production of Michigan.

b Includes the production of Oklahoma.
c Included with Kansas.
d Estimated.
e Includes production of Utah,
f No production in Tennessee recorded,
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 257

1859-1914, By Yrars AND By Status, In BARRELS or 42 Gat.!

IXansas Texas Me Oklahoma aysaed Louisiana Volted eer Year

2,000) $32,000) 1859

500,000 4,800,000| 1860

2,113,609 1,035,668} 1861

3,056, 690 3,209,525) 1862
2,611,309 8,225,663) 1863
2,116,109 20,896,576) 1864
2,497,700 16,459,853] 1865

Saletarwisiasn areal rare wratarate aidesiWoictais pix.citcPise aearnlet Mate 'aesdisiamia ae bistee oor MTs 3,597,700 13,455,398) 1866
reueiptassinis (s/helait Sisalele Wale biaces patente comarca Meat peak lich ao cewinte 3,347,300 8,066,993) 1867
aioe a,Ureo7'4Col]eiayayators oietarsHictVAG ISIS fai icvasarccais ars ietasenlate, sistsllG ateveyletaterds 3,646,117 13 ,217,174| 1868
Boon SOO ralINMcae Eaten bat Sasi vanemuretar allets Surreal Once aoe 4,215,000 23,730,450) 1869
Sore ep rech le ccete aes Seale Sie is eee ellee mentee ell crc eRIE 5,260,745 20,503,754! 1870

IEP ecotaayessa eoninka ten ohatoN| oNtiea tas |/anciavevacvavucate etaitshatatate tawea%ette. aca gecageae 5,205, 234 22,591,180) 1871
eparata eylaySiatePed ies arspstese lscseve seven terekes StavesoNele«,speceuts liete fete erall aoe eee sists 6,293,194 21,440,503) 1872
memes CSeeT Teal tsethatata corey hanallaes eel RT« oiea hehe Regmerre acs| apenas 9,893,786 18,100,464} 1873
Pattee tasSeatate Pmnee hares oan Mareen ected eve a stvie aie Sieltieversie eyevidia Steicttresarsteleie 10,926,945 12,647,527) 1874
eatet tas edt collfeeta tareaissasela ots seteeaye eiteee .c¥vie- kinds oe oop tenagR|[atocgtaeey 8,787,514 7,368,133) 1875

Soo STAG El AA ERIC RECT aEL|| eR tise epee wiSralluertoe spate 9,132,669 22,982,822) 1876
Pee: nett te | tet aysa is alcaret otal atinites= ea are ae eee oe 13,350,363 31,788 ,566| 1877
Reve aat rote PAS ferent cod c Mee Ae aynvceie Hallas ate kta tfa ehaaeeae 15,396, 868 18,044,520) 1878
iatctarese rity3 deere me lt ahs cocoa gemawco allMeteosat os2 oP ev eberees is 19,914,146 17,210,708} 1879
Ree ans2oyea Pe eramene esi col eeeParatel| Seahadeve onsre daall rapMeeR everson areiveeteerscals 26,286,123 24,600,638} 1880

eters esas athena ieee aR | eee, oe nek Re Bales 27,661,238 23,512,051) 1881
Pe ciewslore eelldar abet hens thasSerle atsravaerte lease ecotetouer vael|Mtvalehakescvs,siloRSeetiaye cau 30,349,897 23,631,165} 1882
Peace erassp tullstirem net. o nll taeoes wlMeccsic om romane inase aioe wal ta eia ete, & 23,449, 633 25,740,252) 1883
Sate aieino7eista'l[bahanstareeherecave.s Pivehececarate [ieee obse atc shemaceNla ctacans'e liars edness of 24,218,438 20,476,924) 1884
Beeeacatete. cicatatatreteralet Sage:2-0)oisls,Sewell tod Guauts, sserevshel rapars sare neilefoto etaw hoe 21,858,785 19,193,694) 1885

28 ,064, 841 20,028,457) 1886

28 , 283 , 483 18,856,606) 1887
27,612,025 17,950,353} 1888
35,163,513 26,963,340) 1889
45,823,572 35,365,105) 1890

54,292 , 655 30,526,553) 1891

50,514, 657 25,906,463) 1892
48 431,066 28,950,326) 1893
49,344,516 35,522,095) 1894
52,892,276 57,632,296) 1895

113,571 1,450 43 170 DSTSW a arceese 60,960,361 58,518,709} 1896

81,098 65,975 19 625), BOOS Feedesas 60,475,516 40,874,072) 1897
71,980 546,070 LO are cee) erate By ALON mo erne xis 55,364, 233 44,193,359) 1898
69,700 669,013 BOB hee. ovate te 5 GG0h koa ake. 57,070,850 64, 603,904) 1899
74,714 836,039] a1,602 6,472 St4b0 edienee 63,620,529 75,989,313} 1900

179,151} 4,393,658} a2 ,335 10,000 5 40s is eu 69,389,194 66,417,334] 1901

331,749) 18,083,658 a757 37,100 6,253 548,617 88,766,916 71,178,910} 1902
932,214] 17,955,572) a3,000 138,911 8,960 917,771| .100,461,337 94,694,050); 1903
4,250,779] 22,241,413) a2,572| 1,366,748) , 11,542) 2,958,958; 117,080,960} 101,175,455) 1904
612,013,495] 28,136,189} 23,100 c 8,454} 8,910,416] 134,717,580 84,157,399} 1905

621,718,648] 12,567,897) a3,500 c a7,000} 9,077,528} 126,493,936 92,444,735) 1906

2,409,521] 12,322,696] a4,000} 43,524,128 e9, 339) 5,000,221] 166,095,335; 120,106,749] 1907
1,801,781} 11,206,464\a15,246) 45,798,765) e17,775| 5,788,874) 178,527,355) 129,079,184) 1908
1,263,764] 9,534,467) a5,750| 47,859,218| ¢20,056| 3,059,531) 183,170,874) 128,328,487) 1909
1,128,668] 8,899,266} 3,615} 52,028,718) ¢115,430|) 6,841,395) 209,557,248) 127,899,688) 1910

1,278,819] 9,526,474] a7,995| 56,069,637) ¢186,695)10,720,420) 220,449,391) 134,044,752) 1911

1,592,796| 11,735,057 h 51, 427,071/1,572,306| 9,263,489) 222,935,044) 164,213,247) 1912
2,375,029| 15,009,478! 710,843) 63,579 ,384/2,406,522/12,498,828| 248,446,230) 237,121,388) 1913
3,103,585] 20,068,184) 77,792) 73,631,724/3,560,375 14,309,435) 265,762,535) 214,125,215) 1914

54,901,592 |203,799,381| 72,712|435,478,958/7 , 964, 944/89, 895 ,433/3,335,457,140/2, 789,829,745) Total

g Includes small production of Alaska.

h No production in Missouri; Michigan included in Ohio.
a Includes production of Alaska, Michigan, and New Mexico.
j Includes production of Alaska and Michigan.
1 Mineral Resources of the United States, 1913, ii, 938-9; 1914, ii, 898-9,
17
 258 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Taste XXXVI.—Wor.pd’s MarKkETED PRODUCTION OF CRUDE PETROLE-

ee Se 0 ee eee eee ee eee
Japan and
Rumania | United States | Italy Canada Russia Galicia Formosa

1857 DO Zids liste onanceopeesiaioners

1858 DOOM of srcimcomaierannaty
1859 4,349 2,000
1860 8,542 500,000
1861 17,279 2,113,609

1862 23,198 3,056,690

1863 27,943 2,611,309
1864 33,013 2,116,109
1865 39,017 2,497,700 110,000
1866 42,534 3,597,700 175,000

1867 50,838 3,347,300 791 190,000 119,917

1868 55,369 3,646,117 367 200,000 88,327
1869 58,533 4,215,000 144 220,000 202,308
1870 83,765 5,260,745 86 250,000 204,618
1871 90,030 5,205,234 273 269,397 165,129

1872 91,251 6,293,194 331 308,100 184,301, lcuussi sree

1873 104,036 9,893,786 467 365,052 ATA 3TD «loess
atte slarlfete a
1874 103,177 10,926,945 604 168,807 583,751 149,837)...
1875 108,569 8,787,514 813 220,000 697,364 158,522 4,566
1876 111,314 9,132,669 2,891 312,000 1,320,528 164,157 7,708
1877 108,569 13,350,363 2,934 312,000 1,800,720 169,792 9,560
1878 109,300 15,396,868 4,329 312,000 2,400,960 175,420 17,884
1879 110,007 19,914,146 2,891 575,000 2,761,104 214,800 23,457
1880 114,321 26,286,123 2,035 350,000 3,001,200 229,120 25,497
1881 121,511 27,661,238 1,237 275,000 3,601,441 286,400 16,751
1882 136,610 30,349,897 1,316 275,000 4,537,815 330,076 15,549
1883 139,486 23,449,633 1,618 250,000 6,002,401 365,160 20,473
1884 210,667 24,218,438 2,855 250,000 10,804,577 408,120 27,923
1885 193,411 21,858,785 1,941 250,000 13,924,596 465,400 29,237
1886 168,606 28,064,841 1,575 584,061 18,006,407 305,884 37,916
1887 181,907 28,283,483 1,496 525,655 18,367,781 343,832 28,645
1888 218,576 27,612,025 1,251 695,203 23,048,787 466,537 37,436
1889 297,666 35,163,513 1,273 704,690 24,609,407 515,268 52,811
1890 383,227 45,823,572 2,998 795,030 28,691,218 659,012 51,420
1891 488,201 54,292,655 8,305 755,298 34,573,181 630,730 52,917
1892 593,175 50,514,657 18,321 779,753 35,774,504 646,220 68,901
1893 535,655 48,431,066 19,069 798,406 40,456,519 692,669 106,384
1894 507,255 49,344,516 | 20,552 829,104 36,375,428 949,146 171,744
1895 575,200 52,892,276 | 25,843 726,138 46,140,174 1,452,999 141,310
1896 543,348 60,960,361 18,149 726,822 47,220,633 2,443,080 197,082
1897 570,886 60,475,516 13,892 709,857 54,399,568 2,226,368 218,559
1898 776,238 55,364,233 14,489 758,391 61,609,357 2,376,108
1899 1,425,777 57,070,850 16,121 808,570 65,954,968 2,313,047
1900 1,628,535 63,620,529 12,102 913,498 75,779,417 2,346,505 866,814
1901 1,678,320 69,389,194 | 16,150 756,679 85,168,556 3,251,544 1,110,790
1902 2,059,935 88,766,916 | 18,933 530,624 80,540,044 4,142,159 1,193,038
1903 2,763,117 | 100,461,337 | 17,876 486,637 75,591,256 5,234,475 1,209,371
1904 3,599,026 117,080,960 | 25,476 552,575 78,536,655 5,947,383 1,419,473
1905 4,420,987 134,717,580 | 44,027 634,095 54,960,270 5,765,317 1,472,804
1906 | 6,378,184 | 126,493,936 | 53,577 569,753 58,897,311 5,467,967 1,710,768
1907 8,118,207 166,095,335 | 59,875 788,872 61,850,734 8,455,841 2,001,838
1908 8,252,157 178,527,355 | 50,966 527,987 62,186,447 12,612,295 2,070,145
1909 9,327,278 183,170,874 | 42,388 420,755 65,970,350 14,932,799 1,889,563
1910 9,723,806 209,557,248 | 50,830 315,895 70,336,574 12,673,688 1,930,661
1911 | 11,107,450 | 220,449,391 } 74,709 291,096 66,183,691 | 10,519,270 1,658,903
1912 | 12,976,232 | 222,935,044 | 53,778 243,336 68,019,208 8,535,174 1,671,405
1913 | 13,554,768 248,446,230 | 47,256 228,080 62,834,356 7,818,130 1,942,009
1914 | 12,826,579 265,762,535 |a39,548 214,805 67,020,522 25,033,350 2,738,378
Total|117,982,474 |3,335,457,140 |802,229 |23,493,610 |1,622,233,845 |131,873,601 27,051,158
aA RS
a Estimated,
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 259

uM, 1857-1914, py Years AND By COUNTRIES, IN BARRELS OF 42 GAL.

Germany India
Dutch East
Tadias Peru xi
Mexico Other 5
warner Total

1,977
3,560
6,349
508,578
2,130,917
3,091,692
2,762,940
2,303,780
2,715,524
3,899,278
3,708,846

5,730,063
6,877,267
10,837,720
11,933,121
9,977,348
11,051,267
15,753,938
18,416,761
23,601,405
30,017,606
31,992,797
35,704,288
30,255,479
35,968,741
36,764,730
47,243,154
47,807,083
52,164,597
61,507,095
76,632,838
108,929 | 190,131 91,100,347
1892 101,404 DEG Ai! WO AR bes 6h OSS 88,739,219
1893 99,390 298,969 600,000 92,038,127
1894 122,564 327,218 688,170 89,335,697
1895 121,277 371,536 1,215,757 103,662,510
1896 145,061 429,979 1,427,132 114,159,183

1897 165,745 545,704 2,551,649 121,948,575

1898 183,427 542,110 2,964,035 124,924,682
1899 192,232 940,971 1,795,961 131,143,742
1900 358,297 | 1,078,264 2,253,355 149,132,116
1901 313,630 | 1,330,716 | 4,013,710 167,424,089

1902 353,674 | 1,617,363 2,430,465 PASE PLS lhe io Geer Bee 181,965,876
1903 445,818 | 2,510,259 5,770,056 DS, O82 tiscelaleteleletetate 56 194,804,294
1904 637,431 | 3,385,468 6,508,485 345,834 220,653 218,299,419
1905 560,963 | 4,137,098 7,849,896 447,880 320,379 215,361,296
1906 578,610 | 4,015,803 8,180,657 536,294 | 1,097,264 214,010,124
* 1907 756,631 | 4,344,162 9,982,597 156,226 7 GAS TL 7, OOD |aoc tes 264,958,008
1908 | 1,009,278 | 5,047,038 | 10,283,357 | 1,011,180 | 3,481,610 |......... 285,089,984
1909 | 1,018,837 | 6,676,517 | 11,041,852 | 1,316,118 | 2,488,742 |......... 298,373,216
1910 | 1,032,522 | 6,137,990 | 11,030,620 | 1,330,105 | 3,332,807 |......... 327,615,603
1911 | 1,017,045 | 6,451,203 | 12,172,949 | 1,368,274 |14,051,643 |......... 345,685,081
1912 | 1,031,050 | 7,116,672 | 10,845,624 | 1,751,143 [16,558,215 |......... 352,484,591
1913 | a995,764 | 7,930,149 | 11,966,857 | 2,133,261 |29,902,439 |......... | 384,667,505
1914 | a995,764 |a8,000,000 |b12,705,208 | 1,917,802 |21,188,427 |......... 400,483,489
Total. /12,965,569 |73,979,919 |138,278,392 |14,306,972 |90,359,869 |4,478,158c| 5,593,262,936

a Estimated.
b Includes British Borneo. . : ‘
c From 1901-1914. Includes Trinidad, Egypt, and Argentina (600,000 bbl, in 1914).
260 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

The Standard Oil Company.'—In 1870, John D. and William

Rockefeller, Samuel Adams, Henry M. Flagler, and Stephen V.
Harkness, and the firms of William Rockefeller and Company,
Rockefeller and Andrews, and Rockefeller and Company, con-
solidated their businesses of refining, shipping and selling pe-
troleum, in the State of Ohio and other states, as the Standard
Oil Company, an Ohio corporation with a capital of $1,000,000.?
This capital was increased on Feb. 10, 1872, to $2,500,000 and
on Mar. 13, 1873, to $3,500,000. In 1873, practically all of the
petroleum refineries in Cleveland, Ohio, were acquired; and sub-
sequently, by the purchase of properties or stocks and by trade
agreements, the Standard Oil Company or its organizers secured,
in 1882, control of a very large proportion of the business of
purchasing, shipping, refining, and selling petroleum and its
products in the United States. ;
On Jan. 2, 1882, a trust agreement, with a supplemental agree-
ment on Jan. 4, 1882, was entered into, providing for the in-
corporation in each of several states of a company entitled the -
“Standard Oil Company” of such state, to each of which were >
to be transferred the properties in its own state. The trust
certificates were issuable for the appraised value of the proper-
ties conveyed. Under the terms of this agreement, the Standard
Oil Company of New Jersey was incorporated on Aug. 5, 1882,

1Snn Monracun’s “Rise and Progress of the Standard Oil Company,”’

1903; Tarsey’s ‘History of the Standard Oil Company,” 1911; Poor’s
“Manual of Industrials,” 1913, 1615; and ‘‘The Manual of Statistics,”
1915, 781.
On the important part played by the Standard Oil Company in the early
development of the American petroleum industry, see 8S. C. T. Dopp’s
“Combinations: their Uses and Abuses; with a History of the Standard
Oil Trust,’”” New York, 1888.
* The purposes of this alliance were to cheapen transportation, both local
and to the seaboard; to manufacture a better grade of illuminating oil at
less expense by uniting the knowledge, experience and skill of all parties, as
well as their various secret processes and patents; to unite with the busi-
ness of refining the business necessarily collateral thereto (manufacture of
barrels, tin cans, boxes, paint, glue, and sulphuric acid); to obtain and
utilize the best scientific skill in investigating and experimenting upon the
obtaining of new and useful products from petroleum, and to cheapen illumi-
nating oils by obtaining profits from the by-products; to employ agents and
send them through the world to open up markets; and by all the means
enumerated to increase the supply of petroleum products and lessen their
price to the consumer.
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 261

with a capital stock of $3,000,000, increased from time to time,

up to 1889, to $10,000,000. In 1892, the Standard Oil Trust was
obliged to liquidate. It became a “trust in liquidation,” and
there it remained for some five years. In 1898, however, it was
found that the corporation law of the State of New Jersey offered
a refuge, and here it settled. Accordingly, the Standard Oil
Company of New Jersey was reincorporated on June 14, 1899,
under the laws of New Jersey, increasing the capital stock from
$10,000,000 to $100,000,000 common and $10,000,000 preferred,!
for the purpose of purchasing the stocks of various companies
formerly held by the liquidating trustees of the Standard Oil
Trust.
On Nov. 15, 1906, the Attorney General of the United States
brought suit for the dissolution of the Standard Oil Company of
New Jersey in the United States Court at St. Louis, Mo. Pur-
suant to the decision of the United States Circuit Court at St.
Louis on Nov. 20, 1909, which was affirmed by the United States
Supreme Court on May 15, 1911, ordering the dissolution of the
Company,’ the stocks of the 33 subsidiary companies were dis-
tributed to the shareholders.
The Standard Oil Group.—The several companies formerly
controlled by the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, and
commonly referred to as “Standard Oil Companies,” are gener-
ally classed together as the “Standard Oi! Group.’’* Facts of
interest relating to the companies comprising this group, are
presented in the following table.
1 This was later retired and common stock issued therefor. :
2 The Company was found to be a combination in restraint of trade and
commerce, and six months were allowed for the return to its component
parts. This decision is notable for its emphasis of the rule of reason in deal-
ing with cases subject to the Sherman Antitrust Law of July 2, 1890.
3 Moopy’s ‘‘ Manual of Railroads and Corporation Securities,” 1915, 3331;
and Poor’s ‘Manual of Industrials,” 1915, 1556.
262 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Date of _ Where Capital

Company incorpo- incorpo- Business
stock
ration rated

Anglo-American Oil 1888 |England £2,000,000 Engaged in marketing petroleum

Co,, Ltd. products in England.

Atlantic Refining Apr. 29, |Pennsyl- $5,000,000 Operates refineries at Philadelphia,

Co. 1870 | vania Pittsburgh and Franklin, Pa.; and
maintains distributing stations in
all cities and large towns in Penn-
sylvania and Delaware.

Borne, Scry mser Mar. 15,|New Jersey $200,000 Business is confined to lubricating
Co. 1893 oils and greases. Plant is located
at Claremont, Jersey City, N. J.

The Buckeye Pipe Mar. 31,/Ohio $10,000,000 Owns 575 miles of pipe lines in
Line Co. 1886 Ohio and West Virginia.

The _ Chesebrough May 10, |New York $500,000 Sole manufacturer of vaseline and
Manufacturing Co. 1880 its preparations, Plant is located
at Perth Amboy, N. J. Owns de-
posits of fuller’s earth in Florida.

Colonial Oil Co. 1901 |New Jersey $250,000 Was formerly engaged in market-
ing the Standard products in
South Africa and Australia; since
1906, this business has been trans-
ferred to the Vacuum Oil Co.
Has a marketing station at
Buenos Ayres.

The Continental Oil 1913 |Colorado $3,000,000 Successor to the Continental Oil
Co. : Co. of Iowa. Conducts a mar-
keting business in Colorado,
Wyoming, Idaho, New Mexico,
Utah, and Montana. Its prod-
ucts are obtained from refineries
at Florence, Colo., and Casper,
Wyo.

The Crescent Pipe 1891 |Pennsyl- $3,000,000 Owns and operates 269 miles of 5-
Line Co. vania and 6-in. pipe line running from
Greggs, Pa., to Marcus Hook,
near Philadelphia, Pa.

Cumberland Pipe Nov. 15,| Kentucky $1,000,000 Owns 467 miles of pipe line of vari-
Line Co., Inc. 1901 ous sizes, from 2-in. to 6-in., of
which the main lines embrace 51
miles of 6-in. and 154 miles of 4-
in. pipe, extending from Monti-
cello Station via Somerset and
Licking River Junction to Clifford
on Tug Fork, connecting at that
point with the Eureka Pipe Line
Co., and from Page Hollow via
Lewis to Licking River Junction.
——_———_—-
xkrxwvYloloS:),—n a—sXKXK¥RlOOoOlloo
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 263

Date of Where .
Company incorpo-| incorpo- cone Business
‘ration rated Ea

The Eureka Pipe| 1890 |West Vir- $5,000,000|Owns 4,216 miles of pipe line reach-
Line Co, ginia ing nearly all of the wells in West
Virginia. In addition to gather-
ing oil from these wells, the trunk
lines of the company are engaged
in interstate handling of oil.

Galena-Signal Oil Nov. 7, Pennsyl- $14,000,000| Manufactures lubricating and sig-

Co. 1901 vania nal oils (annual output is 800,000
bbl.). Plants at Franklin, Pa.;
Toronto, Canada; Parkersburg,
W. Va.; Boston, Mass.; Rouen,
France; and Bayonne, N. J.

Indiana Pipe Line 1889 Indiana $5,000,000|Owns and operates over 450 miles
Co. of pipe lines.

National Transit Apr. 30, Pennsyl- $12,727,575|Owns pipe lines in Pennsylvania, a

Co. 1881 vania network of feeding pipes and stor-
age tanks in western Pennsyl-
vania, and shops and three office
buildings in Oil City, Pa. The
company’s trunk lines connect
with those of the Buckeye Pipe
Line Co., and the New York
Transit Co., which supplies the
Vacuum Oil Co., the Atlantic
Refining Co., and other refineries,
and also connects with the lines of
the Standard Oil Co. of New
Jersey.

New York Transit Jan. 18, New York $5,000,000)Owns and operates approximately
Co. 1892 200 miles of trunk pipe lines,
extending from Olean, N. Y., te
and connecting with the Standard
Refineries of the Standard Oil Co.
of N. J., at Bayonne, N. J. and
the Long Island City plant of the
Standard Oil Co. of New York.
It also operates a branch line from
Olean to Buffalo, N. Y. In addi-
tion to its extensive pipe lines, it
owns about, one-third of the tank-
age facilities at Olean, N. Y.

Northern Pipe Line July 8, Pennsyl- $4,000,000|Owns and operates a pipe line in
Co. 1889 vania the northern part of Pennsyl-
vania. The system comprises
over 200 miles of trunk pipe lines,
extending from the western bor-
der of Pennsylvania to Bear
Creek, Clarion Co., to Colebrook,
McKean Co., where connections
are made with the eastern branch
of the National Transit Co.
264 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Date of Where . ;
Company incorpo-| incorpo- pa a Business
ration rated

The Ohio Oil Co. 1887 |Ohio $15,000,000|A producing and pipe line Com-
pany, owning wells in Illinois and
Ohio, with a gathering system of
pipes and a trunk line from the
Illinois fields across Indiana, Ohio,
and Pennsylvania.

The Illinois Pipe! Nov. 27,|Ohio $20,000,000| Took over The Ohio Oil Company’s
Line Co. 1914 trunk and gathering pipe line
systems in Illinois, Ohio, and
Pennsylvania.

Pierce Oil Corpora-| 1913 | Virginia $30,000,000) Acquired properties of the Waters-
tion Pierce Oil Co., which distributed
and sold petroleum products in
Missouri, Illinois, Arkansas, Okla-
homa, Louisiana, and Texas, and,
since 1877, refined and sold prod-
ucts in Mexico.

Prairie Oil and Gas) Dec. 15, |Kansas $20,000,000| Owns producing properties in Kan-
Co. 1900 sas and Oklahoma.

Prairie Pipe Line| Jan. 14, |Kansas $27,000,000|This Company took over the
Co. 1915 transportation business of the
Prairie Oil and Gas Co.

Solar Refining Co. 1886 |Ohio $2,000,000/Owns a refinery covering 280 acres
at Lima, Ohio; the annual ca-
pacity of this refinery is about
3,650,000 bbl.

Southern Pipe Line| 1890 |Pennsyl- $10,000,000)This Company has 1,130 miles of
Co. vania pipe line in Pennsylvania.

South Penn Oil Co.| 1889 |Pennsyl- $12,500,000| Producer of crude petroleum in the
vania Appalachian field. In 1913, this
Company acquired control of the
Penn-Mex Fuel Co.

South West Penn-| 1886 |Pennsyl- $3,500,000|This Company has 1,646 miles of
sylvania Pipe Line vania pipe line in Pennsylvania.

Standard Oil Co.| Sept. 10, California | $100,000,000|Incorporated as Pacific Coast Oil
(California) 1879 Co. Name changed to Standard
Oil Co. on June 23, 1906. Refin-
eries at Point Richmond, El
Segundo, and Bakersfield, Cal.
(see also p. 509).

Standard Oil Co.| June 18, |Indiana $30,000,000|Owns refineries at Whiting, Ind.
(Indiana) 1880 (30,000 to 35,000 bbl. per day of
Oklahoma crude), at Wood River,
Ill. (Illinois crude), at Sugar
Creek, Mo. (10,000 to 15,000 bbl.
of Oklahoma crude per day), and
at Casper, Wyo. ($1,000,000
plant).
——$——— re
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 265

Date of Where
Company incorpo- incorpo-
Capital Business
stock
ration rated

Standard Oil .| Dec. 24, Kansas $2,000,000 Owns a refinery at Neodesha, Kan.,
(Kansas) 1892 which has a daily capacity of
7,500 bbl.

Standard Oil Oct. 7, Kentucky $3,000,000 A marketing Company having

(Kentucky) 1886 stations in Alabama, Florida,
Georgia, Kentucky, and Miss-
issippi.

Standard Oil Nebraska $1,000,000 A marketing Company with 151

(Nebraska) agencies in Nebraska.

Standard Oil’ New Jersey $100,000,000 This Company now owns and
of New Jersey operates refineries at Bayonne,
Bay way, Parkersburg, Baltimore,
and Sarnia, Ontario. These refin-
evies have a combined daily capa-
city of about 100,000 bbl.

International Petro- Sept. 10, England £4,000,000 This Company acquired control of
leum Co., Ltd. 1914 the London and Pacifie Oil Co.,
Ltd., the West Coast Oil Fuel Co.,
and the Lagunitas Oil Co., Ltd.—
all operating in the Peruvian oil
fields.

Standard Oil Co. Aug. 10, New York $75,000,000 This Company owns the Pratt
of New York 1882 Works, Long Island Works, and
the Stone and Fleming Works in
New York, and the Atlas Works
in Buffalo. These plants have a
combined capacity of 20,000 bbl.
per day.
i
Standard Oil Co. of Jan. 10, Ohio $3,500,000 This Company has two refineries
Ohio 1870 in Cleveland and marketing
stations through Ohio.

Swan and Finch Co. 1891 New York $500,000 Engaged in the compounding of
lubricants, mainly for the use of
railroads.

Union Tank Line 1891 New Jersey $12,000,000 Owns 13,500 tank cars, which it
Co. leases to shippers for the trans-
portation of oils.

Vacuum Oil Co. 1866 New York $15,000,000 This Company has a refinery at
Olean, N. Y., and finishing and
compounding plants at Bayonne,
N. J., and Rochester, N. Y. It
manufactures lubricating oils.

Washington Oil Co. 1887 Pennsyl- $100,000 Produces crude petroleum. Prop-
vania erty consists of 4,897 acres of
leaseholds, 350 acres of oil rights,
250 acres of land owned in fee,
148 oil wells, and two gas wells.
266 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Other Large Petroleum Companies.—The following list gives

data relating to a number of the more prominent of the so-called
“independent oil companies,” which are outside of what is known
as the ‘Standard Oil Group.”

Date of |Where Capital

Company incorpo- | incorpo- Business
ration rated stock

American Oil- Jan. 17, |Cali- $25,000,000 Owns the entire capital stock of the
fields Co. 1910 fornia Midland Oilfields Co., Ltd., and of the
Midland Oil Co., and one-half of the
capital stock of the Barnodon Oil Co.
Either directly or through these sub-
sidiary companies, the Company
claims 13,000 acres of land in the Sun-
set, Midway, McKittrick and Lost
Hills oil fields of California. It has
established oil camps at different |
points and has constructed 11 steel
storage tanks of 50,000 bbl. capacity
each; also two reinforced concrete res-
ervoirs having an aggregate capacity
of 1,062,000 bbl.
The Company has in operation upon
one of its properties a complete top-
ping plant (refinery) capable of top-
ping 10,000 bbl. of oil daily.

American Petro- Feb. 17, Cali- $15,000,000 Owns and controls about 2,000 acres of
leum Co. 1908 fornia Coalinga, Lost Hills and Los Angeles
oil fields of California. Has 97 wells,
produces about 5,200 bbl. daily, and
owns 6 steel tanks of 280,000 bbl.
aggregate capacity and 11 iron tanks
of 14,000 bbl. aggregate capacity.
Owns $899,996 of the $1,000,000 out-
standing capital stock of Niles Lease
Co., which Company operates, under
20-year lease, 80 acres of land at
Sherman, Cal.

Associated Oil Oct. 7, Cali- $40,000,000 Conducts a general business in the

Co. 1901 fornia acquiring of properties, producing,
manufacturing, refining and _ trans-
porting oil in California and through-
out the United States and Territories.
The Company owns in fee 36,511
acres, leases 2,125 acres, and holds
mineral locations on 3,200 acres,in and
adjacent to various producing fields in
California. Also owns and operates
two refineries; one located at Gaviota,
near Santa Barbara, the other at Avon,
on the San Francisco Bay. Gasoline,
distillates, kerosenes, lubricating and
fuel oils are marketed through the
OD
OS
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 267

Date of |Where Capital p

Company incorpo- |incorpo- Atock Business
ration rated

Associated Oil Company’s own distributing plants,

Co.—Cont. maintained at all important points in
California, and at Portland, Ore.;
Everett, Wash.; Nome, Alaska; Hon-
olulu, Hawaii; and through selling
agencies in Arizona, Nevada, and
Utah. The Company owns pipe lines
running from the Santa Maria oil
fields to its refinery at Gaviota and
from the Coalinga field to Monterey
Bay. Also owns one-half interest in
two pipe lines running from the vari-
ous fields in the San Joaquin Val-
ley to Port Costa on the San
Francisco Bay. Owns rolling stock
and vessels equipped for transporting
both crude and refined oil.

California Oil | Sept. 27,/Virginia | $35,000,000 |Incorporated as a holding company,

Corporation 1912 to hold and deal in securities of other
corporations, and in addition to carry
on the petroleum business in all its
branches. At present the Company
controls the American Oilfields Co.
and the American Petroleum Co.

Gulf Oil Corpo- | Feb. 14, |New Authorized, es to acquire the securities
ration 1907 | Jersey $60,000,000; | of the J. M. Guffey Petroleum Co. and
outstanding, |the Gulf Refining Co., and to construct
$33,800,600 |a pipe line from Oklahoma to the
Gulf of Mexico (Gulf Pipe Line Co.
and Gulf Pipe Line Co. of Oklahoma).
The Gulf Oil Corporation controls the
Gulf Refining Co., through the owner-
ship of 299,993 shares of its capital
stock; also controls, through the
ownership of a majority of their
capital stocks, thefollowing companies:
The Gulf Pipe Line Co. (of Texas);
Gulf Pipe Line Co. of Oklahoma;
Gulf Refining Co. of Louisiana; the
Gypsy Oil Co., and the Gulf Pro-
duction Co.
The Gulf Pipe Line Co. was incorpo-
rated on Nov. 30, 1906, in Texas; its
capital stock is $3,500,000. It was in-
corporated for the transportation of
oil and owns a pipe line in Texas.
The Gulf Pipe Line Co. of Oklahoma
was incorporated on Sept. 21, 1909, in
Oklahoma; its capital stock is $1,000,-
000. It was incorporated for the
transportation of oil and owns pipe
lines in Oklahoma. The Gulf Re-
268 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Date of Where
incorpo-
Capital Business
Company incorpo-
rated stock
ration

Gulf Oil Corpo- fining Co. was incorporated on Nov.

ration.—Cont. 26, 1901, in Texas; its capital stock,
outstanding, is $7,500,000. It owns
two refineries. The Gulf Refining Co.
of Louisiana was incorporated on
Dec. 22, 1905, in Louisiana; its
capital stock, authorized and out-
standing, is $1,000,000. It was in-
corporated for the purposes of produc-
ing and selling petroleum products;
its properties are located in Louisiana.
The Gypsy Oil Co. was incorporated
on May 22, 1907, in Oklahoma; its
capital stock, authorized and out-
standing, is $500,000. It was in-
corporated for producing petroleum
oils; its properties in Oklahoma have
an annual production of 4,200,000
bbl. The J. M. Guffey Petroleum
Co. changed its name to the Gulf
Production Co. in 1915.

Indian Refining | Nov., Maine Preferred, Produces and refines crude oil and
Co. 1904 $3,000,000; manufactures all products of petro-
common, leum. Controls Indian Refining Co.
$4,500,000 of New York, Bridgeport Oil Co.,
Havoline Oil Co., Record Oil Refining
Co., and Indian Refining Co. of
Oklahoma. Refineries at Lawrence-
ville, Ill., Georgetown, Ky., and New
Orleans, La. Company also controls
large storage stations at New Orleans,
La., and Cairo, IIl., and has distrib-
uting stations in about 150 cities,
chiefly east of Mississippi River.
Also owns leased oil lands. Operates
1,020 tank cars.

Interocean Oil} Dec., South Authorized, Business consists of the refining and
Co. 1912 Dakota $12,000,000 selling of crude mineral oil and its
common; products. Plants at East Brooklyn,
$2,000,000 and Baltimore, Md., Carteret, N. J.,
7 per cent. Chester, Pa., Tampico, Mexico. Con-
cumulative trols following companies: United
first prefer- Asphalt Refining Co., Interocean
red, and $4,- TransportCo., Toltec Mexican Oil Co.,
000,000 6 Aztec Asphalt Co., and Eastern
per cent, Paving Co.
non-cumu-
lative second
preferred
—eeee eee
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 269

Date of Where
Company incorpo- | incorpo- Capital Business
ration rated stock

The Midwest| Feb., |Maine_ | Capital stock) Incorporated for the purposes of con-
Refining Co, 1914 authorized, | ducting the general business of re-
$20,000,000 | fining and marketing oil. The Com-
pany is engaged in this business at
Casper, Wyo., and is the owner of the
refining plants formerly owned by the
Midwest Oil Co.

The National| July 6, |Ohio Authorized, |Incorporated successors to a Delaware

Refining Co, 1906 $5,000,000 | company of the same name, incorpo-
8 per cent. | rated in 1901, which itself succeeded an
cumulative | Ohio company of the same name, in-
preferred; corporated in 1882. Works at Cleve-
$5,000,000 | land, Findlay and Marietta, Ohio, and
common; Coffeyville, Kan. Refiners of petro-
outstanding | leum andits products. This Company
preferred, is associated with the Northern Oil
$4,012,500; | Co., producers of crude oil, the Na-
common, tional Pipe Line Co., transporters of
* $3,877,400 | oil, and Peerless Transit Line, carriers
of oil. The National Refining Co.
controls the Canada Oil Companies.

Shell Co. of Cali- | Aug. 30,) New Authorized, |Plants located in California, Oregon,
fornia, Inc. 1912 York $4,000,000; |Washington, and British Columbia.
outstanding; | Refines and sells petroleum, etc. The
$600,000 | Valley Pipe Line Co., a subsidiary, in
April, 1915, also constructed a pipe
line in California. The Company is a
subsidiary of the Royal Dutch Oil Co.
and the Shell Transporting and
Trading Co. of The Hague and London.

Texas Co. Apr. 7, |Texas $30,000,000 | Engaged in the transportation, manu-

1902 facture, purchase, and sale of petroleum
and its products. Operates refineries,
pipe lines, tank cars and tank steamers.
It owns over 1,400 miles of pipe line
reaching Texas, Oklahoma and Louisi-
ana oil fields, éxtending from Tulsa,
Oklahoma, to Port Arthur, Texas, via
Dallas and Houston; also from Shre-
veport to Port Arthur and Saterals.
The Company has erected and owns
over 3,800 miles of telephone and
telegraph lines connected with its
various properties. It has a tankage
of approximately 26,000,000 _ bbl.
capacity. It owns’ one refinery at
Port Arthur, Tex.; one at Port Neches,
Tex.; one at Dallas, Tex.; one at
Tulsa, Okla. and another at Lockport,
Ill. These refineries have an aggre-
gate daily capacity of 40,000 bbl.
270 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Date of | Where . .
Company incorpo- |incorpo- Capital Business
ration rated

Texas Co.—Cont. During the year ended June 30, 1914,

the production handled by the differ-
ent pipe lines exceeded 2,500,000 bbl.
a month.

Tide Water Oil} Nov. 17,|New $25,000,000 |The business of this Company is re-
Co. 1888 Jersey fining petroleum; it has a refinery at
Bayonne, N. J., with a capacity of
10,000 bbl. per day.

United Petroleum! Jan. 25, |Cali- $10,000,000 |Incorporated as a holding company.

Co. 1899 | fornia The Company’s principal income is
derived through its holdings in the
Union Provident Co., which Company
it controls, and which in turn holds
a majority of the outstanding stock
of the Union Oil Co. of California.
The United Provident Co. has an
authorized capital stock of $25,000,000,
of which $15,598,171 has been issued.
The United Petroleum Co. of Cali-
fornia was incorporated on Oct. 17,
1890, to produce and refine petroleums;
its authorized capital stock is $50,-
000,000.

The National Petroleum Association.—The genesis of the

National Petroleum Association, including in its membership
nearly all the refiners of petroleum! (outside of what is known as
1The present members are as follows: American Oil Works, Ltd.,
Titusville, Pa.; The Bessemer Refining Co., Titusville, Pa.; Canfield Oil Co.,
Cleveland, Ohio; Central Refining Co., Lawrenceville, Ill.; The Chanute
Refining Co., Chanute, Kan.; The F. G. Clark Co., Cleveland, Ohio; The
Conewango Refining Co., Warren, Pa.; Consumers Refining Co., Chicago,
Ill.; The Continental Refining Co., Oil City, Pa.; Cornplanter Refining Co.,
Warren, Pa.; Cosden & Co., Tulsa, Okla.; Crew Levick Co., Philadelphia,
Pa.; Crystal Oil Works, Oil City, Pa.; Cudahy Refining Co., Chicago, IIl.;
Emery Mfg. Co., Bradford, Pa.; Emlenton Refining Co., Emlenton, Pa.;
Empire Oil Works, Oil City, Pa.; Germania Refining Co., Oil City, Pa.;
Glade Oil Works, Warren, Pa.; The Great Western Oil Co., Cleveland,
Ohio; Great Western Oil Refg. Co., Erie, Kan.; Gulf Refining Co., Pitts-
burgh, Pa.; Independent Refining Co., Ltd., Oil City, Pa.; The Island
Petroleum Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.; The Kansas Co-Operative Refg. Co.,
Chanute, Kan.; The Kansas Oil Refining Co., Coffeyville, Kan.; Kendall
Refining Co., Bradford, Pa.; Levi Smith, Ltd., North Clarendon, Pa.;
Milliken Refining Co., St. Louis, Mo.; Mutual Refining Co., Ltd., Warren,
Pa.; The National Refining Co., Cleveland, Ohio; The Paragon Refining
Co., Toledo, Ohio; Pennsylvania Paraffine Works, Titusville, Pa.; Pitts-
 PETROLEUM INDUSTRY IN THE UNITED STATES 271

the “Standard Oil Group”’) in the states of New York, Penn-

sylvania, Ohio and Illinois, and some in Kansas and Oklahoma,
arose from the “‘necessity of mutual aid to avoid extermination”
in 1902.
The association began with a membership of 17 independent
refiners of Pennsylvania crude petroleum, located in the states
of New York, Pennsylvania and Ohio. It was first organized
as a voluntary association and held its first meeting for organizing
in Pittsburgh, Pa., on June 17, 1902. At this meeting a consti-
tution and by-laws were adopted, the preamble of the consti-
tution being as follows:
“In order to create a permanent, social and codperative feeling be-
tween refiners of petroleum and its products throughout the United
States, to remove by concerted action any evils and customs that
are against good policy and sound business principles, to correct exist-
ing abuses and to secure the enactment of wise and uniform state in-
spection laws, the operation of which may be equally fair to all and
which may accomplish the ends designed, and to prevent unjust dis-
crimination, and that all grievances may be fairly and equitably ad-
justed, we form ourselves into an association to be known as The
National Petroleum Association.”

burgh Oil Refining Co., Coraopolis, Pa.; The Red ‘“C” Oil Mfg. Co.,
Baltimore, Md.; Seneca Oil Works, Warren, Pa.; Superior Oil Works,
Warren, Pa.; Tiona Refining Co., North Clarendon, Pa.; Union Petroleum
Co., Philadelphia, Pa.; United Refining Co., Warren, Pa.; Waverly Oil
Works Co., Pittsburgh, Pa.; Warren Refining Co., Warren, Pa.; Wellsville
Refining Co., Wellsville, N. Y.; Indian Refining Co., New York; and
Petroleum Products Co., Chicago, IIL.
 CHAPTER VI

OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY

A General Description of the Operation of Drilling—As an

introduction to what follows in this chapter, it is appropriate to
present a descriptive account of the operation of drilling, accord-
ing to what may be referred to as the Pennsylvanian practice.
The first operation in the drilling of an oil well consists in
sinking a “conductor”? down to the “bed-rock.” An ordinary
shaft, about 8 or 10 ft. square, is dug to the ‘‘bed-rock,”’ when this
lies at a depth of not more than 10 or 15 ft., and a wooden “con-
ductor,” of somewhat greater internal diameter than the maximum
bore of the well, is then placed so as to extend from the floor of
the derrick to the ‘‘bed-rock,” the junction with the latter being
very carefully made, in order to prevent the entrance of gravel
and mud into the well.
In cases where the superficial deposit is too thick to admit of
digging to the rock, a strong iron “drive-pipe,”’ furnished at the
lower end with a sharp steel shoe, is driven down, as in pile
driving. This is, however, an operation which requires consid-
erable skill, since it is difficult to maintain the vertical position
of the pipe, especially when the depth extends to 200 to 300 ft.
When the rock is less than about 60 ft. from the surface, the drill-
ing tools cannot at first be worked in the usual manner, and the
operation of drilling is commenced by “‘spudding.” For this
purpose the drilling tools are raised and dropped by tightening
and then slackening the cable, which is coiled either two or three
times round the axle of the revolving bull wheel, the end being
held by the driller, so that, by loosening it, he can let the drill
drop, or, by tightening it, can cause the tools to be raised; or the
cable is attached to the crank of the band wheel by a ‘‘jerk rope.”’!
The further operation of drilling, as practised in Pennsylvania,
is, in general, as follows:
When a sufficient depth has been reached by spudding to admit
‘See Figs. 59 and 60 in the following section on Drilling Methods and
Appliances.
272
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 273

of the introduction of a full “string of tools,’’ the spudding

machinery is abandoned. ‘Now,’ to quote Carll,'
“the coil of drilling cable is rolled into the derrick, and set upon end.
The free end in the center of the coil is tied by a connecting cord to the
rope just detached from the ring socket, and by it drawn up over the
crown pulley and down to the bull-wheel shaft, where it is fastened;
the bull rope is put in place, the engine started, and the men carefully
watch and guide the cable as it is wound, coil after coil, smoothly and
solidly upon the shaft. When this is done, the end of the cable de-
pending from the crown pulley is secured to the rope socket, and the
full set of tools is attacheds and wung up in the derrick. After carefully
screwing up all the joints (the bull rope having been unshipped), the
tools are lowered into the hole by means of the bull-wheel brake. The
band-wheel crank is then turned to the upper center; the pitman is
raised and slipped upon the wrist pin, where it is secured by the key and
wedges; the temper screw is hung upon the walking beam, instead of
from the top of the derrick as before. Some 15 to 20 ft. of slack cable
should be pulled down and thrown upon the floor, to give free move-
ment to the drill. When -the drill is rotated in one direction for some
time, the slack coils around the cable at the well mouth; if it becomes
troublesome, the motion is reversed, and it uncoils. Only by this
constant rotation of the drill can a round hole be ensured.
“Having now made all the necessary connections, it only remains to
give the engine steam, and the drill will rise and fall with each revolu-
tion of the band wheel, and commence its aggressive work upon the
rock below. From this point downward, the daily routine of the work
is very monotonous, unless some accident occurs to diversify it. Day
and night the machinery is kept in motion. One driller and one
engineer and tool dresser work from noon until midnight (the ‘after-
noon tour’), and another pair from midnight until noon (the ‘morning
tour’). Up and down goes the walking-beam, while the driller, with a
short lever inserted in the rings of the temper-screw, walks round and
round, first this way, then that, to rotate the drill. He watches the jar,
and, at proper intervals, lets down the temper screw as the drill pene-
trates the rock. When the whole length of the screw has been ‘run
out,’ or the slow progress of the drill gives warning that it is working in
hard rock and needs sharpening, he arranges the slack cable upen the
floor, so that it will go up freely without kinks, and informs the engineer
that he is ready to ‘draw out.’ After attending to the needful pre-
liminaries, the driller throws the bull rope upon its pulley, and quickly
steps to the bull-wheel brake, while the engineer commands the throttle
of the engine. The walking beam and the bull wheel are now both in
1Caruu, ‘‘The Geology of the Oil Regions of Warren, Venango,. Clarion
and Butler Counties,” 306.
18
274 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

motion, but, at the proper moment, one man stops the engine and the
other holds the bull wheels with the brake just when all the slack cable
has been taken up, and the weight of the tools is thus transferred from
the temper screw to the crown pulley. This is a performance requiring
experience and good judgment, for, should any blunder be made, a
breakdown must certainly result.
“To loosen the clamps on the cable, and unlock the pitman from
the wrist pin and lower it to the main sill, is but the work of a
moment. Dropping the pitman raises the end of the walking beam
with the temper screw attached to it, and throws them back from
their former perpendicular over the hole, so as to allow the cable and
tools to‘run up freely without interference with them. Steam is now
turned on again, and the tools come up.
“When the box of the auger stem emerges from the hole, the engine
is stopped. A wrench is slipped on the square shoulder of the bit, and
the handle dropped behind a strong pin fixed for that purpose in the
floor; another wrench is put on the shoulder of the auger stem; a stout
lever is inserted in one of a series of holes bored in the derrick floor in
a circle having a radius’a little less than the length of the wrench handle,
and it is brought up firmly against the upper wrench handle, thus making
a compound lever of the wrench and greatly increasing its power. Both
men give a hearty pull on the lever, which ‘breaks the joint,’ or, in
other words, loosens the screw joint connecting the bit with the auger
stem, so that the bit can be unscrewed and taken off by hand after it
has been brought up above the derrick floor. The wrenches are then
thrown off, steam is let on again, and the bit rises from the hole. Now
the driller throws off the bull rope by operating a lever with one hand,
while with the other he catches the bull wheel with the brake, holding
the tools suspended a few inches above the floor. At the same instant,
‘the engineer shuts off the steam, or else, suddenly relieved of its heavy
work by unshipping the bull rope, the engine would ‘run away.’ It now
remains only to hook the suspended tools over to one side of the derrick,
and the hole is free for the sand pump.
“While the driller is sand-pumping, the engineer unscrews the worn
bit and replaces it by one newly dressed, so that there may be no delay
in running the tools into the well again when sand-pumping is finished.
“The ‘line’ to which the sand pump is attached, passes over a pulley
near the top of the derrick, and thence down to the sand-pump reel,
which is operated from the derrick. While sand-pumping, the pitman
remains disconnected, the bull rope lies slack on its pulleys, and the
band wheel is kept constantly in motion. A slight pressure on the lever
brings the friction pulleys in contact with the band wheel, and the pulley
immediately revolves, the slack sand-pump line is quickly wound up,
and the sand pump, which is usually left standing at one side of the
derrick, swings out to the center and commences to ascend. Just now
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 275

the lever is thrown back, and the connection between the friction pulley
and the band wheel being thus broken, the sand pump commences to
descend into-the well by its own gravity. If it be likely to attain too
great speed in its descent, a movement of the lever, to bring the pulley
either forward against the band wheel, or backward against the brake
post, will quickly check it, and thus the speed may be regulated at will.
“As soon as the pump strikes bottom, additional steam is given to
the engine, and the lever is brought forward and held firmly, while the
sand pump rises rapidly from the well. The sand pump is usually run
down several times after each removal of the tools, to keep the bottom
of the hole free from sediment, so that the bit may have a direct action
upon the rock.
“After the hole has been sufficiently cleansed, the sand pump is set
to one side, the drilling tools are unhooked and, swinging to their place
over the well mouth, are let down a short distance by the brake, the
wrenches put on, and the lever is applied to ‘set up’ the joint connecting
the replaced bit to the auger stem. ‘Then removing the wrenches, the
tools are allowed to run down to the bottom, under control of the bull-
wheel brake. Connections are now made as before, the driller com-
mences his circular march, the engineer examines the steam and water
gauges and the fire, and then proceeds to sharpen the tool required for
the next ‘run,’ and thus the work goes on from day to day until the
well is completed.”

DRILLING METHODS AND APPLIANCES!

This section has been prepared for the purpose of imparting a

general descriptive knowledge of the different kinds of mechan-
ical devices employed in the production of crude petroleum.
The several practices in use at the present time are based upon
1The authors are indebted to E. E. Greve, Chief Engineer, Oil Well
Supply Company, Pittsburgh, Pa., for much of the information embodied
in this section.
The literature relating to petroleum well-boring is, for the most part, of
little value, when one examines it critically in the light of present-day
practice. However, a select bibliography has been prepared for ones who
may find it necessary to study the subject along broad lines; this follows.
On the ‘‘ History of Drilling and Deep Well Record,” see Bowman, Petrol.
Rev., 25 (1911), 239, 240, 275, 276; for an account of a recording apparatus
in petroleum drilling, see Copprtovict, Revista Petrolului, 1 (1908), 78; on
the methods of drilling employed in eastern Europe, see Eastnaxkk, Trans.
Fed. Inst. Min. Eng., 3 (1892), 693; flush-drilling has been discussed by
Fasiansxt in Ropa, 1911, No. 8; Faucx has described‘‘ Boring Machinery
in Petroleum Mining” in First Internat. Petrol. Congr., 1900, 74; hydraulic
drilling machinery in Naphta, 9 (1901), 291; and other phases of deep
boring in tdem, 9 (1901), 346, 368, 443; 10 (1902), 378; Petroleum, 1 (1905), 45;
276 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

fundamentals which have been handed down from the first

periods of oil development. The mechanical appliances in use
vary somewhat in different localities, although the same prin-
ciple is employed with some modifications; and each of the dif-
ferent systems of operation in practice to-day, has its advantages
and disadvantages, according to the geological formation of the
territory in which the operations are carried on. The old or
obsolete methods of operation merit no consideration and at-
tention will be given only to the methods as they are being prac-
tised to-day; these methods! are:
mechanical and hydraulic drilling has been considered at some length by
Frrz, Naphta, 16 (1908), 186; for considerations of boring systems, see
GEBHARDT, Org. Ver. Bohrtechn., 18 (1911), 97, 109, 124, 135, 163; on
“Modern Deep Drilling Practice in Europe,” see HaupER, Mining Mag.,
13 (1906), 33; oil-drilling by electric power has been considered by Hrynr-
MANN, Monit. Int. Pétrol. Rowm:, 6 (1905), 396; on the use of explosives, see
MevuscueEen, Riga. Industr.-Z., 35 (1909), 214; Naphta, 9 (1901), 343; the
articles by Perrr in Naphta, 10 (1902), 63, 107 and 169, are of interest; on
boring tools and methods for large holes, see RomANovsk1, Gorn. Jurn., 2,
1; on the use of torpedoes, see Naphta, 15 (1907), 390; for the application
of electricity in boring, consult St. Emriran, Monit. Int. Pétrol. Rowm., 7
(1906), 509; on the ‘‘ Rationell” boring machine, see ScHENK, Org. Ver. Bohr-
techn., 17 (1910), 13; on the ‘“‘Raky” system, see Srupax, Naphta, 9 (1901),
47; for a system of boring without removal of instruments, see SOKOLOVSKI,
Gorn. Jurn., 2 (1879), 189; on various defects in boring, see Nepht. Dielo,
1907, No. 11; Swirerczewsxr has discussed flush-drilling in undeveloped
fields in Ropa, 1911, No. 8; on the Canadian system, see WALTER, Oesterr.
Z. Berg-Hiitt., 32 (1884), 512; on extracting oil from boreholes, see Tarot,
Eng. Min. J., 87 (1909), 1001, and 89 (1910), 1270; for an account of an
instrument for ascertaining the inclination of boreholes, see BuNNING and
Guturig, Trans. N. Eng. Inst. Eng., 29 (1880), 61; and on water in bore-
holes, see Mircra, Monit. Int. Pétrol. Rowm., 7 (1906), 121.
For further information on drilling, consult TeckLEnpuRG’s ‘Handbuch
der Tiefbohrkunde,” 6 vols., Leipzig, 1886-1896; the ‘‘ Kalender fiir Tiefbohr-
Ingenieure, Techniker Unternehmer und Bohrmeister” of Ursinus, Frank-
furt a. M., 1908; and Isuur’s ‘‘Well-Boring for Water, Brine and Oil,”
2d. ed., London, 1911.
On drilling for petroleum, reference should especially be had to Report
No. 291 (1, 146), Canada Department of Mines, Mines Branch, 1914; and
to Bulletin 69 of the California State Mining Bureau, 1914. Rigs and
equipment have been ably discussed by Paring and Srrovp in their “Oil
Production Methods,” 1913, 55 et seq.
The evolution of drilling rigs has been considered at length by R. B.
Woopworrtu in Bull, Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1915, No. 107, 2247-2312.
‘For a full account of the Pacific coast methods of production—some
experts state that the California drilling practice embodies the most ad-
vanced methods in the industry—see Pann and Stroup, op. cit.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 277

Cable tool (American system),

I. Percussion
Pole tool (Canadian system).
II. Hydraulic rotary system.
III. Combination system.
IV. Hydraulic circulating system.

Percussion or Cable-Tool Method

This method of drilling embodies the dropping and raising

alternately of a heavy weight (which is the weight of the tools),
so that repeated blows will be delivered to the formation through
which the well is being drilled. The outfit necessary to carry on
this system consists of:
No. 1. Derrick (includes wheels No. 5. Sand reel.
for operating cables, all sills No. 6. Sand line.
and frame work). No. 7. Drilling cable.
No. 2. Boiler. No. 8. Crown block.
No. 3. Engine.
No. 4. Tools and _ accessories,
such as _ wrenches, bailer,
forge, etc.

There are three kinds of drilling rigs: the “Standard,” which

rig is used principally in the east; the ‘‘California”’ rig, used
mainly in the middle west and south; and the “California Im-
perial’’ rig, which is used principally in California and Canada,
and extensively in foreign countries. The important advantage
of the ‘‘California”’ and ‘‘California Imperial” rigs is that these
rigs are so constructed as to facilitate greatly the handling of
long and heavy strings of casing.
“Standard” Rig.—The “Standard” rig, as shown in Fig. 59,
consists of the following:
A Nose sill F - Tail post
Al, 2, 3, 4 Mud sills R!, R? Bull-wheel posts
B Main sill Re Bull-wheel post brace
C Subsill Ke Sand-reel lever
D Sand-reel tail sill Ke Sand-reel handle
N Derrick foundation posts J Walking beam
O, 0! Derrick sills S Headache post
m-m? Engine mud sills M Pitman
Ll Engine pony sills xX Crown block
1 Engine block as Sand-sheave pully block
n Bumper, engine block to J! Adjuster board
mud sill
278 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

P, P> Derrick floor sills au Derrick legs

Q Derrick floor 10) Derrick girts
I Samson post Vv Derrick braces
ied Samson post braces ee Reach
ie Samson post brace W Ladder
Is Samson post brace
G, H, E Front and rear jack posts,
and knuckle post
Engine
Sand reel
Band wheel
Bull wheel
Bull-wheel brake lever
Sand line
Telegraphy cord
Throttle wheel
ct
ty
fh
PhOe Drilling cable

The rig shown in Fig. 59 gives an idea of what is required to

constitute a “Standard” rig, with the exception that the boiler,
forge, tools, bailer, and wrenches are not shown.
To operate this rig, the tools are attached to the drilling cable
(r). The cable then passes over the crown pulley on top of the
derrick and down and is spooled and fastened on and to the bull
wheels (g). The tools are then lowered into the hole, provided
drilling has been carried on. This is accomplished by raising
the derrick lever (f) and the weight of the tools will cause the
drilling cable to be unwound from the bull-wheel shaft. When
the tools have reached the proper depth at which drilling is car-
ried on, the lever (f) is forced down and held by means’of a chain
attached to the floor, thus preventing the unwinding of any more
cable from the bull wheels. The pitman (M) is then raised and
its lower end is passed over the wrist pin located in the crank on
the band-wheel shaft. The temper screw (not shown in figure),
which is fastened to the other end of the walking beam, is then
attached by means of clamps to the drilling cable. The cable
is made either of manila or wire rope as the case may be. Some
slack line is finally run off the bull wheels and the driller starts
to operate. It is readily seen from the illustration that, by
bringing into use the large diameter of the band wheel, great
power is obtained, which is necessary in order to swing the tools.
“California Imperial” Rig.1—This rig is practically the same
1On drilling in California, see Juwrit, Min. Sci. Press, 101 (1910), 775;
103 (1911), 44; and Hacur, Western E'ng., 2 (1913), 447.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 279

as the “Standard” rig, with the exception that the derrick is usu-
ally higher and wider at the base, being 24 ft. square at the base
and from 106 to 136 ft. in height. A calf wheel is also used.
This wheel effects a great saving of time when much casing is
to be handled and is used for operating the casing line, which

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Fie. 59.—Side elevation and ground plan of the “Standard” rig.

line, after being spooled on the shaft of the calf wheel, passes
over the pulleys on the crown block and through the sheaves
of the casing block. By this means great power can be ob-
tained, due to the fact that there can be as many lines operating
between the sheaves on the crown block and the casing block
280 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

as there are pulleys. The reason that the calf wheel is not
brought into use. when operating with the “Standard” rig
is that this rig is used principally in localities where casing
is only carried down through the surface sand and the hole
is then drilled open until completed. In cases where the for-
mation caves, a string of pipe or casing must be carried down
with the tools as the depth increases, and invariably it is neces-
sary to work this casing every few hours in order to keep it free.
The formation, in caving, comes into contact with the casing
and prevents its being moved: it is “‘frozen.’”?” When this occurs,
it means that the pipe must be alternately raised and lowered
until it becomes free and loose. By having the calf wheel this is
readily accomplished, as it simply means the pulling of the tools
out of the hole and attaching the elevators, which are suspended
from the hook on the casing blocks to the casing. The calf
wheel is then operated by throwing in a clutch ‘on the band-wheel
shaft.
Fig. 61 shows the plan of the ‘‘California Imperial’’ rig.
“California” Rig.—This rig is the same as the “California
Imperial” rig, with the exception that it is not nearly as heavy;
the derrick is not as high and the calf wheel is not driven by
means of a sprocket chain. The sprocket rim on the calf wheel
and clutch sprocket on the band-wheel shaft of the ‘‘California
Imperial” rig are replaced by a rim and tug pulley with which a
rope drive is used and the clutch is dispensed with. ‘This method
is not nearly as easy to operate as the sprocket drive for the rea-
son that the rope has to be thrown off and on by the driller’s
assistant or tool dresser and no clutch is used.
Derricks are also built of structural steel and pipe as shown in
Figs. 62 and 63. The advantages claimed for these derricks
are that there is less resistance to the wind, they are easily erected
and dismantled, and the deterioration is not as great as that of the
wooden derrick. The steel or pipe derrick can be easily painted
and its life of operation may be thus prolonged.!
Very often drilling operations are to be carried on in places
where it is difficult to move in heavy machinery and the portable
machine is then used. These are made in quite a variety of
designs, the main object being to have a machine which can be
moved from one location to another without incurring a great
1On the advantages of steel drilling rigs, see R. B. Woopworts, Bull.
Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1915, No. 107, 2247-2312.
 CROWN BLOCK

“" ”
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(Insert page 280.)

 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 281

Fig. 61.—The plan of the ‘‘ California Imperial”’ rig.

 282 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

deal of expense. Some of these machines are mounted on wheels

and are hauled from place to place, while others are self-propelled.

A
7
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WORKING
DIMENSIONS
eu
“¢: 3
eis
-—12'07—

Engine

340'to
About Fie,
62.—Eighty
drilling
steel
rig.

PLAN
MACHINERY,
OF
BASE
AND
HOUSE
FRAMING

Tl

ELEVATION
FRONT

In cases where a rig must be moved in sections, a machine such

as shown in Fig. 64 meets with great favor, as it can be
taken
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 283

Top Leg

Leg Section

|
14’
|
Leg Section
|

4’
Leg
oe R

Leg
Section
+1022 f
Pipe

No,12 Braces All Leg Sections 3/

|
‘ Al2’

il : ,
ge os eal
10 Channel

Fic. 63.—The tubular derrick, showing both the ladder side and the walking-
beam side.
 284 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

apart so that no part would be too heavy to transport over rough

and difficult ground. These machines are not adapted to drilling
to very great depths, but are applicable to holes of average depth.

Z2D = i)
2)

OS)

Spudding attachment.

By means of this rig, wells have

been drilled to a depth of 1,000 ft. ,
ut it is not recommended for depths
of over 600 ft. The spudding attach-
ment is employed for spudding at
the
top of the well.

ee

7
SS

Fie. 64.—The C orbett portable drilling rig provided with

a common
walking-beam.

Figure 66 shows a traction steam-driven drilling machine,

which is made entirely of steel and therefore gives great rigidity;
it is especially adapted for drilling where the climate is such that
wood would warp, with the result that constant repairs would be
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 285

T
he
a

|iit

Ficg. 65.—The Corbett portable drilling rig.

Lew figure to the left is the ground plan, showing the arrangement of the timbers, wheels
and parts.
In the figure to the right the rig is arranged for pumping,

po
O\ &
Va

1/

Fic. 66.—The “No. 3 Columbia”’ driller.

 286 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

necessary in order to keep ‘the mechanism of the machine in

proper alignment. This machine is so constructed that the mast
is carried on the machine and can be raised into position and guyed
with very little loss of time. The machine is operated by a
steam engine through the medium of a belt.
The band-wheel shaft carries the cranks which operate the
beam to give the raising and dropping of the tools. Clutches

#
4
<

aS
SSSss

[|
NAC)
(_)——}sssssss

eee DS
rl DEANE VY
see”
FE mee CES
Cine

Fra. 67.—The “Columbia” driller,

are used for operating the bull wheel and auxiliary reel, and the
sand reel is operated by means of a friction drive.
Figure 67 shows a portable non-traction machine with the
cable arranged for spudding. It is easily seen that, when spud-
ding, the raising and dropping of the tools is obtained by the
operation of the walking beam. This method gives a very
steady and long stroke, which is essential, as it eliminates
a
great deal of the stress on the machine.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 287

Figure 68 shows a gasoline-driven machine, which is the same

as the above mentioned, with the exception that a gasoline engine
is used as the source of motive power instead of a steam engine.
The gasoline or gas engine has not as yet proved a success in drill-
ing, for the reason that the variation of speed necessary to get the
proper operation of the tools is not obtainable. However, this

a =

a=
oy

Fic. 68.—Gasoline-driven drilling machine.

source of power is appreciated in cases where water and fuel are

scarce.
Boilers.—The boiler used almost exclusively for carrying on
well-drilling operations is that known as the horizontal tubular
boiler. This boiler is made in two types, known as the ‘‘loco-
motive type,” shown in Fig. 69; and the “California type,”
shown in Fig. 70. The “locomotive type” boiler is one which is
 288 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

quite extensively mounted on wheels, thereby making it portabl

e
and easy to move from one drilling location to another. The
“California type” is bricked into position and is not easily moved
from place to place.!

Fie. 70.—Horizontal tubular drilling

or pumping boiler of the ‘Californi
a
type.”

Crown Block.—The term “crown bloc

k” refers to those beams
which are used on the top of the derri
ck and which support the
pulleys over which the different cable
s used in drilling operations
? See Munzin, J. Elec. Power and
Gas, 28 (1912), 51,
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 289

are carried. These blocks are now made of steel, as shown in Fig.
71. This block has six pulleys, the four outside pulleys being
those used for operating the casing line. The large pulley in the
center is known as the crown pulley, and is the pulley over which
the drilling cable operates. In line with the crown pulley is a
narrow pulley which is known as the sand-line sheave, over
which the sand line runs.
Drilling rigs used in the east as a rule employ crown blocks
having but two pulleys, the crown pulley and the sand-line sheave.
The crown block shown in Fig. 71 is one such as is used in Cali-
fornia and foreign countries, as in these localities the geological
formation necessitates the use of a crown block which will permit
of the use of a casing line which can be operated without inter-

Fria. 71.—Crown block of the type used in California and foreign countries.

fering with the operation of the drilling line or sand line. One
corner of the derrick will often settle and will therefore throw
the crown block at such an angle that the lines will not hang
in the center of the derrick. When this happens, it is cus-
tomary to jack up the leg of the derrick and level up the crown
block. Very often this method is not followed, and, in order to
obtain the hanging of the different lines in the center of the
derrick, certain sheaves or pulleys are moved. ‘To accomplish
this, the bearings carrying the sheaves or pulleys are on a sliding
base as shown.
Bailers.—As drilling progresses, the cuttings become mixed
with the water in the hole, and, after carrying on operations for
a certain length of time, the drillings, together with the water,
form a mud which does not permit of the free operation of the
19
290 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

tools. The tools are then withdrawn from the hole, and the Lailer
attached to the sand line is lowered into the hole and the mud
removed. There are a number of bailers, but
Figs. 72, 73, and 74 illustrate the general con-
struction. Figure 72 shows-a sectional flush
joint dart bailer which can be made in any
desired length; the object of the flush joint is
that this bailer can be used in cases where it is
desired to run a bailer of maximum diameter
through the casing already in the hole. When
this bailer is lowered to the bottom, the dart is
raised and the fluid enters in at the bottom. In
cases where there is considerable liquid in the
hole, it will also enter at the top of the bailer.
Another style of bailer is one which is not a
flush joint bailer. Figure 73 shows the top of
the bailer and Fig. 74 the bottom. By using the
top and bottom, any length of pipe desired can
be used, thereby giving a length of
bailer which would only be limited
P by the height of the derrick in
MCh, 70%
Sectional flush which it is to be operated.
Lonny dart Sand Pumps.—Where
agreat deal
of sand is encountered, a special
pump is used for removing it from the well. Such _ Fie. 73.—
a sand pump is shown in Figs. 75 and 76.. The aun pact
sand pump is a bailer with a plunger and the
valve and seat in the bottom of the pump so constructed that
they can be swung downwardly, thereby permit-
ting of the unobstructed dumping or emptying of
the pump at the surface. In Fig. 76 the bottom
of the sand pump is shown in a closed position,
and in Fig. 75 it is shown open and ready for
dumping the sand. ‘To open this valve when the
Fia. 74,— Pump is loaded, it is merely necessary to allow the
Bottom of a weight of the pump to rest on the small pin shown
casing bailer. n the inside of the beveled edges of the bailer
bottom. This pin is then raised and the string is forced out-
wardly, thereby releasing the seat and the valve, and the con-
tents of the pump drop out.
Tools.—The string of tools consists of a socket, drilling jars,
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 291

drill stem, and bit. These different tools are joined together by
means of box and pin connections, the boxes and pins having a
certain definite taper. The construction of one of
these joints is shown in Fig. 77; they are made up
or screwed together as shown in Fig. 78. This figure
shows a rack which is the arc of a circle,
two wrenches, a jack and a lever for ((
operating the jack. In order to make |
up a string of tools, a swivel wrench such
as is shown in Fig. 79 is employed in
connection with the derrick crane, as
shown in Fig. 80.
For instance, we will say that we in-
tend to screw the bit into the drill stem.
The drill stem together with the socket
and jars will be suspended in the derrick
from the drilling cable. The swivel
wrench will be suspended by a differen-
tial block from the derrick crane and the
square under the pin of the bit will be
placed inside the recess of the swivel
wrench. By means of the differential
block, the wrench and bit will be raised
until the pin of the bit enters the box of
the stem. Then, by means of the two
projecting handles on the wrench, the
bit is screwed into place. The wrench
is then removed from the bit, and the
bit and rest of the tools are moved over
and lowered into the hole until the
square of the bit comes approximately
a little above the casing or the floor of
the derrick. The wrench, Fig. 79, is
- then passed around the square of the
sand pump:
bit and the end of the wrench placed
against the wrench post. Insofar as the
thread on these joints is right-hand, the other wrench Fic. 76.—
is then placed on the square above the box of the aCe
stem. The end of this second wrench rests against
the jack. By operating this jack the joint is screwed up until
sufficiently tight to permit of the operations being carried on
292 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

without the possibility of the joint coming loose. Great care is

exercised in making up these joints, as it is very easy to exert
too much pressure on the jack and jump the pin, or, in other
words, break the pin off. If the joint is not made up
sufficiently tight, there is a strong probability of it
becoming loose and some of the tools being lost in
the hole.
Rope Socket (Manila Rope).—The top of the string
of tools, or that part which connects the rest of
the string with the drilling line, is known as the rope
socket, and such a socket is shown in Fig. 81. To
attach this socket to the rope, the following practice
is observed: The end of the rope is passed down
through the neck of the socket and out through the
elliptical hole shown on the side of the socket.
Enough rope is passed through so that approximately
10 in. or 12in. of rope can be unraveled and then
small pieces of soft rope, approximately 10 in. long,
are laid in between the strands of unraveled rope
and at right angles to the lay of rope. The strands
of rope are then put back into their original posi-
tion and the end of the rope is wound with string
so as to prevent its unraveling. This will give an
enlarged portion of rope near its end, and, due to the
weight of the tools, this portion is pulled into the re-
cess in the side of the socket, it being too large to
pass through the neck of the socket. When first
operating this socket, the rope will project beyond
Fic. 77, the socket proper, but, due to the friction against
The taper the casing when the tools are lowered and raised in
Me ee ‘ the hole, the rope will be worn off smooth. The
general use. bottom of the socket has a female thread which is
This joint
has been Known as the box.
ue 2§ Rope Socket (Wire Rope).—Figure 82 shows a
he old style Tope socket such as is used for connecting wire rope
pnts to the tools. This socket shows a rope passing
: through the sleeve and attached to plug slips at the
bottom. This is known as a swivel rope socket, as it permits
the tools to rotate in one direction. For instance, when the
tools are being lifted, the weight causes the lay of the line to
have a tendency to unravel, and, as the tools descend, the line
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 293

get

Fia. 78.—The Barrett oil well jack.

Fic. 79.—The Barrett improved swivel wrench.

Ball Bearing Trolley

CIO
© ©
SE

Ball Bearing

Fia. 80.—Tee-beam ball-bearing derrick crane.

294 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

tends to go back into its original shape and, in doing so, causes
the tools to rotate, this rotation being facilitated by means of a
swivel in the socket. It is readily seen that with this kind of
swivel the tools will rotate in one direction,
which is a much desired effect.
Jars.—Attached to the socket are jars
such as shown in Fig. 83. In some locali-
ties jars are not used, but, as they are used
in most drilling, they are here included in
the string of tools. These jars have a pin
on one end and box on the other, and are
connected together by means of interlock-
ing links, or reins, as they are properly
termed. The jars are principally used in
cases where the tools have become stuck in
the hole and it is necessary to jar them
loose. It is the practice to place the jars
between the socket and stem when drilling.
In fishing it is very often customary to
place the jars below the stem, so that the
weight of the stem may be brought into play
to give a heavy blow.
This appliance was introduced in 1831
by William Morris; it was at first known
as the “slips”? and was employed in brine-
well drilling.
Stem (Auger).—A stem such as shown
in Fig. 84 is the next tool below the jars
Fie. 81. Fig. 82. used in the string. These stems are solid
—‘*New —Rotary :
Era” rope ropesocket 2nd are of such length and diameter as are
socket. for wire required by the hole in which operations
line, Pros- : x
ser patent, re being carried on.
Sinker Bar.—Figure 85 shows a sinker
bar, which is of the same construction as the stem, but is ap-
proximately one-third as long. The sinker bar is not very often
used, but, when used, is placed between the jars and the socket.
The function of this bar is to give more weight to the blow on
the jars when drilling in clay or sticky formation, for in this case
a bit has a tendency to stick. The blow mentioned is that re-
quired to release the bit should it become stuck.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 295

Bit.—Figure 86 shows a drilling bit, which is attached to the

lower end of the stem. This bit is dressed in different ways, ac-
cording to the ideas of the driller and the nature of the formation.

wit — CD
Fie. 83.—Drilling jar.

Fie. 84—
Auger stem.
:
Fig. 85.—
Sinker bar.
Fie. 86.—
Drilling bit,Cal-
ifornia pattern.
Fie. 87.—Austrian under-
reamer for reamin g out
drilled holes.

In some cases the bottom edge is beveled and in other cases it is

dressed concave. In drilling it is necessary to keep this bit up to
gauge, so that the hole will be kept true and will not have to be
296 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

reamed out in order to permit of the placing of casing in the hole.

Also, if the bit gets too much out of gauge, the hole will become
conical; and should a new bit dressed out to gauge be then run
into the hole, it will stick and cause considerable trouble in get-
ting it loose. :
Underreamer.—An underreamer is shown in Fig. 87. The
purpose of the underreamer is to ream out a hole after it has been
With Bowl

Fie. 88.—Slip sockets.

drilled, so that casing can be readily inserted. In the figure the

cutting knives are shown in operative position; that is, the
knives assume this position as soon as the underreamer has passed
through the bottom joint of the casing and into the open hole.
The underreamer, in passing through the casing, has these knives
closed inside of its body, and, as soon as they are free from the
casing, they are forced out into operative position by means of
a spring.

Fig. 89.—Horn socket and bowl.

Fishing Tools.—To carry on drilling operations successfully, it

is essential that fishing tools should be readily obtainable. There
are a great many conditions which can take place, such as the
losing of tools in the hole, due to breakage of some part in the
string, parting of the line, caving, or, in fact, mishaps too num-
1 As the hole is never drilled quite true, and an allowance has also to be
made for the larger diameter of the sockets connecting the lengths of the
casing, a 13-in. bit is used for drilling a hole which is to receive 10-in.
casing, a 10-in. bit for 75-in, casing, and a 714-in. bit for 55¢-in. casing.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 297

erous to mention. New tools for different fishing purposes are

being constantly placed before the public and two of these are
shown in Fig. 88,a slip socket with and without a bowl. The
slip socket is, as the term implies, a socket in which operates
a slip. This socket can be run into the hole and, passing over
the lost tools, is then raised, at which time the slips take hold
and the lost article is removed from the well.
Horn Socket.—This socket has the same function as the slip
socket, with the exception that no slips are used and, by jarring
down on the socket, a friction
hold is taken on the lost tool.
If the hole is of such diameter <= ag
that the lost articlerestsagainst Fie. 90.—Boot jack, which is used
the wall or side of the hole, a 28 a bailer grab and also to take hold
j of broken jars.
bowl such as shown in Fig. 89
is attached to the bottom of the socket. The function of this bowl
is to guide the lost article into the socket itself.
Boot Jack.—This jack has a plate pivoted to one of the jaws.
In lowering the jack down into the hole, this latch is raised when
it comes in contact with the article to be removed, and the bail
of the bailer, or any such article, passes up in between the jaws
of the jack. As the tools are now raised, the latch seats itself,
and the bail or article is retained in the jack and removed from
the well.
Jar Knocker or Bumper.—Very often in pulling tools out of a
well they become caught under the drive shoe or lower joint of

_—————————————————

Fie. 91.—Jar knocker or bumper.

casing and must be jarred loose. When this happens, such a

tool as shown in Fig. 91 is attached at its upper end to the sand
line. The lower end passes around the drilling line. It is then
lowered into the hole and bumped on top of the socket until the
tools have become loosened.
Rope Knife.—Where the tools have become stuck and cannot
be removed, due to the fact that no action can be obtained by
bringing into play another string of tools, it is the practice to
cut off the rope or drilling line close to the socket. This is
accomplished by passing the drilling line through a rope knife and
lowering this knife down on the line until it gets into such a posi-
298 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

tion as to enable the rope to be cut. Then, by jarring down on the

mandrel, the knife is extended and the rope cut. The rope and
knife are then withdrawn and a string of tools lowered into the
hole. On the bottom of the fishing string a slip socket is used,
which socket passes over the rope socket of the lost string.
By jarring up on the second string of tools, the first string will
become loosened.

=m
a

etsSe

——.

Two Wing Three Wing

Fia. 92. Hall Patent _Fia. 93. Fia. 94. Fra. 95.
Fra. 92.—Mapes patent knife for cutting wire rope.
Fia. 93.—Rope grabs.
Fra, 94.—Fluted swedge, for opening a clear passage through collapsed pipe
or casing.
Fria. 95.—Spud, a tool for spudding around and loosening a bit or reamer
when fast in the well, if disconnected from the rest of the tool. The usual
length of the blade is 8 ft.

Rope Grabs.—Figure 93 shows different tools for fishing out

lost cable in the hole. The tools are operated by lowering them
into the hole and the prongs pass down through the coils of rope
therein. When pulling up, the rope becomes caught on the
inwardly upward projecting prongs, and is thereby removed
from the well.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 299

Swedge.—Should casing collapse, it is customary to run a

swedge, so that the pipe can be forced out to its original diameter.
It is also a practice to run a swedge through new
strings of casing which have been placed in the
hole, in order to insure the proper inside diameter
of the pipe necessary to enable the bit to pass
through.
Spud.—In cases where a bit or
reamer has become stuck in the
hole and disconnected from the
rest of the string of tools, a spud
is lowered into the hole and, by
means of raising and lowering, the
accumulation of the material hold-
ing the lost tool is pushed out of
the way, thereby freeing the tools
so that they can be withdrawn from
the well by means of one of the
well-known fishing tools.
Spears.—Figure 96 shows a spear
being set, and Fig. 97 shows the
slips released from the casing and
locked to insure free passage from
the well.. The slips have an in-
Fic. 96.—The clined tapered face which fits the
Henderson trip
casing spear, inclined face in the body of the
showing the spear. These two slips are carried
method of setting
slips. on a crossarm which operates
against a spring. Before the spear
97.—
is lowered into the hole, the slips are drawn down to be el rs
the lower end of their travel by means of the setting son trip casing
spear, show-
tool, as shown in Fig. 96. When the slips have been ing the slips
drawn down the required distance, they are held in released from
the casing
place by means of a latch and the setting tool or hold and
yoke is removed. ‘There is some play in the cross- locked to in-
sure free pas-
head which enables the slips to have some loose sage from the
motion, so that, when the spear is lowered into the well.
hole, the slips, due to their contact with the cas-
ing, will ride freely on the tapered body of the spear and
against the casing. The serrations on the slips extend up-
wardly, so that the slips will pass in the hole when descending
300 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

and will not allow the spear to be withdrawn from the hole with-
out being set, as shown in Fig. 97. To operate this spear, it is
attached to the bottom of the string of tools, or, in other
words, it replaces the bit on the string of tools. It is
then lowered into the hole until it is at the desired posi-
tion. By pulling up on the drilling line, the slips are
forced against the casing and, by jarring upward with
the tools, the casing is supposed to become free. Very
often it is not possible to free the casing, and, when such
is the case, it is necessary to withdraw the tools and try
some other method, such as jacks. In order to with-
draw the spear, the tools are allowed to jar downwardly.
Fie. 98. By this means, the slips are released from the
Fi eg casing and the action of the spring against the
crosshead forces them up against the shoulder
of the body of the spear, as shown in Fig. 97. The
spear is then entirely free and can be readily withdrawn
from the hole.
Casing Cutter—When it is necessary to cut off the
casing in a well, a casing cutter, such as is shown in Fig.
98, is brought into play. This cutter is lowered on a
string of tubing down inside of the casing, until the
point at which the casing is to be cut is reached. The
tubing is then held by elevators which rest on a rotat-
ing plate. A string of rods with a mandrel, with the
wedge and jar as shown in Fig. 99, is then lowered into
the tubing and enters the casing cutter body. Due to
the weight of the rods above the wedge or to the action
of the jars, the wedge forces the cutting knives or cut-
ting wheels out against the casing. By rotating the
tubing, the blocks carrying the cutting knives are also
rotated, and, due to the expansion of the cutters by oaeaes
means of the wedge, the casing is cut. and = jar
Casing Perforator.—It is sometimes desired to use sot eee
a casing perforator for the following reasons: First, to
split the casing in when it has become frozen and the intention
is to release it by allowing the material on the outside of the
pipe to pass in through the pipe. Second, it is used in cases
where strainer pipe is not used and after a well has been com-
pleted, when the casing is to be perforated in order to allow the
fluid or gas to enter the well. The casing perforator shown in
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 301

Fig. 100 works in the following manner: There is a block carry-

ing the knives which operates on an inclined face inside of the
body of the perforator. Suspended from the bottom of
the body, this block has a rod, at the bottom of which
is a spring latch. Around thisrodisaspring. Fig. 100
shows this perforator in position to be lowered into the
well. In being lowered, the spring on the rod beneath
the body will be in contact with the casing. When
the point at which perforation is to be carried on is
reached, the body of the perforator is raised and, due
to the friction of the spring against the casing, the
‘spring remains stationary and the latch on the bottom
of the rod is pulled through the bottom of the spring.
As the body is again lowered, the latch seats itself on
the inside of the spring, thereby causing the rod to pro-
ject up into the body of the perforator and forcing the
inclined cutter blocks into a position whereby they will
be in contact with the casing. As the weight is ap-
plied above the body of the perforator, the blocks car- Fia. 100.
rying the cutters will slide on the upwardly outward — Casing
perfora-
tapered faces and puncture the casing. By continu- tor, show-
ously raising and lowering the perforator, the pipe can ing posi-
tion of
be punctured in a number of places, and it can, at perf ora-
any time, be withdrawn from the well. tors when
the tool
Production.—After a well has been completed, it be- is being
comes necessary, providing the well does not flow, due lowered
into the
to insufficient pressure, to use means for elevating the casing.
oil to the surface.! This is accomplished by inserting
in the well a string of tubing which is usually 2 in. or 3 in. in
1 The amount of power required in the various operations of pumping wells
is indicated by the following tests, with a steam engine, on wells producing
oil of about 15°Bé.

Depth of well Pumping depth ee eee

1,065 860 96.4 6.1

1,075 920 TG 4.7
1,056 840 55.0 2.8
929 840 84.8 2.6
1,023 960 56.3 3.0
1,050 980 10.3 4.4
302 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

diameter. At the lower end of this tubing a pump barrel is at-

tached. Such a pump is shown in Figs. 101 and 102. In the
bottom of this barrel is placed a standing valve, and a plunger
is operated by means of rods which pass up through the tub-
ing and are attached to some actuating means at the surface.
The difference between the pumps shown in these two figures
is that in Fig. 101 a plunger is used which is made of an upper
valve and a set of leather cups below this valve. In case it is
necessary to withdraw the working valve of this pump, it only
necessitates the pulling out of the rods; but if the standing valve

Average indicated horgepower...............--+--> 3.91

Averaze pumping depth (feet). .......0.- 2.6 sees 932.9
Average pumping speed (revolutions per minute).... 78.6
Putting Rops—Lenertu, 940 rr.; Sizm or ENGINE, 9 IN. X 12 IN.
Average revolutions per minute.................0.. 212.8
etsy MinbenKey (Gncbambutssp). 5 Stoo amno con Weak bwoeotoupeak 25.0
Average indicated horsepower................+.++- 14.08
Another series of careful tests on five wells showed an average consump-
tion of 6.98 hp. per well in pumping. The engine and band wheel absorbed
22 per cent. of that power.
PuLune TuBING
Average revolutions per minute..... RSET eee ats 219.9
Numi ber standse.mraenct atin tinemera feck nies diene anne 18.0
Total times (hours)i.co: aetna ekact rene eitenets 1.0
SIZev(MChes)). 5 meshes ees crc a ete rn Perrone 3.0
Length. (heet)lge cats ctuccutin cara: ene Ee eeRee 940.0
Average indicated horsepower..................+s- 14.85
Lirtina Sanp Pump
Num berOt Ls s...52¢s< <a am ee prea eee a nies 3.0
Sigecofpump i Sati. soc cee arte oie atone ase aly
Latbteetions y hack tenc8! x upohss bistocsn ero eee mere Rea 1040.0
Size’cablos(nches)is sae. 5.ue okeeee ren ee neo 1%
Average revolutions per minute................... 182.46
Average time per lift (minutes)................... 6%
Average indicated horsepower.................008 25.4
On oil well pumping methods, see Cox, Western Eng., 1 (1912), 93; and
Hurcuinson, ibid., 349. On pumping by compressed air, see ABRAMS,
ibid., 234; and Ivmuns, ibid., 466. Pumping by electricity is accomplished
by individual motors and a central transformer plant. On pumping oil
wells by electricity, see Taytor, Gen. Elec. Rev., 17 (1914), 622; Gassaway,
Western Eng., 3 (1913), 273; and Van Norpmrn, J. Elec. Power and Gas, 28
(1912), 428. For a comparison of electricity with steam power, see Bull.
69 of the California State Mining Bureau, 1914, 160 et seg. On pumping
California crude oil, see Bow1n, Eng. News, Dec. 2, 1915.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 303

is to be removed, a socket or other means is run in

through the tubing after the rods have been withdrawn SSS
KEES
and the standing valve extracted. Fig. 102 is a pump SS
LLLLLLLL

known as the ‘‘plunger pump.” In this pump the

cups are replaced by means of a tight-fitting plunger,
which operates over a rod having a head at one end
and attached to the standing valve on the other. It ———+
=

is readily seen that by this means the stand-

SS=bo
—§$—
ing valve is withdrawn at the same time as LLL
LLL
WLLL
ee
the rods.
The methods of actuating these pumps dif-
fer. In one the rods are actuated by fasten-
ing them to the end of the walking beam.
Another means, the method employed where
the derrick, beam, etc., have been removed,
is shown in Fig. 103. This mechanism is
known as a pumping jack, and, by attaching
pull ropes or pull rods to the lower strap,
the pump is operated. These jacks are oper-
ated in the following manner: A pumping
power, illustrated in Figs. 104 and 105,
is installed and operated by means of a belt
drivefromanengine. Fig.105showsa struc-
tural steel power having two eccentrics; by
means of a belt drive, power is transmitted
from the pinion to the master gear and the re

eccentric hubs rotate inside the eccentric

straps, thereby giving a back-and-forth
movement to the pull ropes or pull rods,
which are attached to the eccentric straps LLL
ULL
LL

and to the pumping jack. In cases where |

WLLL
heavy duty is to be performed and it is es- (Ld
) i
,s sential to have the pull rods close to the NZAa
>
SS SSS
vere vor ground, a power such as shown in Fig. 104 is
deep well installed. In making this installation, the The “Im-
7ya large wheel of this power acts as a pulley and
valves. is operated by a belt drive from an engine. pump.
An idler is installed between the engine pulley
and the band wheel, which gives the proper turn of the belt, en-
abling it to ride freely on the face of the band wheel. The main
feature of a power of this design is that the pull rods operate
304 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Fra, 104.—Steel band wheel pumping power.

 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 305

Fig, 105.—California structural steel pumping power.

Fig, 106.—Unit pumping power with electric motor,

20
306 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

close to the ground, all bearings will operate in an oil bath, and
there is no possible chance of the power getting out of alignment
and thereby causing undue stress on the working parts.
There are cases where it is not desirable to install a
pumping power and jacks, for the following reasons:
(1) the wells are too few in number; (2) the distance be-
tween the wells is too great; and (3) the property is too
valuable to have a net work of rods playing over the
surface, thereby preventing the working of the land. A
power, as that shown in Fig. 106 and known as the unit
pumping power, is then installed. The figure shows the
power operated by means of a motor, although an en-
gine is very frequently used. Weights are placed on the
end of the beam, the intention being to balance up the
beam, so that a minimum amount of power is required
to carry on operations. The action of this power is as
follows: A gear pinion on the motor or engine shaft
drives the large gear wheel. On the opposite side of
the power and on the same shaft is another pinion which
meshes into the second large gear wheel. ‘To this second
gear wheel is attached a crank pin and to this crank
Fia. 107. pin the pitman from the beam is attached. It is ap-
—Wooden
suc se parent that, in operation, power transmitted by the
vad. P «Motor operates the beam through the action of the in-
termediate gearing to the pitman.
Sucker Rods.—Sucker rods are made of iron,
steel, or wood. Fig. 107 shows a wooden sucker
or pump rod having metal wings attached,
these wings embodying a box and pin, which are
necessary in order to connect up these rods so
that they can be used for actuating the pump
in the well.
Elevators.—The casing, each string of which
Fre. 108.—
extends from the mouth of the well, is generally Fair’s patent ele-
made up in lengths of 1714 to 20 ft., serewed to- Vator, regular
pattern of malle-
gether, and is raised and lowered by means of able iron.
a casing elevator, such as is shown in Fig. 108.
This elevator has two links and is hinged at the back. There is ~
a latch which locks the two halves of the elevator together when
it has been attached to the pipe, and the links or bails are the
means of connecting the elevator to the casing block hook. This
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 307

elevator is attached to the pipe below the collar, against which

it bears.
Sometimes it is desirable to use an elevator having but one bail,
and, when this is the case, an elevator like that shown in Fig. 109
isused. This elevator is made with a body having trunnions at-
tached thereto and has two doors hinged on this body which open
and close to admit the entrance of pipe; these doors are locked
together by means of vertically actuating bolts and sucha design of
elevator is the strongest that has ever been placed on the market.

Wrench

Fic. 109.—Elevator. Fre. 110.—Windsor sucker rod elevator.

For the handling of sucker rods, an elevator of different design

is used (see that shown in Fig. 110). This elevator is attached to
the square of the sucker rod located below the joint and is locked
automatically by means of a latch which is actuated in accordance
with the motion of the bail of the elevator.
Casing Swivel and Ring.—When inserted- or flush-joint cas-
ing is used, a casing swivel, constructed of a short nipple of the
particular sized pipe being handled, is employed. For holding
the casing suspended in the well, or for gripping it when being
“jacked,” a casing ring or ‘‘spider,’’ having hardened slips or
wedges of different sizes to suit various diameters, is used.
 308 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

CANADIAN SYSTEM

The device used in the Canadian method is the one shown

in Fig. 111. This consists of a derrick, draw works or machinery

3-0

70-0-2612

30-0
68 69-0

‘49-0
48-0

51-0
“H411-0

50-0

LU Te
GROUND PLAN OF DR.

SZ

O 0 a
Fia 111..—The Canadian rig.

used to operate the drill, and engine. With this

method of
drilling, rods are used instead of a cable, as is the
case with
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 309

the standard or percussion method. The derrick is gener-

ally 16 ft. square at the base and 60 ft. in height. The string
of tools used with this outfit consists of a socket, jars, auger
stem, and bit, the same as used with the cable method. The
difference between this and the latter method is that the rods
replace the drilling cable and the temper screw is replaced by
a ratchet on the walking beam, which ratchet is operated by
means of a lever and a chain, as illustrated in Fig. 112. By this
means the driller can very easily lower the tools as the occasion
requires. This ratchet, or slipper-out, as it is called, is shown in
Fig. 113. The chain is shown fitted with a swivel at one end;

Fig. 112.—Drill chain, swivel and clevis. Fie. 114.—Jacket for spring pole

this swivel is used in connecting the chain to the drill poles.

In Fig. 114 is shown the jacket which slips over the end of the
spring pole or beam and around which the chain operates. In
this way the weight of the drilling string on the slipper-out is
reduced to such an extent.that the operator is able to feed or
lower the tools at his will. Fig. 111 shows that this method
employs a band or drive wheel, as it is termed, and the
shaft of this wheel carries a crank having a number of holes,
the function of these holes being to obtain different lengths of
stroke. This shaft also carries a tug pulley, which, through the
medium of the bull rope, drives the bull wheels, the same as in
the standard method.
310 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

The Canadian or pole tool system is being superseded by the

more modern methods, which are much more rapid in operation,*
due principally to the fact that the tools can be withdrawn from
and lowered into the hole much more quickly. When operating
with the Canadian system a great deal of time, other than that
actually necessary for drilling, is consumed in taking down the
drilling string in sections, to replace the bit.

Fra. 115.—Crown block.

HYDRAULIC ROTARY SYSTEM

In certain formations, it is practically impossible to attain

any great depth when using the cable tool or percussion method.
When this is the case, the hydraulic rotary system is em-
ployed. With this system a derrick such as shown in con-
nection with the cable tool method is used. As no drilling cable
is used, a crown block such as shown in Fig. 115 is made use
of. ‘This block has sheaves all of the same size, as they are used
only for operating the casing line in connection with the casing
block.
A rotary (see Fig. 116) is used for rotating the drill pipe. A
hoist of the type shown in Fig. 117 operates the rotary and the
casing line. Two pumps of the design shown in Fig. 118 are em-
ployed to prevent the caving of the walls of the hole. Power
is obtained from an engine as illustrated in Fig. 119.
1 The Canadian pole system of drilling is used almost entirely in Galicia,
the hydraulic system being forbidden by the authorities, who believe that
this method is likely to drown out the oil strata.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 311

In this method a number of lengths of pipe arescrewed together,

and attached to the bottom of this string is a bit. In cases where
rock is encountered. for comparatively short distances, a bit
(see Fig. 120 and Fig. 121) is used. This bit has rotating
cones which are lubricated. As there are a great number of

Fig, 116.—Steel rotary with square drill stem.

cutting edges, considerable speed is made through very hard

rock.
By a chain driven by a sprocket on the line shaft, the rotary is
operated, rotating the pipe. It is to be noted that the top sec-
tion of the drill pipe is of square cross-section, while the rest of
the drill pipe stem is round.
A mud mixer (Fig. 122) is used for mixing the mud. When
properly mixed, this mud is emptied into a sump, into which the
suction pipe of the pump extends. The mud from the sump is
312 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

pumped through the stand pipe shown leaning against the side
of the derrick, then down through the hose and the swivel (which

Fra. 117.—Hoist for operating the rotary and the casing line.

is connected to the top of the drill stem) through the drill stem,
and returns on the outside of the drill pipe. When it arrives at

Fra. 118.—Pump used to prevent the caving of the walls.

the surface, it passes through a flume and back into the sump.
The object of this flume is to allow sand held in suspension
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 313

to settle, so that it can be readily removed. The swivel is shown

in Fig. 123 and Fig. 124. The construction is such as to permit

swivel.
vy

Fia.
from
connections
119.—The
rotar
to
pump

of the free entrance of the mud to the drill pipe and at the same
time to ensure the rotation of the drill pipe without causing
any twisting of the hose or casing lines. This free rotation is
314 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

accomplished by means of bearings (Fig. 124) which operate in

an oil bath. )
Figure 125 shows by the arrow the course taken by the mud as
it is passing through and returning outside of the drill pipe. This
figure also shows, a back pressure valve located in the lower
part of this drill pipe. This valve is used for the purpose of pre-

py Hole for Water

7Pressure from

S
NSSRock Formation
SYs
Standard Line
Se
aR

S
eS
Ss
YR
eS
SY
YS
S
Nf
Ze
Valve Collar
N iy | Y,
S M&S
Extra Heary & +N = y < Oil Hole Plug
Standard Line™ == S
Pipe Collar “<< —<$=<— AY $ “
Sy ———V <— 011 Hole
SS) t Sy
Water Holes Sy>} _|SS=—=
=; \\i \‘
D7, —= iN SWrench Hole for

Ries; 121,
Fic. 120.—Bit employed where rock is encountered for comparatively
short distances.
The bit, line pipe and lubricator are shown in the hole ready for drilling. The lubricator
pipe, which is about 12 ft. in length, is filled with special bit oil, which is forced down into
the bit under pressure of the water above the plunger.
Fig. 121.—The Sharp and Hughes cone, showing the sixty or more rows of
cutting teeth.

venting the plugging or filling up of the pipe adjacent to the bit.

Very often, when high gas pressure is encountered, material is
forced up through the ports in the shank of the bit and will plug
the pipe, providing no such means as a back pressure valve is
employed. With the back pressure valve this is not possible.
The action obtained by the rotary method is that the mud, in
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 315

returning outside of the drill pipe, plasters up the walls of the

holes and prevents caving. The plastering is perfected to a
great extent by the pipe, when rotating, striking the sides of the
hole and causing the mud to impregnate the caving strata.
These walls will hold up and prevent caving for a time sufficient
to enable the operator to remove the drill pipe and set the desired

OQ}
os |

<<
eo) ———
Outlet (
1

ji ee ee
Fig. 122.—Mud mixer.

string of casing. For instance, it may be desired to set 2,000 ft.

of 10-in. casing and we will assume that 1514-in. casing has been
set at 300 ft. A bit dressed out so that it will freely pass through
the 1514-in. casing is used and 1,700 ft. of open hole are made.
When this amount of hole has been drilled, the bit and drill stem
are removed and the 10-in. casing isinserted, providing the opera-
 316 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

tor does not consider it necessary to ream out the holé before
running in the 10-in. casing.
Occasionally, when drilling through rock formation, a core
barrel of the type shown in Fig. 126 is used. When using the core
barrel, “‘adamantine” or chilled shot are thrown into the hole

Fra. 123.—Hydraulic rotary swivel. Fra, 124.—Hydraulic rotary swivel.

and rotated upon by the barrel. This action results in

the
cutting out of a core such as shown in the
figure. The core is
readily removed by using an overshot
or by dropping small
particles of iron into the hole, so that
they will force themselves
in between the core and the barrel itself.
Then, by elevating
the barrel, these particles become wedg
ed and the core is re-
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 317

Yj
YJ

Yj
Vv L
Yj.
tés;oascriyog

LOG
SE
22S)
ie Lie.

Ze

Fia. 125.—An illustration of the method of su ib- Fia. 126.—Section of drilling

plying water to the rotating cutter. well, showing core barrel.
318 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

moved. In other cases where hard rock is encountered, a drag

bit (Fig. 127) or a drag shoe (Fig. 128) is used. These tools also
operate on adamantine, and, due to the rolling effect, the rock is
gradually worn away.
It would appear that considerable time would be consumed in
removing the bit from the hole and replacing it for operation; but
when pipe is removed from the hole, it is taken out in stands, or,
in other words, four or five joints at a time are removed and stood
back in a vertical position in the derrick. This means that every
fourth or fifth joint must be unscrewed, and, to eliminate all
possible delay, a tool joint is inserted between the fourth and
fifth or fifth and sixth joints of drill pipe, as the case may be.

G1). LT)

C
Fig. 127.—Drag bit. Fra. 128.—Drag shoe. Fie. 129.—Rotary tool
joint.

Such a tool joint is shown in Fig. 129. This joint is made in

two parts: the upper part being a pin connection, is screwed on to
the bottom of the lower joint of stand; the other part of the tool
joint, known as the box end, is screwed on to the upper end of the
pipe which is being removed from the hole. With this joint it is
very easy to remove the casing, as a cat-head on the line shaft
of the hoist is brought into play. In order to unscrew one of these
joints, back-up tongs are placed around the box end and another
set of tongs are attached to the pin end. A rope connected to
the tongs is wound around the cat-head, and, as the latter re-
volves, the joint is broken (started to unscrew). The line to the
cat-head is now removed, as well as the tongs on the pin end of
the joint; small tongs are attached to the pin end of the joint or
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 319

pipe above it, and a very few turns are required to disconnect
the joint.! ;
‘COMBINATION SYSTEM

In localities where it is desirable to bring into play the com-

bination of the cable tool and hydraulic rotary systems, the
operating mechanism is located as shown in Fig. 130. With

ree la 4 ee
re
dol
PSS Sse betes

———
—-4+-j4

peeSd

Fig. 130.—Combination rig.

this system the same material is used for carrying on operations

as with the cable tool system, with the exception that the
calf wheel is replaced by means of draw works and hoist. This
line shaft is operated by means of a chain drive from a split
socket on the band-wheel shaft.
‘On rotary well drilling, see Parsons, Western Eng., 1 (1912), 450; and
Rea, tbid., 202. On mud-laden fluid applied to drilling, see Technical
Papers 66 and 68 of the Bureau of Mines.
320 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Figure 130 shows the beam swung at an angle so as to permit

of the unobstructed spooling of the casing line on the hoist drum.
The swinging of this beam, as shown in dotted lines, is accom-
plished by installing on the samson post revolving center irons,
such as shown in Fig. 131. By referring to this it is readily ©
seen that, by merely lifting the latch, the beam is allowed to swing
out of the way; and, when the beam is to be operated, it is swung
back in line with the samson post and at right angles to the band-
wheel shaft. When swung in this position, the latch falls back
into the groove, as shown in the above-mentioned figure. The
rig shown in Fig. 130 can be operated either as a rotary or
cable-tool drilling rig. The time required to change over from

Fra. 131.—Revolving center irons for combination rig.

the rotary to the cable-tool system is only that necessary to lift

the rotary away from the hole, which is accomplished in a very
few minutes. The hoist then takes the place of the calf wheel.

HYDRAULIC CIRCULATING SYSTEM

The hydraulic circulating system has been used in places

where it was desirable to carry on the cable-tool operations,
but, at the same time, to use mud for the purpose of holding
up the walls of the hole. Such a system is presented in Fig. 132.
The only difference between this system and the cable-tool
system is that a circulating head is attached to the casing which
is being placed in the hole and closely follows the progress of the
bit. By means of this circulating head, mud is pumped through
a hose down through the casing, out the bottom, and up along
the sides of the hole.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 321

With this method it is not necessary to do

any bailing, as all cuttings from the hole are
removed by being carried in suspension with
the mud forced down by means of pumps.
Through the circulating head a barrel or
plunger: operates and at the top of this
plunger is a stuffing box; this prevents the
mud from returning through the head or
through the barrel. This method of opera-
tion is exceedingly slow, due to the fact that
it is necessary to follow the bit quite closely,
so that there will be sufficient pressure of mud
to remove the cuttings. It has, however, met
with considerable favor in California and
Mexico.

NOTES ON GENERAL DRILLING OPERATIONS

Conductor Box.—In certain localities the

surface material consists of loose sandy clay,
sand, and gravel, varying in thickness (espe-
cially in the Pennsylvania oil regions) from
a few feet on the hills to several hundred feet
in the valleys. For the purpose of restraining
this material, which would otherwise impede
the work of drilling, a conductor box, built of
plank, circular, square, or octagonal in shape,
and 8 in. to 20 in. across, is sunk to the bed-
rock. In cases where the rock lies only a few
feet below the surface, the necessary excavat-
ing is done by.hand; but if the soil is deep, a
large drilling bit is used to spud down a hole,
into which the conductor box or a section of
large iron pipe may be sunk:as rapidly as dril-
ling proceeds.
Drive-pipe or Conductor.—In starting a
well it is customary to extend a ‘‘conductor’”? Fie. 132.—Hy-
or “‘drive-pipe’”’ from the surface to as great as Cae a oe
a depth as can be driven by ordinary driv- nection with cable
ing methods, through the superficial forma- tools.
tions to the solid rock. At one time use was made of a wooden
21
 322 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

conductor constructed of planks, but at present the metal drive-

pipe is employed almost exclusively. The ordinary sizes of the
drive-pipe are 10, 8, 6, and 4}4 in. in diameter; the length varies
greatly, being in some places as much as 100 or 200 ft., while in
other localities the solid rock comes to the surface and conse-
quently no pipe line iis required. 1
Casing.
equipment used in its construction, but focins a part of the Tas
rial which is used up in sinking the well; in other words, the rig
machinery, rig and drilling tools may be used again in sinking
some other well after the completion of the first, while the casing
becomes a part of the well and is never used again, unless the well
is a failure, in which instance it may be pulled out and used in
- another well. While the principal object of the casing is to ex-
clude water which is encountered in the upper strata penetrated,
it is also of service in preventing the caving of soft formations.
In most deep wells, casing of several different diameters is used:
larger sizes are put in the upper part of the well and smaller sizes
are used successively with depth.
The methods of casing vary somewhat according to the dif-
ferent methods of drilling; but the general principles are substan-
tially identical, namely, that whena strong flow of water or dry
caving formation is encountered, a casing should be inserted to
line the well just as soon thereafter as a hard stratum can be
reached in which the casing can be set. When once a casing has
been set in a formation firmly to shut off the everlying water, it
is then possible to drill deeper with a bit of smaller diameter until
a deeper water vein is encountered, when a second string of cas-
ing 1s required, which will necessarily be of smaller diameter than
the first.
Since the nature of the formations penetrated by the well varies,
not only in different fields, but in distinct areas in any one terri-
tory, it is, moreover, out of the question that uniform methods of
casing wells should prevail. To illustrate, the strata overlying
the oil beds in some of the Russian fields are so incoherent that
only comparatively shallow depths can be attained before the
casing is frozen; it is therefore customary to start a well of large
diameter, a 40-in. hole not being uncommon. The opposite
conditions are encountered in certain oil fields in the eastern
1 “Petroleum and Natural Gas Resources of Canada,” by F. G. Ciare
and others, Rept. No. 291 (1914, 1), Canada Dept. of Mines, Mines Branch.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 323

United States, where it is possible to drill 2,000 ft. or more without

the necessity of lining the well, except to exclude the water before
tapping the oil-bearing beds. Somewhat similar conditions
obtain in parts of the Mexican oil fields where the wells pass
through about 2,000 ft. of practically impervious shales. The
conditions which prevail in California and in some of the Gulf
Coast fields may be said to represent an average between those
existing in Russia and the eastern United States, it being neces-
sary to line the hole as drilling progresses, but with less difficulty
than in Russia; in this way it is common practice to carry a 10-
in. hole for over 2,000 ft.
In drilling for oil it is the aim of the operator to tap the petro-
liferous beds with a well not smaller than 4 in. in diameter;
but it may be said in general that wells finished with 6 or 8-in.
casing are operated more satisfactorily than with the 4-in.
Oil-well casing is manufactured in two general ways: (1) from
plates 2 or 3 ft. in length, lap-riveted to diameters from 12 to 20
in.; and (2) in lap-welded sections 20 to 40 ft. in length and from
4 to 16 in. in diameter. The latter represents the average
American practice. The Russian wells are lined with casings
of considerably greater diameter.’
Riveted Casing.—Riveted or stovepipe casing is manufactured
from No. 8 to No. 12 steel plates in 2- to 3-ft. lengths, from 12 to
20 in. in diameter. In order to construct a string of these short
tubes, two separate columns are necessary, one fitting tightly
inside the other, so that the joints between the tubes of one
column come in the middle of the tubes forming the other; these
columns are riveted together in lengths from 10 to 20 ft. before
insertion in the hole.”
“Stovepipe” is used for lining the first few hundred feet of
hole for the purpose of withholding the loose surface material.*
Screw Casing.—Afier the stovepipe has been landed, the wells
are lined with wrought iron or steel, lap-welded casing. This is
1 Agnotp and Garrias, Report No. 291, Canada Dept. ofMines, Mines
Branch, 1 (1914), 229.
2 In order to obtain a better bond between the pipes they are indented by
hammering with a pointed sledge.
3 This casing, owing to its smooth outer surface, penetrates more readily
the gravel and coarse sediments generally encountered near the surface,
and its freedom from screw joints makes it adaptable to heavy driving; the
absence of serew joints, however, precludes the easy removal of a complete
string of stovepipe, and itisusually left inthe well oronly partially taken
out.
324 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

made in 20- to 40-ft. lengths, 214 to 16 in. in diameter, threaded

at both ends and coupled by a threaded collar.1_ The collars at
both ends are provided with smooth recesses which fit tightly
around the casing, thus affording greater rigidity to the string.”
When one considers that the most frequent casing trouble in
incoherent formations results from weakness of the joints, the
importance of a rigid and strong bond between casing and collar
becomes obvious.
Occasionally it becomes necessary to employ screw casing that
will stand heavy driving, when the couplings are made so as
to allow abutment of the joints. The use of this drive pipe is
only resorted to when it is thought that its withdrawal is not
important.
Every string of casing is usually provided with a shoe at its
lower end to facilitate its insertion and to prevent damage. This
shoe is riveted to the stovepipe and screwed to the lap-welded
casing; the toothed shoe is claimed to be a great improvement over
the plain type.
Pulling Casing.—After the casing has been in a well for a time
the formation settles around it, sometimes causing its removal to
be attended with difficulty. If it cannot be pulled out in the
ordinary way with blocks and lines, hydraulic jacks are used;
and if the bottom of the casing will not yield to the pressure of
the jacks, it is generally parted, the upper portion being pulled
out. If a collar is left on the casing in the hole, a steel die is
attached to the collar and the casing is then pulled out; it is
lowered again and the die is firmly screwed into the casing
below.
Squibbing the casing with nitroglycerin‘ is a quicker and less ex-
1 The California standard thread for screw casing is ten to the inch and
from 3 to 3% in. in length.
* During the last two years the manufacturers have put on the market
casings provided with extra long collars with a deep recess at each end.
‘Jf the collar is pulled off the casing left in the hole, a steel collar with
cutting dies is sent down and is firmly screwed on to the casing. A casing
cutter is then sent down on a string of tubing and the casing is cut off where
it is thought the obstruction is holding it. If the first cut does not release
it, it can be cut again and again, each time higher up, until it is released.
‘This may be accomplished by filling a small tin tube with nitroglycerin
and attaching this tube to a wire line with a firing head attachment; on
the bottom of the tube a piece of stiff V-shaped wire is attached, the points
coming up on either side of the tube and extending to the casing. The
points drag along the casing while the squib is being lowered, When the
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 325

pensive way to loosen it when there is no water in the casing to

damage it by the explosion.
The size of the hole is always governed by the contemplated
depth of the well and by the anticipated difficulties to be encount-
ered. In wells drilled in undeveloped territory sometimes an
18-in. hole is started and this is drilled below the surface sands,
which may contain water. Casing 16 in. in inside diameter is
then placed in the hole and all water found to this level is shut off.
The hole is continued 16 in. in diameter to other water sands and
casing of 121% in. inside diameter is inserted. It is again con-
tinued 121% in. in diameter to another objective point, when cas-
ing 10 in. in inside diameter, 45 lb. to the foot, is inserted; the
10-in. hole is then continued through the deeper water sands or
cavey formation, when casing 814 in. in inside diameter, weighing
24 lb. to the foot, is inserted; the hole 8% in. in diameter is then
continued, usually to the top of the oil producing sand, when cas-
ing 65¢ in. in inside diameter, 17 lb. per foot, is put in, which shuts
off all cave and water found above the oil-bearing sand. If,
however, other difficulties arise and it is found necessary to use
additional casing, casing 53/¢ in. in inside diameter, weighing 13
lb. to the foot, is put in.
According to present practice, in the event that any of the strings
of casing placed in the hole have not reached a sufficient depth to
exclude water or caving as anticipated, the casing is pulled up 8
to 10 ft. from the seat upon which it rests, and is suspended from
clamps which securely hold it at the mouth of the hole; then
an underreamer is inserted, and, when it passes out of the
lower end of the casing in the hole, it expands sufficiently to
meet the wall of the larger hole, and the shoulder or former seat
of the casing is reamed so that the larger hole is carried to the
point where it is desired the casing should be reseated, in order to
shut off water or cave which may have been encountered. The
casing is then lowered on the shoulder or seat made by the
underreamer.
In proven territory, where conditions are well-known, and after
a well has been fully completed and put in producing order, all of

objective point is reached, the squib is pulled slowly until the points of the
wire come to a collar, when they usually catch the bottom of the upper
joint of casing and hold the squib; a piece of small pipe through which the
wire has passed in lowering the squib is released, and it drops upon the
firing head. The explosion which follows separates the casing.
326 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

the larger sizes of casing may be pulled out of the hole, leaving
the inside string to shut off all water and cave from the oil-
producing sand. The casing so removed may be used in other
wells and thus greatly reduce the cost of operation.
Packing.—The importance of proper casing cannot be over-
estimated. A precaution with artesian wells is to make sure that
no water escapes between the outside of the casing and the sur-
rounding rock. It is customary to prevent such an escape by
surrounding the casing just above the water-bearing stratum
with a seed-bag, i.c., a bag made of leather or rawhide and filled
with dry flaxseed, which absorbs the water and, by swelling, ex-
pands the bag so as to shut off all escape of water outside the pipe.
Another method of excluding water is by means of rubber discs.
In order to prevent the entrance of water into an oil well, the
casing is set as'tightly as possible on some tight rock below the
point at which the water would enter. A small amount of water
may enter at this point without doing serious damage, provided
the pressure of the oil is strong and flushes invading water to the
surface. Frequently, however, the amount of water which would
thus enter is so great as to require a special operation known as
packing. The water from casing wells should always be packed
in as completely as possible, otherwise it will accumulate in the
well and frequently, by hydrostatic pressure, stop the flow.
Patent Packers.—A packer in general use is made of two metal
cylinders with rubber between, 1 or 2 in. thick and varying in
length. Such a packer is lowered into the well by lengths of
pipes to the position it is to occupy, when a weight is dropped into
it which relieves a string, causing the two cylinders to approach
and bulge the rubber out into the space to be filled. If water is
to be excluded from the bottom of the hole, the packer consists
of a rubber plug with a tapering hole; the top mandrel of wood or
iron is driven into the block, and expands the rubber to fit the
wall of the well and shut off the water below. It has been stated
that the wells at Bow Island are packed with a lead packer tokeep
out water from below; two of these wells penetrated strata
containing salt water and had to be packed.
1 In the early days of oil exploration, a bag of flaxseed was sometimes in-
serted at the point where the casing was to be set; the seed swelled rapidly,
closing the cracks between the end of the pipe and the rock. In other
cases the bag of flaxseed has been placed around the casing where it was
desired to fill the crack between the casing and the wall of the well. Cf.
p. 336.
section on cementing,
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 327

Screening.— Where wells are sunk in fine sand, a screen must

be used which will permit water or oil, but not sand, to enter.
In the Texas oil fields the screens or strainers are generally
ordinary pipe, with perforations usually 2 to 6 in. apart; the pipe
is then wrapped around with iron wire. If the sand is fine, the
wire is wrapped close; if it is coarse, space is left between suc-
cessive windings. Sometimes the casing is perforated with slotted
holes after being set.
Patented strainers are also in use. Some makes, like the Layne
strainer, differ from the shop-made ones in the shape of the wire
used; the wire has a triangular section and presents a narrow
surface to the sand, thus reducing the clogging of the screen,
and ensuring greater production and a longer life to the well.
Capping.—This operation consists in placing a gate on the
tubing or casing and shutting in the well.
If, in drilling a gas well, a volume greater than 35,000,000 cu.
ft. daily capacity is anticipated, and the conditions of the well
are favorable for casing to be used in place of tubing, a gate is
screwed on the casing and the size of the drill or bit is reduced just
before drilling into the gas vein. If reducing the size of the bit
is objectionable, a swedge nipple and a gate one size larger than
the casing are used.
The Conttol Casing Head.—A new device intended to safe-
guard the drilling of wells has been introduced by A. G. Heggem
and is now in use in the principal oil fields of this country. This
is known as the control casing head and is, in fact, a practical
oil-field valve so designed as to include all of the functions of a
casing head.
The body portion is approximately the size and shape of a T
casing head, although much heavier in construction, as the con-
trol casing head is built to withstand a working load of 1,800 Ib.
per square inch. A round valve within the body may be turned
to close either top or bottom opening or to leave both open, thus
deflecting the flow into the flow line or shutting in the well en-
tirely or forming a free passage for the drilling tools the full size
of the casing. The peculiar features of design are that the pres-
sures are nearly counterbalanced and the valve turns easily in
service. The valve may be closed tightly, even though a rope
or cable passes through the casing head, and thus the well may
1On the control casing head, see Heecem, Bull. Am. Inst. Min. Eng.,
1916, No. 109, 151.
328 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

be brought under instant control and all oil or gas saved without
withdrawing the tools or injury to the drilling line.
It is claimed that with casing properly seated and anchored and
with a control casing head on the inner string, all drilling opera-
tions are under control, and losses of life and property through
fires and “‘blowouts” are thus minimized.

COST OF DRILLING

There are few engineering operations in which the daily rate

of progress is as variable as that of sinking a well. The ma-
terial which the drill has to penetrate often consists of very
dissimilar strata, changing in character with every 2 or 3 ft.
drilled, and the angle at which the strata dip is also an im-
portant factor. Then, too, the breakage of tools, which can-
not be foreseen, may involve the loss of many days. It is conse-
quently difficult, even where the geological conditions are known,
to say what may be regarded as a fair daily rate of drilling.!
When, however, several wells have been sunk on a certain
property, and oil has been obtained at about the same depth, it
is possible, if accidents are excluded, to predict with a fair degree
of accuracy the time occupied in sinking a well. In a large num-
ber of cases, wells have been put down with great regularity,
and the producer has been thus enabled to calculate closely the
cost of each well; but in operating in another district, he has, as
a rule, found the data obtained from his previous experience of
little guidance. It must not therefore be assumed that because
a certain number of wells have been drilled in one district, in a
given time, and at a stated cost, or at an average cost of so much
per foot, similar results can be achieved in a new field where the
conditions may be very different.
Table XX XVII shows in some cases the usual total cost
of drilling in established fields and in others the price per foot.
As a rule, in the Ontario field the thrift of the oil industry is
said to be much more advanced than it is in some of the fields of
the United States. While wells in certain of the large fields of
the United States have been abandoned, sometimes in cases where

1 For a consideration of the factors in the cost of oil production, see Juw-
BLL, Min. Sci. Press, 103 (1911), 44. On the comparative costs of rotary
and standard drilling, see Requa, Bull. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 1915, No. 98,
214.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 329

Taste XXXVII.—Cost or Drintinc WELLS

Locality Standard method| Canadian method

United States
Gaines Pace eee ase. $0.65 per foot
Summerland, Cal.!........... 0.85 per foot
Northern Mississippi Valley... 0.75 per foot
Eastern Washington.......... 2.50 per foot
Texas: Beaumont field........ 4.00 per foot
Caddo lidena seek iykAeon.deo: $12,000.00
Canada
Brant County:
Brantford fields............
Onondaga fields........... $800 . 00
Ontario:
IPetrolian treme hirer: 160.00
500.00

700.00
1.35 per foot
PorteRowans oc eeecoe 2,900.00
Northern Alberta:
Pelicans. aekee rion oer 25,000.00
Central Alberta:
Not 2ehoneldeeeen
ane soe 9.50 per foot
INGHSe lo fielders saree 7.50 per foot
Werrevilles jeer cine cio 9.00 per foot
Wretaskiwincemccmesecs.cL 10.00 per foot
Southern Alberta:
Medicine, Hates saree reac. \7.25 per foot for 10-in.
hole. 6.50 per foot
for 6-in. hole.
Brooks Statlonue nme eer 40,000.00
Pethbridg eases iee 10,000 . 00
1 The cost of drilling wells in California differs greatly in various fields and
even in different parts of a single field. The following table illustrates the
variation and emphasizes the fact that general statements are useless.
APPROXIMATE DRILLING Costs P ER Foot ror DIFFERENT DEPTHS AND
FIELDs
1,000 ft. 2,000 ft. 3,000 ft.

Labor |Material |Total |Labor Material Labor |Material | Total

Coalinga. .:..... $2.02 | $9.68 |$11.70/$2.34 | $9.15 |$11.49)$1.90 | $9.18 /|$11.08

Kern River..... 1.90 5.00 6.90
Midway, Sunset
and McKittrick} 1.16 6.40 ESOC) era ecetetei[leretehejstere
eiteka ats 2.48 8.38 10.8€
Sarit polvlarits ete lines « ieceil eievsials Gusts) [lsues'eteterel| stelace vail reveleverereltel|‘sveers 1.69 Hee br 4.41
Ventura ........ 1.54 2.67 4.21
Los Angeles and
Ont Cha gden . o1ormnace Gmouous olitrocdoo 0.78 3.06 A 2.22 7.50 9.72
EE
330 | THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

they produced as high as 10 or 20 bbl. per day,' wells in the old

Ontario fields, on the other hand, are seldom abandoned until
the production falls to a few gallons.
In Ontario, in the early days, it naturally took a long time to
put down a well, as the methods were crude as compared with
those now in use. In 1868, it sometimes required six months to
drill a well. In 1890, however, a hole could be drilled in four or
five days at a cost of $160 per well, the owner of the well furnish-
ing the casing. After the well had been completed, the pump
was inserted by the driller and the well was then tested for a day.
In the Petrolia fields a drilling gang consists of six men, three
working in the day shift and three in the night shift. Pole tools
are used, consisting of a bit and an iron bar about 314 in. in
diameter, connected with the walking beam above by poles.”
Owing to the decline in production and the abandonment of
most of the oil wells in Ontario, it has been necessary for the men
employed in the contracting and drilling business to seek em-
ployment elsewhere. The Canadian drillers are quite expert and
have been in demand; they have now moved to all parts of the
world, including Germany, Austria, India, Burma, Mexico,
Australia, and some have even gone to Pennsylvania.
THE TORPEDOING OF OIL WELLS
When drilling has been completed or when the production is
found to decrease, a general practice is to “torpedo” the well
1 Cf. the conditions in the historie Appalachian oil field, where most of the
pools have long since passed their prime, although none has been entirely
abandoned and wells are still being pumped in the immediate vicinity of the
original Drake well at Titusville, Pa. In New York and Pennsylvania,
production is kept alive mainly by cleaning and deepening old wells and by
obtaining petroleum from shallow sands which were passed by as too small
when oil wells were first drilled.
?The cost of sinking an ordinary well in the Petrolia fields in the early
days of development was about $1,500. The cost in 1890 had dropped to
$150 or $160, which is as cheap as wells can be drilled in almost any oil
field in the world, with the exception of Oil Springs, where the depth is
100 ft. less. In the Petrolia field the plan was to drill one to ten oil wells
to an acre, and it was supposed by the oil men that if less than four wells
to the acre were drilled, the territory had not been thoroughly tested.
Wells in the Petrolia field were kept in good condition by occasionally
cleaning them, which custom has been followed in recent years. See Report
No. 291, Canada Dept. of Mines, Mines Branch, 1 (1914), 225. This useful
report has supplied much of the information given above. On the develop-
ment of the Ontario oil fields, see idem, 2 (1915), 105-9.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 331

to increase the flow.t This procedure was patented in 1862

by Roberts, who entertained a belief which was held by many
at that time, namely, that the oil was contained in crevices in
the rock, which might not have been tapped by the bore hole; .
accordingly he suggested the use of nitroglycerin, gun-powder,
or other explosives, to break up the rock at the bottom of the
well, so that these rich “pockets” might be brought into com-
munication with the well.

Fie. 133.—Col. E. A. L. Roberts.

For several years Roberts was unable to apply his invention,

since oil producers feared injury to their wells; in 1865, however,
he was given permission to experiment upon the Ladies’ well near
Titusville, Pa., and obtained a favorable result. In December,
1866, he exploded a torpedo in a “dry hole” (the Woodlin well)
on the Blood farm, and obtained a production of 20 bbl. daily,
which was increased to 80 bbl. by the explosion of a second tor-
pedo. The most striking result, however, was in the case of the
1 On torpedoing oil wells, see Zatoziecki, Naphta, 13 (1905), 76.
 332 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Armstrong No. 1 well, at Thorn Creek, Butler County, Pa.,

which, in 1884, after having been considered a “dry hole,” was
converted, by a heavy torpedo explosion, into a rich producer.
Regardless of the danger incident to its handling, nitroglycerin
is now freely used to stimulate the production of declining wells
and is invariably employed in torpedoing new wells when com-
pleted where the sand is found to be of a close texture. The

Eta, 134.—The Roberts torpedo, before and

during explosion.

amount of explosive used has been increased from the origi

4 to 6 qt. to 60, 80, nal
100, and even over 200 qt. It has been
general practice to a
place the nitroglycerin in tin canisters
about 314 to 5 in. in of
diameter, and up to about 10 ft. in lengt
these canisters have h;
conical bottoms, and fit one in the
They are separately other.
filled with nitroglycerin, and are
then low-
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 333

ered to the bottom of the well, one after the other, by a cord
wound upon a reel, until the required number has been inserted.
Formerly the upper end of the highest canister was fitted with
a “firing-head,” consisting of a circular plate of iron, slightly
smaller than the bore of the well, and having attached to its
underside a vertical rod or pin carrying a percussion cap. The
cap rested on the bottom of a small iron cylinder containing
nitroglycerin. ‘To explode the charge, a cone-shaped cast iron,
known as a “‘go-devil,” was dropped from the top of the hole
into the well, and, striking the disc, exploded the cap and fired
the torpedo.. Many premature explosions caused a change in
this method of exploding torpedoes. The nitroglycerin “jack-
squib” is now being generally used. This squib consists of a
tin tube, about 34 in. in diameter and 2 ft. in length. A 3-min.
fuse, with a fulminate cap attached to the lower end, is wound
around the tube to the top and extends several inches above the
“tube. The tube and fuse are placed inside of a larger tin tube,
about 2 in. in diameter and slightly longer than the inner tube.
Dry sand tamping fills the space between the two tubes. The
top of the larger or outside tube is turned in and pressed down on
top of the sand, keeping it in place. When everything is in
readiness to explode the torpedo, the inner tube is filled with
nitroglycerin and corked; the fuse is then lighted and the jack
is dropped into the hole. The explosion usually follows. It is
desirable to have fluid tamping on top of the torpedo. Where
this cannot be done, on account of the proximity of the casing
to the top of the sand, it is claimed that large torpedoes cannot
be used with success.
It has been found in practice that locating the nitroglycerin
in the pay sand is of the greatest importance. If the torpedo is
allowed to extend above the pay sand, the barren formation
shattered by the explosion will subside and cover the pay sand,
greatly interfering with the operation and production of the well.
The keen competition among certain producers has been a fre-
quent cause of the use of large torpedoes, with the hope of shat-
tering the pay sand to such an extent as to let the oil come more
freely to the hole from a large surrounding area. Where large
torpedoes are used in wells with a limited pay sand, the barren
formation may become shattered to such an extent as to render
the wells valueless.
However, the experienced and conservative producer will not
334 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

risk the ruination of his property in this way. If he has a well

with 10 ft. of pay sand, which he desires to torpedo, he will place
20 qt. or 6624 Ib. of nitroglycerinin a shell 514 in. in diameter
and 4 ft. 4 in. in length. An anchor, consis tin tube of
of ating
sufficient strength to support the weight of the torpedo, and of
sufficient length to elevate the top of the torpedo to within 314
or 4 ft. of the top of the pay sand, is attached to the bottom of
the shell. The shell is attached to a line with a hook which
releases its hold of the shell when it reaches the bottom of
the hole, and, after the torpedo is placed in this way, the
operator, to guard against any possible error in calculation, or in
danger of some obstruction preventing the torpedo from going
to the objective point, will take a steel line measurement to de-
termine the exact location of the torpedo before it is exploded.*
Should the torpedo be found misplaced, it is fished out of the
hole; the obstruction is removed, or the anchor is shortened or
lengthened, as the case may require, to bring the shell to the de-
sired place in the pay sand.
When the explosion occurs, the fluid and much shattered sand
are usually expelled from the hole. Should the shattered sand
settle into the hole made by the explosion, it is removed by the
use of tools made for this special purpose. When the hole is
thoroughly cleaned, it is usually sufficiently large to admit several
torpedoes of the size of the first one used, being placed in the
same space in the pay sand.
When the shell of a subsequent torpedo is released from the
line which carries it to the bottom of the hole, there being no wall
to support it, it falls over in the hole; additional shells can be
placed in the cavity, or shot hole, and in this way the size of the
torpedo may be greatly increased and at the same time kept in the
pay sand.
Shells used insubsequent torpedoes, or where the wall of the hole
will not keep them in a perpendicular position, are so constructed
that the opening in the top of the shell through which it is filled,
can be corked to prevent the nitroglycerin from escaping from the
shell.
The Electric Torpedo.—When it is found necessary to case a
well near to the top of the pay sand, it cann be given
ot a large
torpedo safely in the pay sand without great danger of damaging
* Report No. 291 (vol. 1), Canada Dept. of Mines, Mines Branch, 1914.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 335

the casing. In cases of this kind the well is given an electric

torpedo, as follows:
The torpedo is placed in the proper location in the hole; a
squib containing 2 or 3 qt. of nitroglycerin, attached to an insu-
lated wire, is then lowered to the top of the torpedo. The casing
is pulled out of the hole over the wire, and the squib is exploded
by a battery and it in turn explodes the torpedo. The casing is
again put into the well, the hole is cleaned out and the well is put
in producing order.
This method of shooting is only nears to in newly developed
territory where there is good rock pressure. In old territory
where the rock pressure is low and where much oil has been taken
out of thesand, when the casing isremoved, the water and cavings
which have been shut off by the casing flood the sand. When the
torpedo is exploded, the column of water offers more resistance than
the rock pressure of the sand, with the result that the mud and
water are blown into the pay sand, and the well greatly damaged
and in many cases totally ruined.
Occasionally wells yielding large quantities of petroleum can
be improved by torpedoing. This is a dangerous proceeding,
which is usually accomplished in the following manner. If
the well is flowing by heads, careful gauges of its production are
taken, the time between flows and the quantity of oil produced
at each flow being noted. When the maximum flow is ascer-
tained in this way, it is known almost to a certainty how much
time will elapse before the well will flow again. The torpedo is
prepared and the well is watched closely; when it flows, the gauge
is taken, and if it has produced the maximum fiow, there will
then be sufficient time to lower the torpedo safely before the well
will flow again. If the well did not make its maximum flow, it
will come in again in less than the usual time; and if the well
should flow while the torpedo is being lowered, it will be thrown
out of the hole with disastrous results.
When a torpedo is safely landed in the pay sand, it will not
be thrown out by the flow. The torpedo shooter usually waits
for the well to flow, and, while the hole is empty or the oil which
has been left in the hole is held in suspension by the gas, the tor-
pedo 1s safely exploded without damage to the casing.
If a well flows continuously and the production is large, “ well
enough should be let alone.” Such wells should not be torpedoed.
1 Report No. 291, Canada Dept. of Mines, Mines Branch, 220.
336 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

If, however, the wells are gassy, and do not produce much oil,
and the owner desires to torpedo with the hope of increasing the
production of oil, and in the event the gas pressure offers too
much resistance to permit the torpedo to be lowered into the
hole, a weight sufficient to overcome the gas pressure is attached
to the bottom of the torpedo which carries it to the bottom of the
hole.
The Petrolia, Canada, wells were shot with 8 to 10 qt. of nitro-
glycerin, the charge being much smaller than in the Pennsylvania
fields, where 80 to 90 qt. are frequently used.

CEMENTING WELLS

The cementing of boreholes for the purpose of withholding or

shutting off water has been satisfactorily accomplished in many
oil fields.
In a valuable discussion of water intrusion and methods of
prevention, Oatman! states that as practised in the principal
California oil fields, the methods of excluding water may be
classed as temporary and permanent. Permanent exclusion may
be obtained by forcing the lower end of a string of casing, called
the “water string,” into an impervious bed above the oil-sand;
or by placing a water-tight body of cement between the casing
and the formation. Of these two procedures, the first is unsatis-
factory and is not considered good practice.
Temporary.—Regular or special well packers may be employed
to prevent temporarily the entrance of water until permanent
relief can be found. Such packers are useful in wells wherein
the casing may be punctured above the oil-sands and water finds
entrance to the productive zone through the casing. Bags of
flaxseed, peas, or cereals which swell greatly on absorbing water,
forming a compact mass, were formerly introduced ia wells to
exclude the water temporarily, but the cementing method has
superseded the use of such palliatives in California.
As a preliminary step to cementing a well in which gas is
causing severe agitation, Oatman recommends bridging the hole
by ramming in broken stone, earth, etc. A method used by some
operators is to place in the hole a generous plug of a composition
which has the effect of restraining the gas, temporarily at least;
* Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 48 (1914), 627. On the cementing process
of excluding water from oil wells as practised in California, see also ARNOLD
and Garrias, T'echnical Paper 32, United States Bureau of Mines.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 337

for example, the mixture (parts by weight) composed of 5 parts

of red lead, 214 parts of sand, 2 parts of plaster of Paris, 2 parts
of rosin, and sufficient boiled linseed oil to make a dense paste;
this mass should be allowed to set in the well about 24 hr. before
proceeding with cementing.
Permanent: By the Use of a Drive Shoe.—In sinking a well, a
steel drive shoe is attached to the lower end of the casing. This
shoe is slightly larger in external diameter than the casing and has
a cutting edge. Prior to the introduction of cementing, it was the
custom to land the water string in some compact formation lo-
cated above the oil measures, by forcing the drive shoe into that
formation; the well was then continued with a smaller drill, the
casing resting on a shelf. This method has been used in some
California fields, where certain special conditions obtain, but it
is not reliable owing to the fact that water generally leaks past
the drive shoe and passes into the well. It may, however, be
applied in other fields in which the water string can be landed in
an unfractured sticky clay shale.
Permanent: By the Use of Portland Cement.—A search for
some means of effecting the permanent exclusion of water re-
sulted in the use of Portland cement.! This cement has been
employed for several years, and, when properly manipulated,
has been found to give the desired result.
The methods in general use for cementing-off water are the
tubing, the bailer, and the Perkins. According to Oatman, the
object of any cementing operation is to obtain a compact collar
of cement which will firmly adhere to the casing and so fill all
voids resulting from drilling that no water can descend into the
oil-sands. The operator aims to land the string of casing in a
compact bed of shale, which is impervious to water and is capable
of sustaining the weight of the casing; for example, in the Coalinga
field, experience has shown that the blue or brown shale
encountered just above the oil-sands provides a most suitable
final landing place.
Tubing Method.—The following examples illustrate the tubing
method of cementing.
1QOn the cement-lining of oil wells, see BoguscHEvski, Gorn. Jurn., 4
(1908), 1-380; and on cementing-off water from oil wells, see Den Mar,
Eng. Min. J., 90 (1910), 250; Haaur, Western Eng., 1 (1912), 534; Srrovup,
ibid., 2 (1913), 203; Parnn, ibid., 2 (1913), 445; Pueups, zbed., 3 (1913),
360; and Husmr, ibid., 4 (1914), 341.
22
338 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Method A.—At the point where the water is to be excluded the

hole is reamed out from 4 to 6 in. larger than the pipe for about
40 to 80 ft. from the bottom. The water string is raised a foot
or so from the bottom and water is pumped down inside the
casing and up to the surface around the exterior thereof. The
purpose of this operation is to effect free circulation; to wash away
the mud, oil, etc., from the sides of the casing and the hole, so
that cement may adhere thereto; and to open the space around
the casing so that a complete ring of cement may form. This
water circulation may be continued for a considerable period,
sometimes as long as 30 hr. or more, to clean the hole thoroughly.
The casing is then raised 2 to 6 ft. from the bottom, and a string
of tubing (3-in. standard size), with a swedge nipple on the lower
end, is lowered to within about 2 ft. of the drive shoe. A cast-
iron disc, or a packer, fitting close to the inside of the casing, is
also on the bottom of the tubing; this is to prevent the cement
from rising in it. The well is allowed to stand for a period of
from 10 to 28 days.
The time of mixing and placing cement varies with the opera-
tor. Some companies claim to be able to mix and place all their
cement in from 30 to 40 min.; other companies state that they
require an hour or more. The element of time is exceedingly
important, as the cement must be placed and allowed to settle
before the period of initial set has been passed. The amount of
cement used varies from 2 to 10 tons, according to the practice
of the operator and the requirements of a particular case; but
414 tons may be taken as the average amount required. The
cement is mixed with enough water to make the mixture of the
consistency of thick gravy, so that it can be readily pumped.
Neat cement is most favored, although a sand-cement mixture
may also be used. If sand is to be employed, 10 to 15 per cent.
may be added when mixing. For neat cement the amount of
water added is about 60 per cent. of the weight of the cement.
Method B.—This is practically the same as Method A, but the
method of packing the bottom of the casing requires description.?
The hole is reamed out and prepared as described above. ‘The
water string is raised a foot or so from the bottom and a string
of 3-in. tubing is lowered therein. Attached to the bottom of
the tubing is a Graham packer, which is constructed of cast iron
with outside leather packing and fits snugly against the inside of
1 OaTMAN, loc. cit.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 339

the casing; it contains a self-closing clack valve, opening down-

ward, and three forked iron strips project from its lower side.
The prongs of these forks are compressed and lie in the inside of
the casing during descent, but spring out when they pass the bot-
tom of the casing. ‘Then, on pulling up, they hook on to the
drive shoe of the casing, and the operator knows that he has
reached the bottom of the hole. A wire fastened to the packer
keeps the valve open during descent, so that water may enter
the tubing. When the prongs are pulled up on reaching the
bottom, this wire is broken and the valve closes.
When water or cement descends through the tubing, the valve
can open, but pressure from below will close it. On top of and
following the cement is a long wooden plug. Water is pumped
down, as before, on top of this plug. When the plug reaches
the valve it sticks, and the pump pressure rises so that the opera-
tor knows that the tube is free of cement. The well is then
allowed to stand for the proper period.
There is a left-hand thread between the bottom end of the
tubing and the packer. The joints of the tubing have a right-
hand thread. To remove the tubing, the string is turned so as
to tighten the right-hand joints, which unscrews it at the bottom.
When drilling is resumed, a few blows from the bit will break
the brittle cast-iron packer into small pieces.
Method C.—This is known as the “‘top-packer” method. The
hole is prepared as before and assurance is had of circulation.
The casing is suspended from 2 to 6 ft. above the bottom and
3-in. tubing is run in to within 2 ft. of the casing shoe. A packing
head is then placed over the top joint of the tubing and is screwed
into the top casing coupling, packing off the space between the
casing and the tubing. When the casing is filled with water and
cement is pumped through the tubing, it cannot rise inside the
casing, but must travel around the shoe and up on the outside.
Bailer Method.—In this method the hole is underreamed for
a distance of about 40 ft. from the bottom and circulation is
assured. The water string is then raised about 10 ft. from the
bottom. The cement is mixed at the surface as before, and is
placed in a large bailer arranged with a special trap so that it
will dump on reaching the bottom. Usually two loads of a 40-ft.
bailer are deposited in the bottom of the hole. The casing is
capped and then allowed to drop, forcing the cement up around
the casing and into the bottom formation. On opening a tap
340 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

and releasing the pressure, the casing sinks to the bottom. It is »

then spudded into the bedding formation.
Some companies bail the cement out from inside the casing
before it sets; others allow the cement to set and then drill down
through it when extending the hole. The best practice, accord-
ing to Oatman, is to bail out the cement if the casing is well
spudded into the shale. This dispenses with the necessity of
drilling out the cement from the interior of the casing, an opera-
tion liable to fracture the cement collar. Instances have been
reported where the bailer was tripped while being lowered, but
these accidents are rare.
Perkins Method.—The Perkins method, which is similar to the
tubing method in results, has been successfully used in the Cali-
fornia fields. The following description will serve to explain
the operation.
After circulation is assured, a cast-iron packer (A) with flexible
rubber discs at its top and bottom, is floated in the water filling
the casing. The cement is mixed and is then pumped into the
casing, forcing the packer down. A leather cup packer (B) is
placed on top of the cement, and, on continuing the pumping,
the charge of cement is forced to the bottom between the two
packers. When the lower packer reaches the bottom it stops,
while the cement is forced past A by the flexion of the rubber
discs. All the cement can be thus forced into the hole outside
the casing. When packer B reaches packer A, the pressure rises
at the pump and the operator knows that the cement has been
placed. Pumping is then stopped and the water string is set on
the bottom. The well is allowed to stand for the usual period.
When drilling is resumed, packers A and B are soon broken by
blows from the heavy bit and sinking is continued.
Discussion of Cementing Methods.—The success of all ce-
menting methods is dependent upon the fact that cement grout
is heavier than water and consequently displaces the latter.
There should, according to California experts, be a long collar
of cement around the casing, no matter which method is used,
and this cement collar should extend some distance up the
casing. The tubing and Perkins methods have one advantage
in that the large amount of cement used coats the casing for
‘In some cases the cement runs up for only 25 ft. to 40 ft. Instances
have been known where it has been forced 400 ft. or more above the shutting-
off point.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY . 841

some distance above the bottom of the hole. As this coating

may be through the water sand, the cement is believed to form
an effective protective coating against the deterioration of the
casing by ground waters. The corrosion of casing by chemically
active waters, resulting in the passage of water to the oil-sand,
is a very dangerous condition in the oil fields. This is, in fact,
a very strong point in favor of tubing or similar methods.
Following the hardening of the cement, the well is bailed dry.
If there are no leaks at the bottom, or through holes in the casing,
a dry well should result, and drilling may be resumed. If un-
successful, the hole should be recemented. It may be mentioned
here that cases are on record where it has been found necessary
to recement two to eight times.
Either the tubing or the Perkins method is said to be applicable
in the average case. The bailer method may be used in normal
cases, and also when it is necessary to block some hole already
existing, or in closing a discarded hole. The drive-shoe method
is applicable in a compact sticky shale unfractured by heavy
drilling. One of the large California companies claims to have
wells in which the water was successfully excluded by use of the
drive-shoe method 10 years ago, and which are still water-tight,
but such cases are exceptional.
Because of the rapid corrosion of pipe in many California fields,
_ due to the action of water, it is of the highest importance that,
as far as possible, a thick coating of cement surround the water
string. Many present-day operators are advocating the following
operation for permanent protection against water intrusion.
Sink the 12-in. casing as far as practicable and then cement off
by the tubing method, forcing the cement as near to the surface
as possible. Then land the 10-in. water string in a suitable bed
above the oil-sands, cementing again by the tubing method and
forcing the cement well up around the pipe. Run in a string of
6-in. casing, land it 2 to 4 ft. below the 8-in., and cement the
space between the 6-in. and 8-in. solid. In this case the bottom
of the 6-in. is only a few feet below the 8-in. and is in the same
impervious shale bed. If this method is adopted, the second
water string is protected by a heavy ring of cement, and, if
properly done, the well should last for many years. Oatman
predicts that this method, or a modification thereof to meet
special circumstances, will inevitably be adopted in California to
meet the demand that absolute, permanent exclusion be secured.
342. —. THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

The operation of cementing oil wells has been fully described

by I. N. Knapp,! who maintains that all ground water, oil and
gas may and should be excluded from a well before cementing.
Knapp’s paper should be consulted for a detailed explanation
of how to bring a well into condition for cementing.
The California State Mining Bureau has supplied the following
data on actual operations.’
A convenient size of mixing box is 10 ft. by 20 ft. by 1 ft.,
allowing several men on each side to mix with hoes as the cement
and water are added. Ordinarily from 7 to 10 gal. of water per
100 lb. of cement are used, making a readily flowing mixture,
about the consistency of cream.
Two pumps of the ““Gumbo Buster” type should be connected,
in case an accident should disable either one. Pressure of 600
or 700 Ib. per square inch is frequently necessary to start circula-
tion, which is only continued until a free passage is assured and
not until all mud is removed, which might cause the hole to cave
and ‘“‘freeze”’ the casing.
Various cements on the market have been shown to be of about
equal value, providing initial set occurs within 3 or 4 hr. The
amount used, according to R. D. Bush, is about as follows:
Depth, 1,000 ft. to 2,000 ft.
10-in. casing with 500 ft. to 700 ft. friction.. 5 to 7 tons
10-in. casing with 100 ft. friction........... 14% to 2 tons
Depth, 2,000 ft. to 3,500 ft.
814-in. casing with 500 ft. to 700 ft. friction. .3 to 5 tons
814-in. casing with 100 ft. friction........... 1 to 2 tons
In two known instances 10-in. casing was ripped out and 5 tons
of cement were found to have filled the space for about 180 ft.
from bottom. Both wells were drilled by cable tools with little
or no reaming.
An estimate of cost, aside from the regular drilling crew, is as
follows:
Inserting and pulling tubing, 2 extra men, 5hr...... $3.50
Hauling cement) accsac cura. tc teen eae 5.00
Tsk olNien |YoN-e Ebel (AHN Ang sauiwccoebaoobonoaauoue 2.00
Pump man and helper (set up)................... 3.75
WyGbevayeg (PHAN gona noe oeadaccnacoaaneaa. 5.00
OemenbtrGl.0::tons) aa rnd eee eae ee 200 .00

Tota ie nicest acta ties On On eee $219.25

' Trans. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., 48 (1914), 651.
* Bull. 69, California State Mining Bureau, 1914, 154.
 OIL WELL TECHNOLOGY 343

HANDLING OIL

in pumping wells, or in the case of wells flowing at a moderate

rate, the oil can be pumped to storage without appreciable loss
if the proper precautions are taken.! All pipe lines of the gather-
ing system should be laid in trenches and buried sufficiently
deep for protection from heat or cold. Each well is generally
gauged separately for its production, and consequently tanks
are installed at each well and the oil is measured there before
being pumped to storage. These tanks may be from 25 to
100 bbl. in capacity, and one or more are placed at each well,
depending upon the amount of production. If the well is
making sand, a box with baffle boards is placed upon a scaffold,?
so that it discharges into the tank and the lead line from the
pump runs into it. By the use of tanks and sand boxes, the
running of oil into earthern sumps can be avoided and a great
deal of oil may be saved from loss by seepage and evapora-
tion. Tanks should have close-fitting covers to prevent loss of
the more volatile constituents. The use of tail pumps is to be
recommended where the oil cannot be gravitated from the well;
but the tail pump can be used only upon wells making a produc-
tion up to 350 bbl., and a steam pump becomes necessary on a
larger production.
For a production of 1,000 bbl. per day, two 2,000-bbl. tanks are
sufficient for storage; while for a production of from 5,000 to 6,000
bbl., 5,000 to 10,000-bbl. tanks are generally used. When it be-
comes necessary to store oil or where a gusher may be expected,
55,000-bbl. tanks are built; but where the oil is kept moving
daily in small shipments, they are really unnecessary. Shipping
tanks should be equipped with three or more sampling cocks,
placed at proper intervals on the side, and the suction line to the
pump should be 16 in. or more from bottom, to prevent the sludge

1On oil storage, see BARRINGER, Petrol. Rev., Jan. 22, 1916.
2 The sand can be shoveled out of the box, to prevent it from entering the
tank.
3 Certain operators use a water-covered storage tank with the sides
protected by a wooden cover to prevent evaporation in light oils, while
others paint the outside of the tanks white to reduce the intensity of the
sun’s rays (see p. 716). The large shipping tanks in any case should be well
protected and the oil discharged from the gathering system into the tank
through an overhead discharge which should run within a few feet of the
bottom,
344 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

and water from being delivered to the purchaser. A swing-pipe

is generally used on the inside end of the suction, so that oil can
be drawn from any level. The volume of the heater coil and all
dead wood is subtracted from the tank at the time that it is
measured or ‘‘strapped.’’#
According to California practice, upon obtaining a full tank of
oil, the gauger of the purchasing company ‘‘thiefs”’ or samples it
at three or four levels, the samples being placed in different re-
ceptacles. The'“‘thief” is a specially constructed bucket which
can be lowered to a certain point and a sample of oil taken from
that particular level. Samples are usually obtained at the bot-
tom of the discharge, at the top of the oil, and two intermediate
samples at equal distances. These are taken to the test house,
where, after shaking, 50 c.c. of oil from each are poured into a
100-c.c. burette and 50 c.c. of gasoline are added. After being
thoroughly mixed by shaking, the burettes are placed in a
“centrifuge”? capable of making 1,000 to 3,009 revolutions per
minute and revolved for 20 min. The centrifugal motion throws
the sediment and water to the outside or bottom point of the
burette; the readings are taken and multiplied by two, there
being 50 c.c. of oil to 100 c.c. of fluid. The limit of water and
sediment is usually 3 per cent. and anything in excess of that
figure is rejected. The temperature and gravity are taken by
pouring parts of each of the samples into a hydrometer jar and
making a reading. In heavy oils, some purchasers use one-third
each of carbon disulphide (which “cuts” the asphaltene oil) and
gasoline.
The use of concrete reservoirs for oil storage is said to be not
always satisfactory, since it is difficult to construct a large reser-
voir through which the oil does not seep to some extent.” It is
frequently necessary to run water into concrete reservoirs to
save the oil, the seepage sometimes amounting to hundreds of
barrels per day. Oil should be shipped as soon as possible after
being produced, as the evaporation, especially in warm weather,
is excessive. Oil standing in open earthen reservoirs has been
known to shrink as much as 40 per cent. in the course of from
15 to 20 days. Oil, between 33° and 34°Bé. gravity, standing
in tanks and exposed to the open air for 24 hr., has been known
to lose 4 per cent. of its original volume by evaporation.
1See p. 705.
2 On concrete reservoir construction, see p. 697.
 CHAPTER VII
THE VALUATION OF OIL PROPERTIES
By Roswetu H. Jounson.!

An oil property may be said to have two values, or to have

value in two different senses. First, there is the exchange value,
that amount for which it can be sold; and second, its productive
value, or the amount of present capital which the income can re-
pay with that rate of interest necessary to attract capital to
such ventures, including the consideration for risk. These two
values are seldom the same, and the skilful appraiser endeavors
to ascertain each value, so that if the exchange value is the
higher he can recommend the sale of the property; if the lower,
its purchase.
In determining a selling price, the appraiser should ascertain
the productive value as his basis, because he should not sell below
this. The mere broker is tempted to feel satisfied if he knows
only exchange values; but if he does not understand productive
values, he may sell too low and he may not foresee fluctuations
in exchange value caused solely by a change in productive
values.
The productive value of an oil property is, of course, deter-
mined by the gross profit which may be expected from it. The
gross profit varies directly with the size of the revenue and
inversely with the size of the outlay.

OUTLAY

The outlay may be classified as follows:

1. To purchase.
2. To retain, if undeveloped.
3. To develop, if undeveloped.
4. To continue development, if obtained partly developeds
5. To put into a satisfactory condition, if purchase wholly or partly
developed.

1 Professor of Oil and Gas Production in the University of Pittsburgh, and

member of the firm of Jounson and Hunttey, Consulting Oil Geologists,
306 State Hall, Pittsburgh, Pa.
345
346 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

6. To maintain.
(A) Regular maintenance:
(i) Wages
(ii) Supplies.
(iii) Transportation of supplies.
(B) Occasional outlay:
(i) Pulling and replacing cups. .
(ii) Cleaning.
(iii) Miscellaneous.
(C) Accidental outlay:
(i) Wind.
(ii) Lightning.
(iii) Fire.
“1. Vaxes.
8. Share of general expenses.

These factors are treated in turn.

1. To Purchase.—The purchase consideration may be fixed or
contingent. If fixed, it is sometimes, although rarely, wholly in
cash, but more frequently partly in cash and partly in deferred
payments. A majority of sales, however, are wholly or partly
contingent.» This is often as bonds or stock—either preferred
or common, or both. In other cases it is expressed as “ payment
out of the first oil.”’ This is, of course, contingent, since there
may be no first oil, or an insufficient amount.
2. To Retain.—A very large proportion of all developed prop-
erties were not drilled until after such a delay after leasing as to
demand one or more payments of rental. This may happen
because the operator takes up a large block of leases and drills
a test-well on one lease. If successful there, he ordinarily
drills successive wells outward, a location at a time. By the
time the first well is drilled on some of the outlying leases, there
frequently has been such a delay that one or more rental pay-
ments are necessary.
Many leases are taken scattered POuenout a large area,
thought in general to have possibilities, in the hope that successful
development near some of these will make them sufficiently
promising for a well, or to appreciate the value of the lease so
that it can be assigned at a profit. While it is not a sound
method, it has been practised a great deal. The result is to make
a very heavy load of rental payments. Some of the leases are
often dropped after a few such payments, if, in the meantime,
the region has been inactive or has been condemned.
 THE VALUATION OF OIL PROPERTIES 347

A similar type of leasing is to take up leases surrounding those

held by a company which is drilling a ‘‘ wildcat.”’ While this has
the disadvantage of a higher bonus, it has the advantage of few
or no rental payments, since, in case of failure, the leases are
often promptly dropped.
Rental payments have the effect of spreading out development,
as an operator, to stop these payments, will, if the sacrifice is not
too great, drill the first well on another adjoining lease rather
than drill another well on the same lease. He is sometimes led
to take too long a chance and so drills an unnecessary dry hole,
although this results more frequently from drilling at the end
of his term, when further rentals will no longer suffice to hold
the lease.
The Indian lease in Oklahoma is peculiar in calling for a higher
and higher rental with successive years, thus putting pressure
to bear to drill prematurely—a pernicious practice operating
against sound conservation.
3. To Develop, if Undeveloped.—The investment necessary to
develop a property must be estimated by comparison with that
of the most analogous properties and the fluctuation of the unit
costs. In a new region, this is difficult until after the first well
has been drilled, when the principal items—price per foot to
drill and the amount and size of casing and tubing required
and its transportation—may be reasonably well estimated.
The dip should be known, especially if the property is in such
fields as those in California, the Rocky Mountain states, or
in the Coalgate-Poteau gas district in Oklahoma. Otherwise
the producer cannot estimate, on account of varying depths, the
cost of drilling other parts of the property.
If the country is very rocky, with steep topography, or if
' swampy or subject to floods, allowance must be made for the
heavier costs of transportation and delays. The distance from
the railroads, when more than 10 miles, as in several of the Big
Horn pools, is of vital importance. It has so far prevented
the development of the otherwise promising San Juan field in
Utah and has postponed the development of Grass Creek Basin
many years.
The labor costs become unduly high in some foreign countries
where oil development is not yet established and skilled workers
have to be imported. Indirectly, tropical diseases may greatly
raise the labor costs, asin Colombia. Another cause of increased
348 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

costs, sometimes not adequately allowed for, is remoteness

from supply centers. Great expense is thereby caused by wait-
ing for parts or supplies for repairs, or to overcome unforeseen
contingencies, especially in fishing. Where there is no proper
housing near the property, the expense of such construction for
the men must be planned for.
The property may be wholly unsurveyed in a region without
land corners, when provision must be made for extensive sur-
veying. There is further the expense of a geological survey,
frequently, but improperly, omitted, and especially important in
regions of high dip.
In fact, there are so many expenditures, in addition to the usual
ones, in foreign pioneering work, that it can seldom be success-
fully accomplished by any but large companies with ample
resources.
4. To Continue Development when This is not Complete.—By
development, the miner means outlining ore with workings
which demonstrate the existence of and make possible the re-
moval of the ore. In oil production the term is used when all
the wells are completed and made ready for operation. Proper-
ties are sometimes sold when one well has demonstrated real
value plus a further speculative value. More frequently the
sale takes place when the most promising part has been drilled,
but there is a further part that may be worth drilling with
probably less favorable results. This poorer result arises partly
because of natural inferiority and partly because by this time
the diminished pressure has greatly reduced the extractability
of the oil and the wells have lost some oil to surrounding wells.
Some properties are believed to be as fully developed as is
possible, the undeveloped part being judged unproductive.
Examination by the prospective purchaser may convince him
that some of this undeveloped territory is worthy of test and it
may in part prove to be so. ;
A property is sometimes bought while still flowing. It should
not be considered fully developed, and allowance should be made
for the money necessary to install a ‘‘power” and to make the
change. Even when a property is pumping by separate engines
supplied with steam from batteries of boilers, it is so likely that
a central “power” should be installed or electric pumping in-
stituted in certain contingencies, that the development may be
considered incomplete and allowance should be made in the
 THE VALUATION OF OIL PROPERTIES 349

same way for this completion of the development. Proper

plants for supplying water and gas or connection with lines which
supply them must be provided in development.
5. To Put into a Satisfactory Condition.—A new management
is very likely to find a lease unsatisfactorily equipped, even
though it is already “‘on the power.” For instance, the shackle
lines may be badly slung by ropes where they cross ravines.
There is, therefore, very frequently some excess. expenditures
over maintenance during the month or so after the transfer.
These expenditures are development expenditures, and should be
estimated and allowed for in the valuation.
6. To Maintain.—Maintenance should be divided into regular,
occasional and accidental.
The calculation of the regular maintenance may be, in general,
subdivided into wages, supplies and transportation, the rates
of which may be ordinarily ascertained with little difficulty.
It presents, however, a few characteristic features, depending
upon the system employed.
To have the wells all completed and all still flowing on medium
or large leases is uncommon, except where the sand is shallow.
In the Delaware (Oklahoma) pool this condition was realized.
The result is always amazingly low maintenance, because it is
so nearly automatic. Wherever very low maintenance per well
is reported, one may suspect that the property is flowing. Main-
tenance may be calculated per well-day, acre-day, or per barrel.
It is especially by this last method that flowing properties show
such low maintenance. Brokers have sometimes improperly
made use of this low maintenance in figuring profits for a lease.
However, a deal could hardly be consummated before the heavy
expense of pump equipment would be necessary and main-
tenance be increased to the normal amount. It is important,
then, to consider this low maintenance, while the wells are flow-
ing, merely as a passing phase. The maintenance varies with
the method of pumping.
(A). Individual steam engines and boilers: The maintenance is
highest with this method of furnishing power, so much so that,
except for isolated wells, it is generally later supplanted. A
relatively great amount of labor is required to tend all the
scattered boilers, even though they burn gas.
(B). Individual gas engines or electric motors: Where the central
power and shackle lines are infeasible, the lowest maintenance
350 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

cost is secured by individual gas engines where gas is cheap

or by electric motors in certain other contingencies—equip-
ments which obviate many scattered boilers.
(C). Central power and shackle lines: The lowest permanent
maintenance of any group of settled pumping wells is ob-
tained by this means, except under certain limitations, viz.:
(a) The necessity of retaining an engine at the well because of
very frequent pulling or cleaning; (b) very great depth of wells;
(c) great distance between wells; (d) great topographic dif-
ficulties, and (e) inability to obtain the right to lay the shackle
lines, as in town lot development or very valuable land. These
obstacles are more and more being overcome. When the Glenn
pool was still flowing or on individual engines, some thought it
was too deep for “‘ powers,” yet “powers” are now used for much
deeper wells and probably will be used for still deeper ones.
“Powers”? not infrequently handle all the wells, where not too
deep, on a square 160-acre tract. One power in northern Penn-
sylvania successfully handles 35 wells.
The occasional maintenance items are by no means negligible.
These are least where the wells are cased to the top of the
sand, or where the wells are in a hard sand which was well cleaned
at first, with a liberal pocket drilled below the sand. In these
circumstances only lubricating oil and the inevitable wear of
cups (which would be relatively less) need be provided for. At
the other extreme, we have wells that require so much cleaning
and pulling to replace cups, because of the very soft running
sand, that their maintenance is a serious item. In fields where
such difficulties are regularly met, we find strainers of the
proper mesh in use. These should also be used in a few areas
in the fields which are in general hard sand fields, and more
widely used in others where it is thought to be necessary to bail
the oil, as in Russia. While the appraiser should ascertain
how much cleaning and pulling have been necessary in the past
on the property in question and also on the neighboring leases,
it must be remembered how much this depends on the thorough-
ness of the cleaning after the shot, the presence of adequate
pockets, the proper placing of the shot below the upper part of
the sand, so as to avoid leaving only a shale roof to the shot hole,
and the proper placing of the perforations below the working
barrel. Good management in these points, to be amplified
later, very materially reduces maintenance cost.
 THE VALUATION OF OIL PROPERTIES 35l

Recently additional items of maintenance havé appeared, and

will continue to appear, as the art of obtaining the utmost amount
of oil from the sand that is feasible receives the great attention
it deserves. These methods are all in their infancy, although
we may well expect that in the future we are to hear of water
flushing, pressure conservation, electric heating, etc. For the
immediate present, however, the appraiser would better value.
the property without reference to the higher extraction in these
ways, because, until there has been more experience, there might
be extra experimental costs. This leaves these ventures, prom-
ising as they are, to be considered as separate investments.
In a few years some of these devices will become so customary
that they will be figured in the regular maintenance.
Accidental Maintenance-—The hazards of the oil field are
likely to be underestimated. The location of the property is a
factor in estimating these hazards. The wind hazard, so im-
portant where the derrick is used and left standing, is greater
‘in Kansas, in the northern tier of counties in Oklahoma, and in
southwestern Illinois, since tornadoes are most frequent there.
The use of guys is far less of a protection than is supposed.
The fire hazard is greatest where the hot dry summers in
untilled regions lead to prairie fires. This condition applies
especially to the Osage Nation in Oklahoma. In such regions
fire breaks should be ploughed around derricks and buildings.
Sometimes early intentional burning may be desirable before
the grass is too long or dry, but this, in itself, is, of course,
dangerous and should only be attempted by experienced men.
Such work, when carried out annually, as a regular practice,
should be included in regular maintenance. Flood hazards are
so local as not to be easily overlooked, but there are so many oil
properties in river bottoms subject to flood that the situation
needs to be understood. One otherwise valuable river-side
property in the Cimmarron River in the North Cushing pool,
was abandoned by its operator, so great were his flood expenses.
The danger from lightning is notoriously high for oil tanks and
derricks. The common belief that rising gas itself attracts
lightning is questionable, but the height of the isolated derrick wet
by the rain, and the iron of the tank offering so large a metallic
surface, are quite enough to make this a hazard worth allowing
for. Unfortunately, statistics are not available.
7. Taxes.—The item of taxes upon oil and gas properties
352 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

shares the large element of variation which is characteristic of

this industry. This is to be attributed to the fact that no
settled method has yet reached general acceptance, and that
oil offers a shining mark to legislators, because its very specula-
tive character gives a false appearance of very great average
returns. Largely for the sake of stability, an ad valorem tax
on production is desired, as the rate is less likely to fluctuate
than one levied upon the physical property; and it varies more
directly with the value of the property than a tax on equipment,
which would be disproportionately high on old wells yielding
very small profits. The proposal to tax prospective value as
well as production has a certain plausibility. Yet the speculative
element is so relatively high in undeveloped lands, and the
price fluctuates to such a degree owing to the periodic discovery
of market breaking pools, that it hardly seems feasible.
There is, in addition, the federal tax on corporations. This
should be repealed, since the small corporation with little profits
carries a burden not intended for it, because it bears a name that
savors of wealth to the undiscriminating. The heavy fees
levied by the states for incorporating, for engaging in business
in states outside that of incorporation, and for enlarging the
capitalization, are essentially taxes which add an appreciable
item to costs in the companies organized specifically for one
lease or for a few leases.
_ 8. Share of General Expenses.—We include under this cap-
tion those expenses not specifically chargeable to either develop-
ing or operating a property, unless it is the only one owned by the
individual or company. Most properties are one of several
leases, some of which are not contiguous, that must share several
items of expense. These are especially those of the office, such
as managing, accounting, legal expense, etc. Some of the
transportation not easily divided among the properties may be
charged here. This burden will be very high when the leases are
all small and considerably scattered, as is so common in the
Cherokee Nation, Oklahoma. The contiguity of leases is a
very important element, both in maintenance as well as in
the matter of general expense. One superintendent can perform
the services of several where the property is compact. The
large size of the properties in the Osage has been advantageous
in this respect. This, with the absence of rentals there, has
served in part to compensate for the heavier burden of royalty.
 THE VALUATION OF OIL PROPERTIES 353

It is not safe to assume that the general expenses under a new

management will be the same as those under the old. The
number of properties that will divide the expenses will probably
be different. Again, it may be possible to eliminate some
unnecessary expense. On other occasions, the property may
have been operating under a staff inadequate in quantity or
quality, so that increased expenses will be necessary. It is very
important to figure what the costs will be. What they have
been is, of course, the principal guide, but by no means the
only one, in deciding what they will be in the future.

INCOME

In dealing with outlay, the uncertainties have not been much

greater than in other industries, and the methods of deter-
mining the costs have not been very different from what one
might find in some other industries; but in considering the
income of oil and gas properties, we are dealing with a unique
situation that is worthy of extensive analysis. The income
factors may be classified as follows:
I. Terms of the holding.
IJ. The amount of production and its distribution in time.
III. Agencies which may interfere with a normal production.
1V. Possible improvements in methods during the life of the
lease.
I. Terms of the Holding.—In estimating the revenue one first
ascertains whether the company receives all the product, or the
product less a given percentage, as in royalty, or less a fixed sum,
as is still quite common for gas. This has a double importance,
first, because of the deduction itself, and, second, because the
length of the working life of the well depends in large part upon
the size of the deduction.1. The higher the royalty, the earlier
the abandonment is forced, and thus less production is obtained.
Royalty might be considered an expenditure; but since the pur-
chasing company usually, by means of a division order, transmits
the lessor’s share to him direct, it is better not to count it into
receipts, and hence not into expenditures, and thus much
accounting is saved.
In cases of leases which do not run “as long as the oil and gas
1R. H. Jounson, ‘Sliding Royalties for Oil and Gas Wells,”’ Bull. Am.
Inst, Min. Eng.. No. 102, 1291-1294.
23
354 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

is found in paying quantities,’’ as in minor leases or Osage leases,

one must ascertain the following three elements, if there is reason
to believe there will still be paying wells on the lease at the
time of expiration: first, the gross profit received up to the ex-
piration of the lease; second, the price to be received for such
movable property on the lease as may be sold or that may be
removed to other properties if the lease is not renewed; third,
if renewal is doubtful, the chance of success in getting the re-
newal; if renewed, the value of the renewal. This renewal value
is the productive value after renewal less the consideration
enforced for the renewal. This consideration will ordinarily be
less than the productive value, because the wells are likely to
be old and the operator who has the lease can ordinarily obtain
more from them because of his knowledge of the wells than
could an outsider. There is also the threat to “pull” some of
the wells that are near enough abandonment, so that the land
owner would have difficulty in preventing it.
II. Amount of Production and Its Distribution in Time.—The
estimate in advance of the amount of oil or gas to be produced
is the crux of valuation. The amount of oil to be obtained is
the result of these sets of factors: (A) Those determining the
amount of oil or gas underlying the property, (B) the proportion
of oil and gas in the sands that are exploited, and (C) those
determining the percentage of this which can be produced.
The amount of oil or gas underlying the property depends
upon the following considerations, for each of the sands; there
are more, if more than one.
(1) The Capacity per Unit Volume of the Reservoir.—This is,
by no means, the porosity, as frequently stated, for some pores
are so entirely surrounded by grains or cement that their contents
could not escape. Furthermore, a high degree of porosity is of
no avail if the pores are so small that adhesion or “‘capillary drag”
prevents the fluid contents, at the given pressure, from escap-
ing at a sufficiently rapid rate to make a paying well. Deter-
minations of mere porosity, then, are relatively valueless. The
determination of value to the oil producer is that of the amount
of fluid that can be taken out of a given rock—its yield. No
satisfactory laboratory method has yet been devised by which
the yield of a small piece of sandstone can be determined. The
nearest approximations are as follows:
(a) Its ovt content, which is determined by grinding (if conso-
 THE VALUATION OF OIL PROPERTIES 355

lidated) and extracting by solvents. The difficulties are: (¢)

this includes some oil that cannot leave the pores naturally;
(i) the sample is at atmospheric pressure and will give a different
oil content from that which it had zn situ at the actual pressure,
particularly owing to the formation of gas bubbles from what
was dissolved gas when the pressure was relieved; and (72) in
case the sand is unconsolidated, its content changes as the
interrelationship of the grains is disturbed in being removed.
(b) Its reception capacity, which is best measured by an
adaptation of Buckley’s method of determining specific gravity,
porosity and absorption of building stones.!_ The sample of rock
is rid of any possible oil content by ‘‘petroleum ether’’ treat-
ment, this solvent being forced in and out by change of pressure.
After being thoroughly dried at 110°C. and no higher, so that
no chemical changes are produced, it is again treated with
petroleum ether and again dried. After weighing, it is placed
in a bottle and a standard oil free from gasoline, such as claro-
line, is introduced at the bottom as the air content is exhausted
from the rock by a reduction of the pressure in the bottle. The
samples remain in the bottle at 2 atmosphere for 36 hr., after
which the pressure is slowly raised to that of the room. ‘The
amount of oil imbibed can now be determined by weighing at
a standard temperature, after removing the surplus oil with
bibulous paper. Cold oil is used instead of hot water, as in
Buckley’s determination, not only because it is more analogous
to the crude, but also.to eliminate evaporation during weighing
and avoid dissolving any of the sandstone, in which the cement
especially may consist partly of soluble minerals.
Capacity, thus determined, is not the yield, because capillary
drag and adhesion render the yield much smaller. ‘‘ Reception
capacity”’ and yield would, however, be highly enough correlated
to make “reception capacity” the most valuable laboratory
determination.
Any method based on samples has two great inherent diffi-
culties: first, to get a representative sample, since a piece blown
from a well has an uncertain origin and shows nothing as to
the variation; second, to know what allowance to make for the
difference between the laboratory conditions and those in the
reservoir. Laboratory determination from samples is therefore
1 Wisconsin Geol. and Nat. Hist, Survey, Bull. No. 4, Econ. Series No. 2,
pp. 63-69.
306 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

unsuitable, except in the very unusual conditions where the next

method is unavailable.
(c) The comparative production figures from adjoin'ng leases
are used; or lacking these, available data from leases that seem
to be the most similar in the most essential features to that of
the property in question. Eventually, we may hope that a
great deal of such data will be available to all. For California
we have the excellent data expressed in a useful way in Mc-
Laughlin’s “Petroleum Industry in California,’’! and in Lom-
bardi’s ‘‘ Valuation of Oil Lands and Properties.”? May we not
look to the Federal Bureau of Mines to publish decline curves
of individual wells and properties in all important pools in all
the sandsof the country? In the meantime, reliance must be
had on what data of this sort can be preserved and exchanged
by individuals.
The greatest aid in such comparisons is the construction of
decline curves and the calculation of decline rates. Theattention
of the oil producer to these graphic methods, which are very
clearly presented in Brinton’s “Graphic Methods of Presenting
Facts,’”’ would be amply rewarded, not only in this connection
but in many others in the field of oil and gas production.
(2) The Size of the Owl or Gas’ Deposit Tributary to the Well
Studied.—This depends upon:
(a) Thickness of the reservoir.
(b) The part thereof occupied by oil rather than water or
gas; or, in gas properties, that part occupied by gas rather than
by fluid.
(c) The distance of the neighboring wells or of the boundaries
of the reservoir.
(3) The Extractability of the Oil in the Sand.—This may be
neglected in the case of gas, for, by the use of vacuum pumps, the
extractability of gas is very high. Moreover, gas is extractable
from sand of lower porosity than is oil. Since ordinarily the
contact between adequately yielding sand and inadequately
yielding shale is a transitional one, it follows that a given reser-
voir is smaller as an oil than as a gas reservoir. An additional
amount of gas is given up from solution in oil if there is oil in
the same reservoir, as the pressure goes down. If there are wells
in another, part of the reservoir, where the upper part contains
1 Bulletin 69, California State Mining Bureau.
2 Western Eng., 6, 153,
 THE VALUATION OF OIL PROPERTIES 357

gas and the lower or middle part oil, of course a great deal of
gas is lost to the property being valued, but the amount varies
according as the other operators are provided with separators
or use their casing-head gas, and at what pressures.
The extractability of oil depends upon:
(a) The initial pressure of the reservoir.
(6) The presence of a considerable amount of gas in the
same reservoir, either in solution or free.
(c) The rapidity with which the oil, and more especially
the gas, is being exhausted by the completion of other wells in
the same reservoir.
(d) The dip of the reservoir.
(e) The viscosity of the oil at the reservoir temperature.
(f) The encroachment of water.
(g) The nature of the sand.
(a) The Initial Pressure-—The general belief that deep sands
“hold up better’ than shallow sands is one result of the important
rdle played by pressure, since pressure ordinarily increases with
depth. The natural impression that oil flows into the hole
merely as a result of gravitation is difficult to overcome. Yet
as the passageways in a series of sands become increasingly
small, adhesion and capillary drag becomes so great that the oil
no longer flows into the well at a paying rate when the pressure
reaches a certain degree. Jn most of the consolidated sands of
the Appalachian, Lima-Indiana, Illinois and Mid-Continent
fields, the pressure factor is quite the predominant one as com<
pared with gravity. If a piece of oil-filled ordinary sandstone
is laid upon a plate, it is surprising how little of its oil will run
out. The production of a well declines step by step with the
reduction of pressure; and where the sandstone is consolidated
and not very porous, the well ceases to have a commercial
production before the pressure has been reduced to that of the
air in the hole. A high pressure then leads one to expect a
much larger and longer production.
(b) The Presence of Gas.—Since liquids are so slightly com-
pressible, the expulsion is mainly dependent upon the expansion
of the gas-filled portion of the reservoir from its own natural
expansion and the yielding up of dissolved gas from the oil as
the pressure declines. Moreover, this gas is not all contributed
to the gas-filled portion of the sand, but comes to exist as gas
bubble nuclei in the several larger pores. It is by virtue of this
358 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

that the oil is able to leave the relatively fine-grained reservoirs;

otherwise it would be impossible. In illustration, a cube of
sandstone filled with carbonated water yields more water than
one filled with pure water.
(c) Relation to Other Wells—A quick decline of the pressure
would greatly reduce its effectiveness for expulsion. The close
proximity of many other wells therefore reduces the value of a
well, in addition to the effect in reducing the contributing area.
For this reason, a large lease, or a lease alongside a property
not drilled because of litigation or other difficulties, is worth
more per acre than a small one or a lease adjoining property
being worked. Properties in a region where line wells are by
custom drilled farther back are thus more valuable. The
productive value of very small leases is so much greater if com-
bined with those of a neighboring lease owner, that an effort
should always be made to reach an equitable basis for sale,
purchase or trading, in order that the superfluous wells may be
eliminated. In spite of the obviousness of this situation, the
ridiculous sight of town-lot crowding is seen nearly always when
production is found where the land ownership is thus parceled,
although experience has so often demonstrated that such opera-
tions are losses in an overwhelming percentage of cases. The
last instance, that of Evans City, Pa.,in 1915, was as bad as usual.
Trregularity of outline makes the protection of a lease so ex-
pensive that it will pay much better to sacrifice some of it to
a neighbor’s offsetting well.1 The author once recommended
the sale of a nearly cross-shaped lease, owing to this considera-
tion, and the price received was a good one, since the defect
failed to impress the undiscriminating purchasers.
(d) Dip of the Reservoir—Properties high up the dip, where the
dip is considerable, say 100 ft. to the mile or more, and where
the porosity of the sand is high, suffer in value by reason of the
loss of their oil to the lower leases, as the oil is withdrawn from
the latter. By the same reasoning, the value of the lower
properties is enhanced by the replacement of the oil withdrawn
by that from above. This principle must not be pushed too
far, for, in sands of “low porosity,” gravitation plays a very
small réle.
1A method for determining more precisely the advisability of offsetting well
for well will be found in Jonnson and Huntiey’s “Principles of Oil and Gas
Production.”
 THE VALUATION OF OIL PROPERTIES 359

(e) The Viscosity of the Oil—The higher viscosity of very

heavy oils reduces their “extractability.”” But the difference
is lessened, owing to the fact that for about every 60 ft. in
depth there is an average rise in temperature of about 1°F.
(this is quite variable). In high pressure consolidated sands
Quick' believes there is a refrigeration, caused by the sudden
reduction of pressure at the sand face, a condition which may
in some degree counteract this higher temperature. He con-
tends that such refrigeration in the case of high paraffin oils
seriously reduces the flow by clogging the sand face.
(f) The Encroachment of Water.—When a pool has encroaching
water, all properties down the dip have their value reduced, be-
cause of the liability to a shorter life from this cause. Those
high on the dip have their value enhanced, because new oil is
brought up as they exhaust the original charge. Unfortunately,
it is difficult to foresee encroachment, so that allowance for it .
is in general restricted to the period after it has made itself felt
in the lower part of the pool.
(g) The Nature of the Sand.—The texture of the sand is of
supreme importance. A very fine sand or a shaly sand might
have the same volume of voids and the same oil content, but
would necessarily have a very low extractability. If the sand
texture is very uneven, small volumes of very porous sand being
distributed in a finer matrix, the extractability is reduced, for
only communicating systems reaching the hole are available.
A very common error in determining sand texture is to judge
of it by the grains of sand after these are broken apart. A more
important feature than the size of the grains is the amount
of cement between the grains. The uniformity of the sand
grains is more important than their size above a certain critical
diameter. Roundedness, the high percentage of quartz grains,
and the size of grains, are all more important, not directly but
because these qualities are correlated in some degree with a lesser
amount of cement than on their own account.
III. Agencies which may Interfere with a Normal Production.—
The career of many oil properties is a checkered one, quite aside
from the accidental features mentioned earlier. While it is
true that, in general, marketing is quite serene for the producer,
since his sales are so nearly automatic, nevertheless there are
certain disturbances. Pipe lines are broken at times, more
1Miues W. Quick, Nat. Petrol. News, 6, 1-4
366 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

especially by floods, which may shut down production for several

days. In the winter time, the greater viscosity of many oils
reduces the runs. On other leases some of this oil is ‘‘cut”
(emulsified), so that it must be treated at some expense or loss,
or in some cases burned; but fortunately this condition usually
passes as pressure naturally declines.
Most important, however, are the “gluts” to which the
petroleum industry is especially liable, owing to the suddenness
with which new promising pools are developed. The pipe-
line companies ordinarily do not lay a line to a pool at a dis-
tance from its established lines until the pool has demonstrated
its importance. Not only do the runs from the new pool suffer,
but also those from many other properties contributory to the
same lines, since the runs are cut down to a given fraction of the
whole production. This very seriously disturbs the incomes of
the properties. While much of the oil production is simply
postponed for later pumping, some oil becomes ‘‘inextractable,”
owing to the greater pressure loss in proportion to the oil raised.
Caution is necessary in accepting Oklahoma and California
decline curves without correction, lest they include such a
decline curve artificially flattered.
IV. Possible Improvements in Methods During Life of the
Lease.—In this day of enhanced interest in methods of higher
extraction,! we may expect from among the numerous sugges-
tions of pressure conservation, water-flushing, Marietta plan of
utilizing compressed air, electric heating, over-deepening,? etc.,
some decided improvements of efficiency within the next few
years.
The Price of Oil and Gas during the Life of the Lease—
There is a great range in price for the different qualities of oil.
If the lease produces an oil much better than the general field,
as at Cushing, inquiry should be made as to the possibility of
shipping by tank car to some refinery competing with the regular
purchaser of the oil. If the property is large enough, considera-
tion should be given to the erection of a refinery by the operators
of the lease to obtain the benefit of the better quality.
If the oil is ranked lower than the general grade, a similar
procedure is indicated. The Wann, Oklahoma, oil was bought
as an inferior grade at a lower price until a company for the
1See L. G. Huntiey, p. 374, this volume.
*R. H. Jounson, United States Patent 1083018.
 THE VALUATION OF OIL PROPERTIES 361

manufacture of roofing paper and asphalt was established and

built a pipe line to it.
Few minerals suffer the violent fluctuations in price that crude
oil does. Oklahoma crude rose from $0.35 to $1.05 in 37/9 years,
and then declined to $0.40 in one year because of the Cushing
pool. Even Pennsylvania oil, far removed as it is, was forced,
solely by the overproduction at Cushing, during the same year
down from $2.50 to $1.35. With such fluctuations in income,
which affect expenditures relatively slightly, the valuations of
properties necessarily fluctuate violently. The efficient appraiser
must therefore understand the various elements which affect
the future course of the price. He should, if for no other reason,
therefore, be familiar with the geology of the various fields, and
the nature and stage of development of the more important pools.
A great amount of significant information is readily carried for
the appraiser’s use by keeping graphs from month to month.!
These graphs should include the number of new wells, the amount
of new production, the amount of total production, the average
size of new wells, the percentage of dry holes, and the stocks and
prices for each of the several great fields. In addition, the
appraiser will watch for the significant, determining, dry holes or
poor wells around the large developing pools. Probably the
greatest fault of the inexperienced is to overestimate the bearish
effect of every new pool. Witness the Paden and Holdenville
strikes in Oklahoma in 1915. Consumption is increasing so
rapidly that many new pools are required to satisfy the demand
and only a very small percentage of the new pools are of market-
breaking size.
The stage of progress in the methods of the petroleum industry
is a factor of importance. There is a rapid extension at present
of geological work in prospecting, so that the rise in price which
has just now set in with the decline of the Cushing pool, will
probably be arrested by the increased efficiency of the drilling
campaign that is now starting. On the other hand, after a while
the number of successes will be fewer and fewer as promising areas
are exploited. The condition will force another series of ad-
vances in price. While, in general, the efficiency of the appraiser
1J. H. G. Wourr, ‘California Petroleum and the European War,” Western
Eng., 6, 166-168, gives an interesting example. See also “Report of the
Joint Committee on Graphic Methods,” Bull. Am. Inst. Min. Eng., No.
106, pp. ix—xii.
 362 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

depends upon his knowledge of the conditions in his own field,

to foresee price changes he must have the widest and most
profound knowledge of many oil fields.

THE METHOD OF VALUATION

After the appraiser has shown the varying elements in the

income and in the outlay, he still has to calculate the surplus of
income. But unfortunately, wells being so soon exhausted, he
has the two complications to consider of the realizable value
from junk (as the casing, machinery, etc., is called) and amorti-
zation. The junk differs very much in its value, depending
upon whether it must be sold to dealers, or sold at better terms
to a neighboring lease, or used on another property belonging
to the same owners, with or without an intervening variable
expense for transportation, storage and the depreciation in-
cidental thereto. This gives an advantage to the large company.
For a good discussion of amortization in an allied industry, the
reader is referred to Hoover’s “Principles of Mining.”” Hoover
thus speaks of amortization: ‘‘A portion of the annual earn-
ings must be set aside in such a manner that when the mine is
exhausted the original investment. will have been restored,’
yet he later admits that ‘‘in the practical conduct of mines and
‘mining companies, sinking funds for amortization are never
established.” The principal differences between the amortiza-
tion of an oil property and that of a mine are as follows:
1. The income of the oil property regularly declines, while that of
a mine does not necessarily do so.
2. Owing to this, a successful oil property yields ordinarily in three
years or so its cost, and thereafter pays a slowly diminishing profit.
3. The average oil company owns several oil properties, and develops
and buys new ones as the old ones are exhausted.
4, The average oil company carries for a period many leases, repre-
senting a considerable outlay in bonus, rentals, etc., which are dropped
without drilling. To this, in many cases, is added the cost of a dry
hole, or a contribution to a joint test that is unsuccessful, before the
lease is dropped. The successful properties have a heavy burden of
unsuccessful ones to carry.

For the four reasons given, many oil companies are inclined to
accomplish amortization in a different way which seems well
adapted to the oil business. All the income from each property
 THE VALUATION OF OIL PROPERTIES 363

is devoted to paying the “debt of the property to the company”

until it is ‘fon velvet,’”’ when that property is for the first
time considered a profit yielder. This method is illustrated
by the following account form of the Sagamore Oil & Gas Com-
pany, of Bartlesville, Okla., when under the management of
W. H. Johnson. This was kept separately for each producing
lease of the company. The main advantages of this method are
that the situation is more easily grasped by the manager and
directors, inefficiently managed properties are more easily de-
tected, and, most important, the data is in convenient form for
the valuation of the property, so that the relation of the exchange
value to productive value is more evident. In this way the de-
sirability of selling a property or of buying adjoining properties
is easily indicated.
Sagamore Orn & Gas Company

Net daily
Production average ten-
for month | Price | Income Outlay in| Income in} production] ance
of oil from excess of | excess of |for month| cost
for | produc- income outlay per
Barrels of |month| tion to date to’ date barrel
oil Barrels of| for
oil

A short cut in appraising is very common in the oil fields, viz.,

the barrel-day, an amount for each barrel per day produced by
a property. This method is very dangerous and can only be
depended upon for inside properties in large pools where the
several properties are very similar and of about the same age.
An appraisement for one property, worked out laboriously,
might then be utilized for another property by this method.
One reason why the method is essentially unsound is that the
decline curve is not a straight line, but one where the rate of
decline itself gradually declines. Again, the maintenance is
assumed by this method to be a constant per barrel, whereas it
gradually increases. ‘The method assumes that the loss in valua-
tion is just equal to the profits, which is not true. The barrel-
day method implies that the age of the property is a negligible
factor. However, if we plot the true valuation for each year by
barrels per day, it gives us a curve ascending during the early life
of the well, because the decline rate is less each successive year.
After about the fourth year, in some properties in Oklahoma,
364 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

the barrel-day value, gradually declined, because the growing

maintenance per barrel became so important a factor. One
may say that in buying or selling properties where the other
party uses the barrel-day figures, it is best to buy an ordinary
Oklahoma property in the third to fifth year; and best to sell
when the property is either young or old, but not. to sell in that
very late period when they are worth more as junk than as
producers on a barrel-day basis. This time curve of valuation
by the barrel-day ought to be worked out, for a typical property
at least, in the field where the appraiser works.
While one should not base his ideas of productive value on the
current quotation of production in terms of barrel-days, he should
learn all the sales possible in these terms, so he can study ex-
change values, and thus take advantage of discrepancies be-
tween them and productive values.
There are two common errors as to the time of“settling.
It is more variable and is later than generally supposed. The
settling of a discovery well depends principally upon the time
taken to drill the adjoining locations. Settling is that stage in
the history of a well when there is the greatest change in the
transition of the rapid rate of decline to the slow rate. In wells
drilled where the data is kept by weeks or months the author
has found settling in several cases between 12 and 24 months. —
Since settling is later than is commonly supposed, a favorable
time to sell is at the end of six months, while the well is really
not yet settled, although it is believed to be so by many pro-
ducers. On the other hand, when purchasing properties, where
quotations are made on a barrel-day basis, it is much safer to buy
a well after it has produced for two years.
It is very important to appraise developed and undeveloped
portions of a property separately and then add the appraise-
ments. All too commonly the undeveloped territory is used as
a vague bonus to smooth over uncertainties in the valuation of
the developed portion. The appraisement of undeveloped
territory rests on (1) what this territory will be worth if it is
normally productive under the given conditions; (2) what are the
chances expressed in percentage that this property will be
productive; and (3) since there is a considerable risk, what
insurance for risk shall be figured in. Factor (1) is similar to
work upon developed property, while (2) is primarily a problem
 -THE VALUATION OF OIL PROPERTIES 365

for the geologist, although he will be greatly aided by the graphic

device by which the proximity value is calculated.'
The risk element is extremely important. A very large
company undergoing many risks should consider this element as
nearly negligible; whereas the individual operator of small capital
ought to put it quite high. It would be much better for him,
unless he has unusual ability or information, to put his money
with others in a large company or into an “Oliver plan”? com-
pany,” 2.€., a government promoted company to operate on
some favorable structure on the public lands.
The appraiser must consider the use to which his valuation
will be put. If he is to appraise for taxation, the exchange value.
should be approximated as closely as possible. If it is for the
purpose of inventory or as a basis for a merger, its productive
value will be approximated. But when for the purpose of
buying or selling, he must be concerned with both exchange and
productive values. He will give greater relative weight to ex-
change value if he represents a company that deals in properties.
If one is fixing a price at which to sell, he uses the higher
of these two values. If one is fixing a price at which to buy, he
must also ascertain the productive value and exchange value,
and place the price at the lower of these two values.
But a better policy is for the appraiser to know at all times
whether exchange values are running higher or lower than
productive values on the several types of properties, and then
become a buyer or seller of that type, the exchange value of
which deviates from the productive value.
Productive value obviously varies with the degree of efficiency
of the future management of the property. Insofar as this can
be foreseen, it will be used by the appraiser. The productive
value is not a fixed attribute of a property, but in the nature of a
prophecy. It follows then that the buyer for a company that
is in a position to get a greater profit from a property, would
properly place a higher valuation upon it. This brings us again
to a consideration of the relative efficiency of small and large
producing companies, and of companies engaged solely in pro-
duction and those that integrate the several steps in the industry.*
1R. H. Jonnson, “Petroleum and Natural Gas Resources of Canada,”
1, 325-326.
2 Hearing on H. R. 16,186, Com. on Public Lands, U. S. Senate, 63d.
Congress, 3d Session.
3See p. 433,
366 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

There remain the obvious differences between the company

that has a property already adjoining that in question, with one
having a property in the same pool, and with one having none in
the region. This difference is so very important that it should
be the policy not to take anything less than, say, 80 acres under
ordinary circumstances in the Eastern or Mid-Continent field.
In Lombardi’s method! the cost of drilling the undrilled portion
of the lease is distributed through the years at a rate so regulated
as to produce a uniform profit, It is so rare that such a pro-
cedure is possible and desirable that it is best in general to charge
the costs of drilling directly to investment rather than to expense,
especially as most companies have several leases, for each of
which a separate valuation is desirable.
It is not at all important that the income from each lease
should be kept uniform. An oil company does well to try to
keep its income steady merely through the ownership of many
properties in various stages of development. Each property
should be managed mainly with reference to its own maximum
efficiency. Some leases in pools where the pressure is rapidly
declining should be rushed to completion. In other cases where
the pool is entirely within the company’s lines the development
should be planned as a careful ‘feeling out,” so as to drill a
minimum number of dry holes. In this last case, if there is over-
production, the whole property should be held back, even though
dividends suffer for the time.
On the other hand, if we appraise a large company made up
of many leases, we may properly make deductions from a sum
of the values of the properties because of economies already
indicated.
There are some large companies which, for their highest ef-
ficiency, demand a regular production, because of a selling con-
tract or because allied with a refinery. This regular production
is in contrast to the shrinking production of a single lease.
In valuing such a group or properties we have an additional factor
~—the cost of maintaining this production at the given level.
Lombardi has ably discussed this problem with reference to
California.
The matter is quite difficult because it involves the continual
purchase or “carrying” of undeveloped land with all its un-
certainties. So far as the cost of the drilling campaign is con-
1Western Eng., 6, 153.
 THE VALUATION OF OIL PROPERTIES 367

cerned, there are three different approaches which should be

used as checks against each other, as follows:
' 1. Experience of other companies. If the most analogous
company keeps three ‘“‘strings”’ at work, and they fail to prevent
a decline in production by an ascertained amount, the number
that would be necessary for a given production can be calculated.
2. The total number of wells drilled in the whole pool compared
with the increase they produce, or the decrease that results in
spite of these new completions.
3. Calculation from theoretical decline curves of the number
of new wells necessary, counting in an estimated percentage of
failures.
In conclusion, the appraiser should beware of his principal
danger, that of underestimating the differences between prop-
erties in different sands, pools and regions. The constant keep-
ing and elaboration of data on properties in a great variety of
conditions can alone keep him from too far-fetched comparisons.
 CHAPTER VIII

SOME COMMERCIAL FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE

APPRAISEMENT OF PETROLEUM PROPERTIES
By J. P. Capprau!

Owing to the differences in petroleums, in sand stratas, and

in the location of oil properties and markets, it is indeed difficult,
if not impracticable, to lay down any definite rules for the
determination of the value of an oil-producing area: each prop-
erty, locality or field must invariably receive separate con-
sideration. There are, however, certain commercial factors
which are always involved in the appraisal of petroleum prop-
erties; these are as follows: (1) The character of the petroleum;
(2) the producing formations; and (8) the age of the wells and
the physical condition of the properties. . These considerations
may be applied as a general. basis of procedure, and, upon
analysis, may be altered to meet local conditions.

THE CHARACTER OF THE PETROLEUM

Consideration is given to the nature of the petroleum, whether

of paraffin- or asphalt-base, and its gravity and relative refining
value; the present and possible future prices, and the markets
therefor, whether established or to be created; and the question
of marketing the oil, that is, transportation and selling facilities.
Nature of the Petroleum.—At the present time paraffin-base
oils of light gravity are regarded as the most valuable; these
yield the largest percentage of marketable products and the
most valuable manufactured specialties; moreover, their markets
have been long established, are of world-wide extent, and are
constantly growing.
Within recent years, however, asphalt-base oils of heavy
gravity have received more favorable attention, owing to the
development of improved methods of treatment, which have
1 Specialist in Oil and Gas Properties, 223 Fourth Avenue, Pittsburgh, Pa.
368
 APPRAISEMENT OF PETROLEUM PROPERTIES 369

taken such oils out of the strictly fuel class. Then, too, the
large yields of many of the individual wells producing asphalt-
base oils have contributed in favor of such petroleum, since the
producing cost is thus reduced.
Market Conditions.—The present and possible future price
of the petroleum produced is, of course, of prime importance.
As is well-known, the selling price of crude oil at the wells is
governed entirely by the laws of supply and demand, an over-
production occasioning a declining market, and vice versa.
To predict the future of a business that is world-wide in extent,
is without the scope of an ordinary examination of any property;
but a general consideration of the whole producing area in ques-
tion should determine, in a fair way, whether or not that par-
ticular country or section thereof will be subject to extreme,
local price fluctuations due to the opening up of new pools of the
gusher variety or whether the undrilled territory is only likely
to offset the decline in the developed fields.
Where established marketing concerns are in operation, as,
for instance, pipe line companies or purchasing agencies, the
question of markets is of minor importance; but in a new country,
where the producer must secure a market for himself, it is indeed
- avery serious consideration, since it requires the expenditure of a
large amount of money and of considerable time.
Transportation.—In considering the marketing of a petroleum,
careful attention must be given to the location of and the dis-
tance from the point of market for the product and the means of
reaching this market. If a pipe line system is connected to the
field or is in the locality of the property, and can therefore be
connected, or if transportation by water is available, the value
of the property is thereby increased. Otherwise, where such
transportation must be provided by the producer, say by pipe
line to a railroad, the cost thereof is usually higher than by pipe-
line system and the difference is generally deducted from the
price received for the product. The lack of transportation
facilities, as by pipe systems with their accompanying pur-
chasing departments, retards the development of new oil fields
more than any other single factor, and has been encountered in
the opening up of the California, Oklahoma and Wyoming
fields, where, in each state, petroleum was known to exist in
commercial quantities for a number of years prior to the time
these states attained prominence as producers.
24
370 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

THE PRODUCING FORMATIONS.

Although new producing formations are constantly being

developed, in almost every oil field of any size or age there has
been found one or more sand strata that stand out prominently
because of the thickness of their ‘‘ pay streaks’! and producing
qualities; these strata are used for purposes of comparison,
values being frequently based upon their past history and
production per acre over a given period of time. In the eastern
oil fields, we find, among the white sand strata, the “Second”
and “Third” sands of Oil Creek, Pennsylvania; the ‘‘ Brown”
and ‘‘Chocolate” sands of Bradford and Elk counties, Penn-
sylvania; the 100-ft. “Third” and ‘‘Fourth” sands of Butler
County, Pennsylvania; the “Salt Sand,” “Maxon,” “Big In-
jun,” “Gordon,” and ‘Fifth’ sands in West Virginia; and the
“Cow Run,” “Berea,” ‘Clinton,’ and Trenton” sands in
Ohio. In Illinois, the “Casey,” ‘Robinson,’ “Bridgeport,”
“Kirkwood,” and ‘McCloskey,’ are well known; and in
Oklahoma, there are a number of different producing sands, the
“Bartlesville” being the most productive. In the case of all of
these sands, the general thickness, the thickness of the ‘‘ pay
streaks,”’ and the producing qualities, are known and accord- .
ingly they are employed for comparative purposes. In the
Gulf Coast, Louisiana and Texas fields, the sands occur more
in irregular lenses, and the production is in “pools” and not in
fields, as is the case in the more northern and eastern producing
sections.
A thick body of sand in any horizon is to be desired, provided
it is porous and contains one or more ‘pay streaks.” In some
sand horizons, there are several ‘‘ pay streaks” of both oil and gas
in the same sand body, separated by harder or non-porous
strata, yet forming a continuous body, clear of breaks of shale or
slates. In the McDonald pool of Pennsylvania, and in the
Glenn pool, Cushing and Healdton fields of Oklahoma, “pay”
or producing strata of from 30 to 100 ft. have been found, all
impregnated with petroleum and gas. Such thicknesses are,
however, unusual, and the average “pay” does not exceed 1 to
10 ft. of real producing sand in each well.
1A “pay streak” is that portion of the sand body which is sufficiently
open or porous to contain oil and gas, the amount of which is determined
by the action of the well while drilling through the sand.
 APPRAISEMENT OF PETROLEUM PROPERTIES 371

_ Uniformity in the sand levels and in the character and size of

the wells, is always desirable. In cases where the amount of
sand, the thickness of the ‘‘pay streaks,’’ the quantity of oil
produced in a given time, and the rate of decline in daily pro-
duction, can be determined on the property under examina-
tion, or on adjoining properties, a good basis may be had for
estimating the probable life and value. Where a sample of the
“nay streak sand’? can be obtained—this can frequently be
secured after a “‘shot’’—its absorption or voids may be deter-
mined and its probable petroleum content estimated per cubic
foot per acre of ‘‘pay streak’”’ or producing sand. Data of this
character may indicate contents ranging from 1,000 to 2,000
bbl. per acre-foot, of which amount it is estimated that 40 per
cent. to 70 per cent. may be recovered, depending upon the
character and the porosity of the sand rock. While some
production has been found in shales, such occurrences are usually
regarded as ‘‘freaks,’’ and sand or sandy lime is considered the
best producing stratum. The petroleum from a formation con-
taining an excess of lime generally contains sulphur in amounts
detrimental to the value of the oil; moreover, where lime pre-
dominates in the sand, the wells in such a formation have
either been very porous or broken by crevices, as found in certain
of the large wells in the Mexican fields.
The effect of torpedoing or “shooting” on the producing sand
is of importance in the consideration of values. Some horizons
respond to several ‘‘shots,’”’ while others will not respond after
the first ‘“shot.”’? A property on which the wells are producing
naturally, that is, have never been “shot,” and are in a sand
known to respond to “shooting,” would be considered more
valuable if the wells were in such condition that they could,
without too much expense, still be “shot,” than a property
whereon the wells had already been ‘‘shot.’”’ In the first case,
there would still be a likelihood of increasing the production by
“shooting,’’ which operation had already been carried out in the
second instance.
The gas pressure on the oil rock is important not only from a
fuel supply standpoint for operating the property, but because
the rapid decline in gas pressure usually indicates a decline in
production.
The amount of water, if any, in the sand horizon has an im-
portant bearing on the valuation of an oil property. The
372 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

presence of water increases the cost of pumping, and water with

gas will sometimes “cut” the oil, necessitating rehandling after
it is in the tank. However, some sands produce water and oil
simultaneously; as instances, the 100-ft. sand in Butler County,
Pennsylvania, and the ‘‘Big Injun” sand in West Virginia may
be cited. Salt water is usually considered detrimental, depend- ~
ing upon the amount. Both fuel and water supplies are essential
for the operation of a producing property, and these become a
fixed charge when not obtained thereon.
Where the property under appraisal is in a new field and the
sand horizon is unknown, the character of the petroleum, the
nature of the sand, the gas pressure, and the production of the
well, whether it holds or declines rapidly, as well as the geology
of the locality, form the basis for valuation.!
THE AGE OF THE WELLS
The date of completion of each well, its initial natural produc-
tion, the amount of ‘‘pay sand,” the total thickness of the sand,
the initial production after a ‘‘shot,’”’ the date and size of the
“shot,” the amount and size of the casing in each hole, and a
general inventory of material, machinery, fittings on the lease,
number of rigs, their condition, whether the wells are operated by
powers or individual engines to each well, the number of wells
pulled per month by reason of sand-cutting cups, or other reasons,
the pay roll and sundry expense per month as to amount of oil
produced, as well as taxes, both state and county, and the laws
affecting oil property in the locality in which the property is
situated, must all be considered. The equipment should be
examined carefully in order to ascertain whether it is sufficient
to handle the property, or to determine whether an additional
investment will be necessary. Then, too, the value of the
equipment, and the amount that could be removed and its
value at junk or second-hand prices, must be estimated. The
market price that can be secured for the production at the time
of the valuation of the property and the probable price of the
future, as well as the amount that may be produced in a given
term of years,’ are also to be estimated; and it is necessary to
1 In this connection, see Forstner, Min. Sci. Press, 108 (1911), 578; and
especially Chap. VII. On the value of geology, see Haarr, Min. and Eng.
World, 35, 435; 36, 680.
2On the estimation of productive capacity, see McLauaHuin, Western
Eng., July, 1914.
 APPRAISEMENT OF PETROLEUM PROPERTIES 373

ascertain approximately the time required to return the amount

of investment, with interest, less the value of the equipment at
the end of that time.
A fresh production, 7.e., one that is from one to six months old,
is usually expected to “‘pay out” in two years, based on the price
of the oil at the time. Somewhat older production may “pay
out”? in three years, and old settled production in five to six
years, depending on the location of the fields, sand horizons, and
the chances to hold or increase the production by drilling new
wells, shooting or cleaning out old wells, and possibility of ad-
vance in price of crude oil. An undetermined deduction should
be made to cover such possible contingencies as new fields being
opened, increasing the general production and causing a decline
in crude oil prices, or extraordinary expenses that may occur.
such as losses by fire or wind, unexpected fishing jobs, or other
accidents that may happen on a producing property.
 CHAPTER IX

POSSIBLE CAUSES OF THE DECLINE OF OIL WELLS

AND SUGGESTED METHODS OF
PROLONGING YIELD!
By L. G. Huntipy?

This chapter is devoted to a discussion of various natural

phenomena encountered in the drilling and handling of oil and
gas wells, and to suggestions as to the lines along which the
present practice of recovery may sometimes be improved. The
decline of individual wells is the direct factor in the general de-
cline of production throughout all fields, and the efficiency of the
recovery of petroleum from its underground sources can be
measured by the length of time during which economic produc-
tion can be sustained in individual wells or groups of wells. The
approaching rise in the price of oil will lead to more attention
being paid to more efficient recovery, with the object of leaving
the least possible percentage of the original petroleum content
in the sand when the well is finally abandoned. Some methods
that by prolonging the life of wells may be helpful in obtain-
ing the maximum amount of oil at a minimum cost, are briefly
summarized on the following pages.

CAUSES OF DECLINING YIELD

The reasons for the decline of oil wells may be grouped in two
classes—those due to natural causes and those due to poor
management. Since the early days of the petroleum industry,
improvements in methods of production have to a large extent
been confined to lessening the cost of drilling wells and to reduc-
ing the cost of surface operations. Although well-known
1 Technical Paper 61 (1913) of the Bureau of Mines, revised and consider-
ably enlarged by Mr. Hunt.ey, especially for this work; but published by
permission of the Director of the Bureau of Mines.
* Lecturer on Foreign Oil fields in the University of Pittsburgh and member
of the firm of Jounson and Huntuiey, Consulting Oil Geologists, 306 State
Hall, Pittsburgh, Pa.
374
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS 375

physical laws offer a possible solution for all underground

problems, yet the amount of carefully gathered data is so scarce
that general deductions must be cautiously made. Hence this
chapter discusses both classes of the cause of decline, describes
some of the remedial measures now employed, and gives sug-
gestions as to possible means of bettering present methods of
operating.
In general, the yield of a well declines in one or both of two
ways: (a) Suddenly, after the initial spurt due to local relief of
pressure; or (b) with relative slowness after the production has
become settled.
Sudden Decline of Yield.—In most districts the wells begin
with a relatively large initial production that is followed by a
rather rapid decline to a stage during which the decrease is more
gradual. The initial spurt, which in many cases represents the
flowing period of a well’s life, is due to a relief of the super-
saturated condition of the sand. The sudden release of pressure
results in a spurt of petroleum, usually in the form of an emulsion
with spray, caused by the expansion of the contained gases,
that lasts for a variable length of time. The duration of this
period of high production depends on local conditions, such as
the porosity and structure of the sand, the extent and develop-
ment of the pool, the character of the oil, the rock pressure, the
position of the well with reference to the center of production,
to salt water, and to other conditions of less importance.
Carll! likens the producing life of an oil well in the high-grade
oil fields to drawing beer from a barrel, as follows:
_ The barrel is placed in the cellar and a bar pump inserted—at first
the liquid flows freely through the tube without using the pump, but
presently the gas weakens and the pump is called into requisition, and
finally the gas pressure in the barrel becomes so weak that a venthole
must be made to admit atmospheric pressure before the barrel can be
completely emptied even by a pump.
This comparison is a general one and disregards all except the
main factors of oil production.
Relatively Slow Decline of Yield.—The extent and rapidity
of the succeeding decline is governed by several factors, which
may be classified as follows:
1. Formation of waxy sediments that obstruct the passage of
oil from the sand.
1J. F. Cart, ‘The Geology of the Oil Regions of Warren, Venango, Clar-
ion, and Butler Counties,’ Second Geol. Survey Pennsylvania, 3 (1880), 262.
376 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

2. Decline of gas pressure in the district; that is, decrease of

expulsive force, due to the exhaustion of the lighter and gaseous
hydrocarbons.
3. Decrease in quantity of oil draining by gravity down the
dip into the area affected by a well.
4. Decrease of the oil supply within the drainage area of a well
on account of near-by development or the original limits of the
pool.
5. Flooding by nonencroaching salt water under low pressure.
6. Flooding of the productive formation by salt water under
high pressure.
7. Flooding by fresh water from the surface or from an over-
lying water-bearing formation.
8. Drilling of neighboring wells.
9. Poor management, such as improper casing, unwise rate
and time of pumping, and failure to clean.
One of the most important of the factors enumerated is the
formation of obstructive waxy sediments in the productive
stratum and in the tubing of the well, owing to excessive re-
frigeration incident to the free expansion of large quantities of
gaseous hydrocarbons associated with the crude oil in the rock.
That in some fields an early decline and seeming exhaustion is
premature and can be credited ‘to this cause is evidenced by the
fact that when new wells are drilled near older wells that have
ceased to produce, the new ones give every indication of unim-
paired pressures and vitality. It was a common occurrence
in the northern Pennsylvania oil fields to find that the second and
third crop of wells in old pools produced large quantities of oil
after the territory had been abandoned as exhausted.
Carll speaks of the producing formation as being a “practically
sealed reservoir” so far as an individual pool is concerned. As
an example, he mentions the Cashup (Pa.) pool, which was dis-
covered in 1871, three or four years after the Pithole pool—
2 miles to the southwest—had been practically exhausted.
When tapped, the Cashup pool showed all the conditions normal
to new territory and an abundance of lively oil, which attested
its energy and force in a well flowing over 1,000 bbl. per day.
The history of these pools has been duplicated in many places
in Butler and Clarion counties, Pa. Further evidence that the
shorter life of the more recent development in southwestern
Pennsylvania and West Virginia is not due to the draining of
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS 377

the oil and gas from the northern fields is the fact that the newer
fields show much greater pressures and volumes of gas than the
old fields ever did, even when encountered in the same producing
sands. To account for these changed conditions one must
therefore look to causes other than any underground connection.
Another factor in the rapid decline of wells following the initial
spurt is the relief from the supersaturated condition of the sand,
allowing the drag caused by the capillarity and the friction of the
oil through the sand to make itself apparent. The gaseous
hydrocarbons in the immediate vicinity of the well dissipate
themselves in the initial flow, and the production therefore falls
off, owing to a lessening of the expulsive force. In flowing wells
this marks the beginning of the “stripping stage.’”’ The char-
acter and porosity of the sand will influence the duration and
amount of the initial flow, which, if from a loose, porous sand,
will be more violent and will affect a larger radius than if from a
fine compact sand.
Under ideal producing conditions the decline of a well would
depend on only three main factors: (a) The quantity of oil
available; (b) the rock pressure; and (c) the character and
porosity of the sand. Hence, all efforts should aim at a proper
understanding of the various conditions that complicate these
main factors, govern the productivity of a well, and abnormally
hasten its abandonment. The rapid decline of many wells from
large producers to small pumpers, while at the same time large
producers are being completed in the same vicinity, is evidence
that these abnormal factors are at work.
Decline Due to the Formation of Waxy Sediment.—Petroleum
in the so-called paraffin-oil fields consists of hydrocarbons of
the paraffin series, which range from the heaviest oil to the
lightest gas. ‘The gaseous constituents of petroleum exist in
what may be likened to a solution, much like the gas in a bottle
of soda water, and as such expand and escape when the pressure
is relieved by a well. The sudden expansion and volatilization
of such light hydrocarbons has a refrigerating effect, like the
expansion of ammonia gas in an ice machine, chilling the re-
mainder of the liquid petroleum and causing the separation of
the heaviest paraffin as an amorphous waxy sediment.
As an example of this process, a simple experiment described by
1J. F. Cart, op. cit.; I. C. Wurtz, West Virginia Geological Survey, 1
(1904), 171.
378 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Miles W. Quick, of Titusville, Pa., in an unpublished manuscript,

may be mentioned. A sample of light oil was cooled to a tem-
perature of 25°F. until it was cloudy to the top. When the
sample was warmed to between 60° and 70°F., the original
temperature, the cloudiness did not disappear. After further
heating, which caused all congelation to disappear, the sample
was again cooled to 35°F., and the top half was decanted off and
labeled “‘Sample 1.’ The part of the original sample remaining
in the bottle was called ‘Sample 2.”” When sample 2 was warmed,
its appearance was identical with that of sample 1; yet when
sample 1 was cooled to a temperature of 35°F., no congelation
took place, whereas at this temperature sample 2 was cloudy
with amorphous paraffin.
Several interesting deductions may be made from the experi-
ment. In the first place, although Carll states that oil and gas
appear to exist in the rock, not as distinct bodies, but as one sub-
stance—gaseous hydrocarbons being incorporated with the oil
as gas with water in a bottle of soda water—yet the experiment
described above shows that under certain circumstances “strati-
fication”? does take place. The free escape of the light hydro-
carbon gases, as allowed at most wells, gradually changes the
relative composition of the oil remaining in the rock, until the
accompanying refrigerative effect of the gas expansion and vapori-
zation is sufficient to lower the temperature of the oil in the
immediate vicinity of the well by overcoming convection from
the surrounding rock. This results in the formation of waxy
paraffin sediments, which, combining with water and fine rock
sediments, clog the pores of the sand and obstruct the passage
of the oil into the well.
The process accounts for the sudden failure of many wells, some
situated in unexhausted territory.1. The drop of a few degrees
near a certain critical temperature has more effect on the con-
gelation of the oil in a well than a preceding 20° change in
temperature. Hence, when the petroleum becomes relatively
high in heavy paraffin constituents, or, conversely, low in its
percentage of light hydrocarbons, which have been exhausted

1 As early as 1865, J. Fraser (United States Patent 49995, Sept. 19,

1865) proposed the use of hot “carbonic oxide” for heating oil wells to re-
move paraffin. See also W. O. SneLuine, United States Patent 1104011,
July 21, 1914; and I. L. Dunn, United States Patent 1107416, Aug. 18,
1914.—R.F.B. and W.A.H.
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS 379

in the early stages of production, the wax will soon clog the
outlets and production will end abruptly. To repeat, this result
is brought about both by the free escape of well gases and by the
stratifying of the oil, as indicated in the experiment described
above, and its effect is most pronounced near the well, where
expansion takes place.
Decline Due to the Exhaustion of the Gaseous Hydro-
carbons.—The decline of gas pressure in the pool through the
exhaustion of the lighter hydrocarbons acts in a variety of ways
to cause the decline of wells. In the first place the reduction
of the specific gravity of the oil remaining in the rock indirectly
affects the production, as described in the preceding paragraph.
The practice of allowing the free escape of vapors instead of
endeavoring to make each cubic foot of gas in expanding per-
form its quota of work in the expulsion of liquid petroleum, is a
direct cause of the decline of flowing wells. It is almost as direct
a factor in the decline of pumping wells as the intrastrata gas
pressure is the means of keeping up the continuous movement
of the fluid toward the well when the well is pumped.
The accompanying diagram (Fig. 135) illustrates the pos-
sibility of this loss in a typical oil well located in one of the larger
pools in the United States. Attention should be called to the
fact that with the entire original oil body present in the sand at
the reduced pressure of 450 lb., the succeeding decline curve
would differ from the normal curve shown. Further experi-
ments and data are needed on this point, but this difference is
not believed to be great. With such decreased pressure, capil-
larity would have an effect on the expulsion of all the oil, and, in
addition, a critical point will be found to exist—differing with the
conditions in each pool and well—where expulsion would be a
direct function of the pressure and the frictional resistance,
regardless of a relatively small difference in the percentage of
oil saturation in the sand.
As another indirect effect, may be mentioned the flooding of
oil pools by water, owing to the injudicious rapidity with which
the gas is drained from the pool. The rapid exhaustion of the
gas in a certain part of the field may remove the only influence
retarding the encroachment of water, which may, by a flanking
movement, cut off a large section of the producing area. Or
water may exist in the lower part of the oil-sand, being held in
check only by the pressure of the gas. If each cubic foot of gas
380 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

were retained to perform its work of expelling petroleum, the

pressure would help to retard the water for a considerable period,
or until the maximum amount of oil had been recovered. The
Hogshooter pool in Oklahoma is an example of a producing gas
district that has been ruined by having its gas drained too
rapidly. Wells were commonly drawn upon to their utmost
capacity; hence, as no pressure restrained the water under high
pressure in the lower part of the productive formation, it flooded
one well after another. Although Oklahoma has a law requiring

Curves showing relation of gas pressure to the

extractability'of the oil content of a sand.
“A” Area representing the 25% of the oil content
of a sand body which is assumed to be impossible
of extraction, =— 26,660 barrels.
“B-C” Area representing the total production of
a typical well, under normal conditions
= 80,000 barrels.
> “CO” Area representing the flush production of a
well much of which is lost and remainsin the
rre decline due sand, if the pressure is reduced by gas waste in
fal he waste the early history of the pool,
ae = 12,500 barrels
“D” Area representing the decrease in produc-
tion of a well when gas is continuously wasted
on other leases, Very variable,

Cu ze
iezragte

Fira. 135.—The production of a typical oil well.

that 50 per cent. of the open-flow capacity must be retained in

the well, little attempt was made to comply with this law. In
some pools, such as the Hogshooter, it is believed that not over
15 per cent. of a gas well’s capacity should be turned into the
pipe line at any time, the remainder being retained in the well
to keep back the water.
DECREASE IN THE QUANTITY OF OIL DRAINING BY GRAVITATION
INTO THE AREA INFLUENCED BY A WELL
The effect of gravitation in many pools is usually overlooked.
That gravitation tends to cause the accumulation of the remnant,
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS 381

of oil in some pools is undoubted; and some instances of aband-

oned fields that have been rejuvenated and are again productive
can no doubt be explained on this basis. In a fine-grained sand,
movement by gravity may be so slow as to make it of no con-
sequence during the operation of an oil operator’s lease. How-
ever, in a soft or very porous stratum of rather pronounced dip,
or one that lies in such a manner as to form a decided catchment
area for oil, the movement down the dip may in a comparatively
short time replenish the oil drained off by wells. This factor

Fic. 136.—Effects of flood water and arrangement of wells drilled to utilize

flood-water pressure.

should therefore be recognized. In fact, in some pools it may

explain the total production of many small wells.
A coarse vesicular oil rock would be particularly favorable for
this movement. In the Oil Springs pool in Ontario, advantage
is taken of the annual advance of oil ahead of the fresh water in-
flux from the spring freshets. As indicated in Fig. 136, the water
in this locality obtains entrance to the oil rock through abandoned
wells (as 1 and 2 of the figure), drilled from low points on the
surface. Certain “live” wells located at strategic points are
pumped successively, resulting in a large recovery. The possi-
bilities of such procedure are readily apparent.
382 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Of especial interest are the possibilities of introducing water

into wells located at the crest of the dip to aid in the gravitation
of the oil, assuming that the oil is already concentrated in large
enough quantitiesto make drilling pay. Thismovement down the
dip to a catchment area would probably be accelerated by drilling
wells at high points on the dip, to admit atmospheric pressure
behind the oil. This would appear a necessity, as under the
assumption that the oil rock is an air and fluid tight reservoir,
a medium for replacing the oil would have to be furnished from
an outside source. This theory disregards the factor of gas
pressure, which in fields producing heavy asphaltic oils is negli-
gible, and in many cases is entirely dissipated in the early history
of some high-grade oil fields.
In fine-grained sandstone, such as the Clinton sand in central
Ohio, capillarity may so retard the action of gravity that the
latter may be neglected by the operator, especially in a region
of low monoclinal dips such as exist in that part of Ohio. In
certain of the older Pennsylvania and West Virginia fields, how-
ever, this force may be the explanation for the “coming back”’ of
old districts, a phenomenon that caused pioneers in the oil
industry to believe that oil was being formed continually in
underground sources and that its exhaustion was impossible.
In fact, speculation as to the possible ‘‘coming back”’ of many
pools has led to the spending of thousands of dollars in compara-
tively recent years, when carefully collected information might
have shown such expenditure to be useless. Again, assuming
with Carll that the oil rock is a “practically sealed reservoir,”
a modification of the theory of the action of gravitation in the
recovery of oil may be necessary to account for wells that produce
little or nothing until later wells are drilled higher up the dip,
when the first wells show a marked improvement in production.
The movement of the oil down the dip is then seemingly aided
by atmospheric pressure from above. This theory also assumes
an absence of original rock pressure or its previous exhaustion.
An atmospheric pressure of 15 Ib. per square inch in the wells
first drilled is sufficient to keep back the oil until an equalizing
pressure from behind is applied. If gas exists in the rock, its
expansion will furnish this replacing medium.
The production of some wells improves after the drilling of
neighboring wells, a result that may probably be explained on
a basis similar to the above, In oil wells the atmospheric
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS 383

pressure, combined with the retarding capillarity of the sand,

may be sufficient to prevent recovery. However, the contrary
effect was observed in two wells in the pool at Vinton, La. The
oil is of a heavy asphaltic base with no gas. The first well en-
countered a ‘‘pay’’ sand so soft that the rotary bit dropped
through of its own weight. It began to produce oil and continued
until a second well was drilled close by. This second well struck
the same sand in the same con-
dition, but it immediately col-
lapsed or “‘packed”’ and there-
after neither well produced a
gallon of oil. As the rest of
the field was pumping oil from
this sand, and as the oil in the
sand was therefore under less
than atmospheric pressure, the
admission of air to the sand in
the second well, combined
with the draft in the direction
of the pumping wells in older
parts of the pool, may have
been sufficient to drive the oil
in that direction, the sand
then collapsing, possibly from
atmospheric pressure, as the
drillers state that the well was
not flooded.
The famous Triumph pool
in Pennsylvania is a historic Fig. 137.—Lines of flow into two inter-
example of wells pumped at less fering wells.
than atmospheric pressure.!
The gas pumps kept from 10 to 12 lb. vacuum on the sand at all
times, thus relieving the pressure sufficiently to allow the recovery
of the oil. In such pools as this, if conditions permit, air holes
drilled at strategic points and left open would undoubtedly
result in the flow of oil toward the pumping wells, without the
added expense of gas pumps. In other districts where recovery
is small, a like procedure would be a profitable means of more
1J. F. Caruz, “The Geology of the Oil Regions of Warren, Venango,
Clarion and Butler Counties,’’ Second Geol. Survey Pennsylvania, 3 (1880),
260.
384 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

rapid recovery, if proper care were exercised. It is, however,

true that in many wells air reaches the oil-sand between the
bottom of the casing and the end of the tubing, and that by
connecting a vacuum pump to the casing the flow of oil is
increased.
The so-called “Marietta plan’ is based on this principle.
By this, air is forced into alternate wells under pressure, while
other wells are pumped for oil, sometimes under vacuum. ‘This
process has met with considerable success in localities where the
sand is of a close uniform texture. In certain coarse pebbly sands
there would be a tendency for the air to “short-circuit,” and
hence be very inefficient in forcing the oil from the sand. As

gost

Water

Fia. 138.—The effect of the movement of oil and the exhaustion of oil sand
on the yield of wells.

early as 1904, one company installed a large blowing plant in

connection with their wells at Batson, Texas.
In some regions where the dip of the rocks is steep, as on pro-
nounced anticlines or monoclines, the action of gravitation on the
flow of wells is noticeable and those wells located down the dip
will tend to drain the oil from those higher up. Rival pro-
ducers, in locating their wells, take advantage of this action.
The best practice is, of course, to space wells closer across the
dip than in the line of the dip. Fig. 137 illustrates the lines of
flow into two interfering wells in a region where the dip, and hence
the gravitational movement of the oil, is in a general direction.
Figure 138 also illustrates this condition. As part of the oil
is drained from the pool by wells, the remaining part tends to
move down the slope of the sand, lowering its upper level so that
wells located up the dip (as well A in the figure) cease producing,
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS, 385

some of them probably developing a small gas production. As

this action proceeds, a well farther down the dip (as well B in
the figure) will begin to fail, until a well located as at C will be
the only producer and hence the longest-lived well in the pool.

DECREASE OF OIL SUPPLY ON ACCOUNT OF NEAR-BY

DEVELOPMENT

In those pools in which the decline has been normal, with a

maximum recovery of the oil, decline in production will depend
only on the exhaustion of the gas pressure and the decrease of
the available underground supply. Advantage is sometimes
taken of natural forces that tend to conserve the expulsive
energies of the petroleum in the rock, thus preventing the for-
mation of excessive obstructive sediments and eliminating water
problems until later in the life of the well. The character and
porosity of the oil rock affect the extent of the drainage, the most
favorable material for rapid drainage being a sandstone that
is coarse and porous, though not loose enough to allow the setting
up of sharply defined drainage channels by the flow of oil and
water through the sand. On the other hand, more sudden gas
expansion takes place in suchasand than in one of aclose texture;
and if the oil becomes chilled, wax will form unless care is exercised.
The decrease under consideration occurred at the Petrolia,
Oil Springs, and Bothwell pools in Ontario, the wells in those
pools exhausting from the outward edges of the productive area
inward. The famous Glenn pool of Oklahoma is an example
of a different type, the oil-sand being coarse, porous, and uniform
in texture, there being no water problem and no excessive
waxing of the sand face or the pumping rods. Pumping is
regular and consistent, and the wells as a rule are uniformly
spaced. As a result, the decline is normal and gradual, the
fluctuations in the production of a group of wells occurring only
at times of cleaning or as a result of unfavorable pipe-line
conditions. Curves 3 and 4 of Fig. 139 represent nearly ideal
production curves of groups of wells in the Glenn pool, Oklahoma.
There have been oil wells and gas wells that increased their
production for a time after a neighboring well had been com-
pleted. In the Mansfield district, south of Shreveport, La., both
pressure and volume of some of the pioneer gas wells increased
greatly for the first few months. The increased production in
25
 386 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

such cases is probably due to the cleaning out of seepage and

drainage channels in the rock as a well is drawn upon. Although
one well had an initial pressure of 60 lb., which increased in four

320
1) n i" oI
300 oe HH rt
oH aici HEHEHE
H HHH ay ry FH
260 FH : FH cH HH :
240 HH

e
ry

:
CH

SHE ae
8 | H ie eapees H
® 200
b a im EH
A HH a al! EEE
8, 180 EEE EEE aoe
3 EEE HH
g 160 ae cH
: 4
im
2 140 al
| ae H
E HH
120 Loot
i) F
5100 |42)
éialdC TEDE CER EEE! 5 (a pe
:
80 FECA HEECH EEE
(3): j t i (|e) Ho ct

60 sustaeza!
a c
FENCE aa
0) ;
Corey NEN HH
20 sas 1s
FREE = ed
‘ ELT
|
0 B10 1B 9 20 25 > 0 PEREGO ee eG ae
Months
Fia. 139.—Typical production curves of wells
field. in the Mid-Continent oil
Curves represent production under leases
district, Oklahoma; 2, Bartlesville district, Oklaho as follows: 1, Muskogee
Oklaho ma; 3 and 4, Glenn pool
ma. 4 ‘
months to more than 250 lb. closed pressure, yet
if the well had
been closed for a sufficient length of time to
allow the full pressure
to accumulate in the casing, the initial pressu
re would probably
have equaled that recorded later. Such
wells are usually evi-
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS 387

dence that the drilling has been done near the edge of an oil or
gas pool and not in the best place. Carll! states that as a rule
the first wells drilled-in a new pool have greater productiveness
than those drilled later; but that if the first wells are drilled at
the edge of a pool in poor rock, wells subsequently drilled at
the center of production will drain the pioneer wells, whose high
initial yield is largely due to the original rock pressure being
sufficient to counterbalance the effect of the tight, close sand.
As illustrative of the conditions mentioned, Carll? cites the
National well No. 1, drilled in February, 1866, and situated a few
rods from the National No. 2, in the Pleasantville district.
It was very near the edge of a large and well-stored pool and passed
through rather an inferior oil rock, as compared with that afterward
found on the axis of the belt; still it had a sufficiently free connection
with the supplying reservoir to furnish a delivery of about 85 bbl. per
day, and it maintained its production with wonderful constancy for
two years, having declined only to about 60 bbl. in that time. In
the summer of 1868 wells were drilled in the main pool from which it
had been deriving its supply. Some of these wells produced as much as
150 bbl. per day. The effect upon the National was immediately
apparent. Its production dropped off rapidly and dwindled down to
10 bbl. or less per day.
The Harmonial well No. 1 was on the northern edge of the Pleasant-
ville belt. The main body of oil and the best sand rock, as was after-
ward demonstrated, lay to the south. It started with a small yield
and at the end of a fortnight was pumping about 30 bbl. per day.
Gradually increasing its production, as if enlarging and cleaning out
the passages leading into the supplying reservoir, it finally commenced
to flow and ran up to 125 bbl., where it remained until wells of larger
flow were drilled in the center of the belt and relieved the gas pressure,
when pumping had to be resumed. After this it soon fell down to an
unremunerative production and was abandoned.

Figure 138 shows oil occurring on a monoclinal dip, above a

water-saturated zone in the sand. The water level is con-
sidered as practically nonencroaching. As the oil body shrinks,
owing to the pumping of the wells, the upper level will drop,
and wells situated as at A will fail, possibly developing a little
gas production, followed by the failure of wells, as at B. Mean-
1J. F. Carur, “The Geology of the Oil Regions of Warren, Venango,
Clarion, and Butler Counties,’ Second Geol. Survey Pennsylvania, 3
(1880), 259.
2 J. F. Carut, zbid., 258 and 259.
388 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

while a well, as at C, is probably pumping somewhat more water

with the oil than are the others, and may perhaps be entirely
flooded, leaving wells situated, as at D, as the longest-lived wells
in the field.
The position of an oil property with respect to producing
territory should be studied carefully, for the knowledge to be
gained from such study will be of much assistance in arriving at
a fair valuation of the property.
Practically, so far as the oil man is concerned, an oil-bearing
rock before being drilled may be considered as a “‘sealed reser-
voir;” and as oil and gas are recovered from it, their places will
always be taken by some other medium, as nature tends to
restore equilibrium. This replacement may be made by the
expansion of gas from the same formation, or by air admitted
through wells; but in most fields this replacing agent is salt
water from the same stratum, fresh water from the surface
seeping through old wells, or water entering from an overlying
formation through badly packed or carelessly plugged wells.
Carll! says in this connection:
The flooding of an oil district is generally viewed as a great calamity,
yet it may be questioned whether a larger amount of oil cannot be
drawn from the rocks in that way than in any other; for it is certain
that all the oil cannot be drawn from the reservoir without the admission
of something to take its place.

This something may be gas or water from the surrounding

rocks or air entering through older wells.

DECREASE DUE TO ENCROACHMENT OF SALT WATER

UNDER HIGH PRESSURE

Encroachment of salt water takes place relatively quickly

under the following conditions:? If salt water lies in the lower
part of a porous formation overlain by the oil, and this in turn
by the gas above, and if a well taps both the oil and the water,
but not the gas because it is all up the dip, expansion of the gas,
acting downward on the oil and on the water, causes them to
rush to the well outlet. If the water is in greater quantity than
the oil, it will often in a short time flood the well entirely. The
Lj. F. Carut, zbid., 263.
? On water in oil wells, see also McLavauuin, Min, Sct, Press, 102 (1911),
295,
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS 389

oil is thus lost beyond recovery, and the well continues to pro-
duce nothing but large volumes of water. In pools like the
Bird Creek and certain other northern Oklahoma pools, the
initial wells were abandoned in some parts of the district,
whereas, after the gas pressure had been diminished as a
result of drilling other wells, it would have been possible to
have pumped oil from the top of the sand without being
troubled by water, because the water would then have been
under less pressure.
True encroachment to restore equilibrium may occur in a field
where there is a strong hydrostatic head counterbalanced by the
gas pressure existing in an oil pool, or by a corresponding head of

Fig. 140.—How true encroachment occurs.

oil, as shown in Fig. 140. As the gas is drained through well A,

the water advances until wells B and C are flooded, and the pool
fails from its outer edges inward until possibly well A produces a
little oil along with some water, and in its turn is finally flooded.
By studying the direction of flow of encroaching water, certain
wells can sometimes be reserved to be pumped for water alone,
thus protecting the others of the group or pool from encroach-
ment. Where a few large operators control production in a
certain pool, cooperation in the study of such conditions and
concerted action may result in a larger recovery of the oil in
the pool than would be had by any other means. When many
small operators are drawing from a pool, water encroachment is
seldom made an ally instead of an enemy.
 390 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

As a result of the encroachment of water part, of the

oil is
crowded into the roof of the porous formation, and part advanc
es
ahead of the water, changing the relative status of the remain
ing
wells with regard to the rest of the pool, and perhaps
materially
changing the shape and position of the remainder of the
pool.
The oil crowded into the roof of the formation
or caught in

Fie. 141.—The effect of water encroachment

.

“crowns” or irregularities caus

es some water wells to cont
to produce a little oil with the inue
water, even though all the sur-
rounding wells produce only
water. This condition is illustrated
in Fig. 141, which shows a pock
et of oil retained by a porous
in the sand after the encroa lens
chment of water.
Salt-water encroachment may
also occur where the oil acts
the only force to restrain as
the encroachment. As wells are
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS 391

pumped, drainage channels are set up in the sand, and water

begins to follow the oil as the oil seeps toward the wells, until
only water wells exist. This form of encroachment is really a
modification of the second case mentioned above, but can be
more easily utilized to aid in draining a pool effectively.
Again, considering the oil-sand as a “practically sealed reser-
voir,’ obviously something must be introduced to take the place
of the oil that is being pumped out. A body of water under
moderate pressure behind the oil will probably aid in moving the
oil toward the wells as they are pumped, and will result in the
least possible amount of oil being left behind in the formation
when the pool is finally abandoned.

DECREASE DUE TO FLOODING BY NONENCROACHING

SALT WATER

The occurrence of water in the lower part of the same porous

formation in which the oil is encountered is frequent in pools
where the rocks lie almost level.. Where such a condition
exists, care is usually exercised to stop drilling just short of the
water. However, an uneven formation may make it impossible
to judge with certainty when to stop drilling. Possibly cleaning
or shooting a well may cause it to break through into the water
below, or an influx of fresh water from the surface or from an
overlying formation may raise the water level above that origin-
ally existing in the oil-sand. In such cases oil and water are
pumped together and in many cases the total amount of water
decreases in the course of time. However, certain classes
of mineral water tend to “cut” the oil and cause the formation of
obstructive matter. It is believed that in some pools pumping
the water with the oil is an aid to the oil recovery, the water
tending to “flow” the oil toward the well.
In Oklahoma the high gas pressure in the early days of some
pools has blown out such large quantities of water with the
gas that many wells have had to be abaudoned. When the
pressure in such wells has decreased they may be pumped to
advantage and may produce oil in large quantities; or by keep-
ing the pressure of the gas as a restraining agent, by using only a
small percentage of the capacity of the well, the water may be
kept back and oil only recovered.
 !

392 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

DECREASE DUE TO FLOODING BY FRESH WATER

Owing to defective packers, to lack of care in plugging

abandoned wells, and to accidents in drilling and casing,
water is admitted to many oil-bearing formations from the
surface or from an overlying water-bearing stratum. Depend-
ing upon conditions, this admission of water may have any one
of several results.
If the volume of water is small, such as that seeping around a
defective packer, or that due to temporary flooding before the
packing is inserted, it may aid in the recovery of the oil by
furnishing the medium necessary to take the place of the oil
pumped out, thereby increasing the production of a well or group
of wells.
If the quantity of water is large and the thickness of the porous
formation is small, the water may force the oil back so far that
it cannot be recovered from the well affected. The inflow of
water may, however, benefit other wells in the vicinity, helping
the movement of the oil in other directions, and, the field being
considered as a whole, may replace the oil pumped out and
aid in its recovery. The pressure exerted by the column of
water in a deep well is great, especially if the volume of water
entering the well is sufficient to keep the column constant.
The flooding of fresh water no doubt accounts for some
phenomenal production in fields where the recovery of petroleum
from a sand rock has been relatively much higher than in other
districts producing oil from a formation of equal thickness and
porosity.
Attempts have been made to flood an oil-bearing formation,
so as to concentrate the oil in the formation and to effect a
maximum recovery of the oil by water replacement. The
practice is denounced by old operators in the Bradford (Pa.)
field, and these efforts have met with indifferent success, not on
account of fault in theory, but on account of insufficient data
bearing upon underground conditions, varying porosities, etc.,
making intelligent prediction as to the movement of the oil an
uncertainty. Clashing interests usually prevent such attempts
on a large scale, wells belonging to rival operators being perhaps
the first flooded, although they may not be located so closely as
other wells.
When water is admitted in large quantities it tends to flow out
 DECLINE OF O1L WELLS 393

in various directions, the greatest flow following the line of least

resistance. Owing to the differences in the resistance offered by
sands of differing porosities and to varying amounts of gas in
the rock, this movement of the water (and oil) in regions of low
monoclinal dip—say, 15 to 20 ft. to the mile—will extend up the
dip as well as down. The movement will be particularly strong in
the direction of very porous lenses and toward pumping wells,
regardless of the effect of gravitation, the suction created by the
pumping wells being sufficient to overcome the relatively slight
tendency of the fluid to flow downward. This effect sometimes
causes wells situated above the point of flooding to be affected
ahead of the water wave and abandoned before those down the
dip are affected. As an additional result, the water wave, aided
by irregularities in the structure and shape of the pool, will some-
times surround bodies of oil that were originally a part of the
pool. Two or three such isolated pools are mentioned by Carll
as having been discovered on the outskirts of the Pithole oil
pool after the central part had been flooded.
Again, lenticular pebble beds or lenses of unusually porous
sand may form pockets in the upper part of an oil-sand and may
catch quantities of oil, which are retained as the main body of
oil advances ahead of the water wave (Fig. 141). These pockets
furnish the oil in many wells that are entirely surrounded by
flooded territory yet continue to produce a little oil along with
large quantities of water.
The entering water may shift the whole body of oil from its
original position, the extent of such shifting depending on the
dip and shape of the pool and its underground structure. The
Oil Springs pool in Lambton County, Ontario, is an example.
When the pool was first developed it produced from a shallow
“‘nay,’’ an open vesicular stratum in the Corniferous limestone.
The wells were all dug and were cased with Scotch casing of
large diameter. At the time of the Fenian raid, the field was
temporarily abandoned. When operations were later resumed
it was found that the lower part of the casing in a great number
of the wells had been corroded away, the wells had caved, and
great quantities of fresh water from swamps on the surface had
flooded the oil-bearing formation. Deeper drilling developed
the present ‘pay’ stratum at a lower depth, and the old wells
were abandoned, as they could not, of course, be plugged.
In recent years wells drilled through this shallow stratum
394 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

showed that the water had decreased, and one well struck oil.
Other wells were drilled, and an attempt was again made to
pump off the water.
These operations developed the fact that after the spring rains
or any large freshet, quantities of fresh water seeping into this
porous formation caused the water level to advance up the sides
of the anticline upon which the pool is situated, carrying before
it a considerable body of oil. By pumping certain wells, located
at strategic points, in progressive rotation as the water or oil
advanced or receded, considerable oil was recovered.
It was noticed that more oil was recovered upon the recession
of the water than upon its advance. As the water advanced, a
part of the oil was probably caught and retained in the porous
irregularities on the roof of the stratum. As the water receded,
these were again taken up by the main body of oil, increasing its
quantity. This supposition is supported by the fact that a few
wells would continue to produce a little oil with the water after
the surrounding wells had all been flooded by the advancing
water. This theory is illustrated in Fig. 136. 1 and 2 represent
wells through which flooding takes place, whereas A, A’, B, and
C represent wells pumped successively for oil as the water changes
the relative position of the oil body.
One well is reported to have yielded 1,300 bbl. of oil in three
days before failing. As these shallow wells must be worked at
great speed to effect a maximum recovery before being again
flooded, pumps of large diameter and quick stroke are used.
Owing to the unusual conditions and to the open vesicular
nature of the oil-bearing stratum, the effects of flooding could be
observed to good advantage in the Oil Springs pool. In most
pools the “sand” is less porous, seepage and movement of the
water and oil are slower, and local conditions complicate the
problem.
The main factors affecting the flooding of an oil-bearing forma-
tion may be summarized as follows (adapted from Carll) :!
(a) Time of flooding—whether early in the process of opera-
tions, while yet a large percentage of oil (and gas) remains un-
exhausted, or at a later period after the supply has suffered from
long-continued depletion.
1 J. F. Carut, ‘The Geology of the Oil Regions of Warren, Venango,
Clarion, and Butler Counties,” Second Geol. Survey Pennsylvania, 3
(1880), 265.
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS 395

(b) Composition of the formation—whether regular and homo-

geneous throughout or composed of fine sand interbedded with
irregular layers of gravel, in places lying near the top and in
places near the bottom.
(c) Position of the pool—whether flat, as on a structural
terrace, upon a monoclinal slope, upon the crest of an anticline,
or at the bottom of a syncline.
(d) Shape of the area being flooded.
(e) Position of the point at which water is admitted in refer-
ence to the situation of surrounding wells still pumping oil.
(f) Height of the column of water obtaining admittance.
(g) Duration of the water supply. It will readily be seen that
a temporary flooding in comparatively fresh territory, as from
the drilling of new wells without casing and from the overhauling
of old ones having the seed bag attached to the tubing in the
primitive way, must necessarily be a different affair from a
flooding caused by a permanent deluge through unplugged and
abandoned wells in nearly exhausted territory.
In the former case the flood may be checked before much water
has accumulated in the rock, and then the oil flow can be re-
claimed after a few days of persistent pumping; and in the
latter the recovery of oil is very uncertain, because, for its long-
continued extraction, a greater capacity has been given to the
rocks for storing water, and this being supplied from scattered
and obscure sources there is little probability that it can be
shut off, although the most thorough and systematic attempts be
made to check it.?
Mention may be made of the danger of drilling wells off shore
along large bodies of water, as has been done in the Selkirk gas
field in Ontario, along the California coast, and in the Tumbes
oil field in Peru. An unlimited quantity of water, once ad-
mitted, will result in the flooding of an entire district.
On the other hand, the continuous entrance of relatively small
quantities of water through leaky seed-bag packers in the early
days of the Pennsylvania oil fields may have furnished the heat
necessary to prevent the chilling of the oil that was expelled
through the free escape of large quantities of gas. The water
so entering may have accounted for the continued productive-
ness of some wells, preventing the chilling of the oil and the

1J. F. Carut, ibid., 266.

396 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

formation of waxy sediments, and may have been one of the

factors in some of the phenomenal productions of that period.
Although in drilling wells by the old wet method! the heavy
column of water may have prevented the early discovery of
some oil-bearing strata, nevertheless the gas was conserved
until utilized in the expulsion of oil. Some modern wells drilled
by the dry method, all water being cased off while drilling is
under way, encounter, especially in the Oklahoma fields, a
strong flow of gas, which is blown off before the expulsion of
oil commences. Were these wells drilled “wet’’, there is no
doubt that in some cases this premature blowing of gas would
be avoided, the oil would commence to flow immediately upon
pumping out the water, and the rock pressure of the pool would
be conserved for the continued expulsion of oil, thus increasing
the ultimate production of the district. This great waste
of natural gas is one of the extravagant practices and one to
which little attention has been paid until now, when the fields
are on the point of exhaustion.

DECLINE DUE TO THE DRILLING OF NEIGHBORING WELLS

In an oil pool situated in a region where the formations have

a pronounced dip, it will usually be found the best practice to
space wells closer across the dip than down the dip. Figs.
137, 142 and 143, from Slichter’s? discussion of the mutual —
interference of artesian wells, show a number of ways in which oil
and water are diverted by wells, either flowing or pumping.
Fig. 142 shows the lines of flow into a well in a region where the
fluid has a constant motion in a general direction. If a second
well were drilled in the neutral zone, O, its production would be
considerably smaller than that of well 1. This figure, in connec-
tion with Fig. 137, will indicate the advisability of spacing wells
closer across the line of dip or flow than down the dip. In the
West Virginia fields, and in a few Oklahoma fields, where opera-
tors control large blocks of territory, wells are being spaced
one well to 10 acres. In many fields the practice has been
to space them much closer than this; and in many town-lot
developments, several wells have been drilled on an acre.
‘Isatad Bowman, ‘“Well-drilling Methods,” U.S. Geol. Survey, Water-
Supply Paper 257 (1911), p. 51.
*C. 8. Suicurer, “Theoretical Investigation of the Motion of Ground
Waters,” 19th Ann. Rept. U. S. Geol. Survey, pt. 2, 1898, 367.
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS 397

Slichter! demonstrates that in water wells in homogeneous

formations, the total flow of two wells 200 ft. apart is about 169
per cent. the flow of a single well. If a third well be placed
midway between the two, so as to make a row of three wells
100 ft. apart, the total combined flow from the three wells is
about 207 per cent. of the flow of a single well. On the basis of
relative viscosities of light crude oils and water, the same figure

(
-7
Fia. 142.—Lines of flow into
a well Fre. 143.—Lines of flow into two
in a region where the water or oil interfering wells, one of which has
has a constant motion in a general double the capacity of the other.
direction.

would apply approximately to oil wells 400 ft. apart. This

disregards differences in the porosity of the sand, varying gas
pressures, etc. In a normally tight sand, wells may be drilled
closer together in order to drain the territory at the same rate,
the character of the sand preventing excessive refrigeration due
to the free escape of the gas. In such a tight sand neighboring
wells do not affect each other to the same degree as in a very
1C. 8. SuicutEr, ibid., 377,
398 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

porous stratum; that is, such pronounced drainage channels

toward the wells first drilled are not formed.
Figure 144, after Hager,' indicates how the first well (1 in
the figure) drilled in loose unconsolidated formations, such as the
Tertiary and Cretaceous sands of California and Louisiana, will
set up drainage lines in all directions, so that later wells (2, 3,
4, and 5 in the figure) will produce little or nothing, although there
are still large quantities of oil in the field. Well 1, however,

Fira, 144.—The drainage lines of one well.

continued to produce prolifically. Fig. 143 shows the lines of

flow for two interfering wells in the case where one well has
doubled the capacity of the other, the larger presumably having
been drilled first.
Town-lot development and the conditions brought about by
many operators with small leases fighting for production, result
in extravagant and wasteful methods of production. Likewise,
in the case of the Government leases in Oklahoma—the so-called
1 Dorsny Hacer, “Geological Factors in Oil Production,” Min. Sci.
Press, 103 (1911), 740.
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS 399

‘‘short-term”’ leases—operators were led to drill uneconomically

in order to extract the maximum amount of oil before the leases
expired. Such development means uneconomical production
throughout—drilling more wells than are necessary, pumping too
fast, wasting gas pressure (and the gas itself), in flooding wells,
and pumping one well against another, thereby creating under-
ground conditions favorable for the encroachment of water.
To drain an oil property most efficiently, that is, to extract all
the oil possible with a minimum number of wells and at an
economical rate of production, it is essential to consider the best
distance at which to space wells. This distance will, of course,
differ for every producing stratum and for every field.
In a great many fields the territory is divided among a number
of operators, each working against the other to extract the most
oi: possible before his neighbor has a chance to take it. This
usually results in the holders of small leases drilling as many wells
as possible close to the boundary lines, forcing the lessees of sur-
rounding land to drill well for well in order to protect their own
property. As a matter of course, in such cases, no attention is
paid to the proper spacing of wells, nor-to the probable effect of
one well on another. When large operators control sufficient
acreage, the common practice in the older fields is to space wells
from 400 to 500 ft. apart. The relatively large leases in the Cush-
ing pool, in Oklahoma, has made it possible for operators to drill
more efficiently than was the case in some parts of the Glenn pool.
The average in the Cushing pool is one well to 8 acres. This has
saved a great deal of money for unnecessary drilling operations,
and also undoubtedly conserved more favorable underground
conditions in the field.
As mentioned above, in some formations the first well drilled in
a group will tend to set up drainage channels and divert large
quantities of oil from a considerable area. Subsequent wells
come in as much smaller producers than the original well. Again,
in loose, unconsolidated sands, such as are found in the Caddo
field in Louisiana, in California, and in the famous Glenn pool
in Oklahoma, if a well stops pumping for a day, the surrounding
wells extend their own channels, breaking down the drainage
system of the first well, to the extent that it is often difficult to
again recover oil from the well that has stopped pumping. Asa
result, the wells in the Glenn pool are pumped 24 hr. a day, 365
days in a year. The condition of the sand in the Glenn pool
400 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

was brought about somewhat artificially by the use of enormous

quantities of nitroglycerin in shooting. The sand, originally
coarse and porous, has probably been shattered throughout the
entire producing area.
In certain lenticular formations, described by the oil man as
“spotty,” of two wells drilled only 150 ft. apart, one has been a
large producer and the other a dry hole. This discrepancy may
be due to drainage conditions or may be caused by an intervening
hard spot in the oil sand. If it is caused by drainage conditions,
the stopping of the producing well would probably cause the
other to produce. Again, wells 1,000 to 2,000 ft. apart are in
places so closely connected underground that the muddy water
used in drilling one well has been pumped out by another well a
considerable distance away, not necessarily the well nearest to
the one being drilled. This condition is common in the Caddo
field in Louisiana, and in other fields producing from the un-
consolidated gravels and sands of the Cretaceous and Tertiary
formations.
In a previous paragraph is mentioned a case in the Vinton pool
in Louisiana, in which a well drilled near a good producer encoun-
tered a loose, coarse pay sand. In the producer the sand was
so loose that the rotary bit of its own weight immediately sank
to the bottom. .The second well struck sand, seemingly of the
same nature, which immediately ‘‘packed,”’ so that drilling was
necessary to penetrate it. The second well never produced;
moreover, the sand ‘‘packed”’ in the original well, which likewise
ceased to produce.
The Triumph pool in Pennsylvania was operated by means of
gas pumps, so that there was a minus pressure of 10 to 12 oz.
at each well.! It is possible that the Vinton pool, which is a small
isolated pool in which all the wells drilled were producers at the
time mentioned, was being operated under similar circumstances.
There being no water to take the place of the oil extracted, when
the second well was drilled, the sudden application of atmos-
pheric pressure was sufficient to pack the sand and force the oil
in the vicinity to other parts of the field where wells were being
pumped. ‘The oil is of a heavy asphalt base, with no gas content,
and no water was encountered.
le, 18, CaRLL, “The Geology of the Oil and Gas Regions of Warren, Ven-
ango, Clarion and Butler Counties,” Second Geol. Survey Pennsylvania, 3
(1880), 260.
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS 401

It is possible that the sudden flooding of some oil pools is oc-

casioned by the drilling of a well into the water at a strategic
point, thus putting an added pressure of 15 lb, per square inch be-
hind the water, which perhaps lacked less than this amount of the
force necessary to flood the oil-bearing district. Such a balance
of forces would of course be rare and difficult to anticipate. Pos-
sibly a series of water wells, drilled from time to time as the
pressure in an oil pool diminished, might reduce the rapidity of
the flooding and yet be the direct means of flooding the oil-pro-
ducing wells. However, the writer knows of no instance where
such a procedure would have been warranted in practice.
Again, the production of wells in pools producing heavy oils
with little or no gas pressure, such as some small pools situated
on quaquaversal domes along the Gulf coastal plain, might
be increased by drilling air holes on the outskirts of the pools,
thereby creating a draft from these points to the wells located in
the center of production. If this should be done in pools situated
in flat-lying strata or on very slight dips, the use of the gas pump
to aid small wells might be avoided in some instances, the at-
mospheric pressure creating a flow of oil. This plan would at
least be safer than an artificial flooding with water, if the under-
ground conditions are practically unknown.

DECREASE DUE TO POOR MANAGEMENT

Many wells cease to produce at an economical rate because of

poor management of the numerous mechanical details. Some
of these are enumerated below, but it may be said that it is in
the surface management of wells that greatest improvement has
taken place since the early days of petroleum production. In
fact, it is remarkable to consider the great variety of time- and
labor-saving contrivances now in use, as against the great
dearth of information regarding underground conditions.
Neglected Casing.—Casing corrodes more in some districts than
in others. It is often allowed to deteriorate without attention,
until the result is the admission of water to the productive
stratum from overlying formations or from the surface. This
cause of decreasing production needs only the simple remedy
of proper attention.
Pumping Methods and Regulations.—In most fields where
producing wells are closely grouped, as many of them as possible
26
402 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

are pumped from a common power plant by “shackles” or

‘jerk lines.”” Some of the wells may be pumping from several
different producing formations at the same time. Especially
in the high-grade oil fields each well requires different handling,
and the rate and the length of time for pumping most effectively
at one period of its life will not produce the best results at
another. Although this variation is obviated to some extent
by the use of ‘“‘bleeders,” “leaky valves,’’ and other devices for
automatically stopping the pumping of oil before the face of the
sand is uncovered, yet such regulation is unsatisfactory and
leaves much to be desired. ‘‘Pumping by heads” is a step in the
right direction, in that it conserves the gas pressure in the pool
for the continued expulsion of oil and also tends to keep back
salt water under pressure. However, under present practice
it is impossible to judge the best possible time to pump and the
proper height of oil column to leave in the well at all times.
An automatic control, with valves set to start pumping upon
the accumulation of a certain maximum pressure, and to stop
pumping upon the exhaustion of the oil to a certain set depth,
would add greatly to the production in many cases, and would
eliminate the possible negligence and usual lack of knowledge of
the average pumper. Several automatic control devices are
said to be on the market, and one at least has been tested with
success. The problem of applying them is solely mechanical,
and there can be little question as to the advisability of the use
of such devices at a great many wells.
Incorrect pumping methods, by which a well is pumped too
fast or too often or too deep, produce several bad results. The
expansive force of the gas and its aid in the movement of the oil
is lost by the gas being allowed to escape freely. Instead, only
such an amount of gas as is associated with the head of oil
pumped should be allowed to escape.
The ideal cycle of production in a pumping well very closely
approximates that of a well packed by the old seed-bag method,
as follows (adapted from an unpublished manuscript by M. W.
Quick) :
(a) Pressure is developed in the well sufficient to overcome the
resistance of the column of liquid in the tubing, which is expelled
naturally or pumped off.
(b) The weight of petroleum in the well column overcomes the
rock pressure and a point of equilibrium is reached. ‘The
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS 403

excess of pressure of the shut-in gas over that of the column of

oil has only a slight retarding effect on the further expulsion of
oil, as the shut-in pressure can never exceed the rock pressure.
(c) The pump is started and the “head” of oil above the top
of the sand is pumped off and the shut-in gas is allowed to escape.
Thus the only gas released is that originally in the head of oil,
where it aids in expelling the oil.
(d) The well is again shut in and again heads. Although
such control is practically impossible where the pumping of a
well is regulated by ordinary methods, yet an automatic device
for such regulation would result in the maximum recovery of
oil with the least possible loss of expulsive energy from the
stratum. To duplicate this cycle, pumping methods must be
controlled by intrastrata conditions in some automatic manner,
otherwise wells will be pumped too frequently to insure the
greatest production. The resistance of chilled oil may not
be overcome between the pumping of accumulated heads of oil,
and energies for the expulsion of sediments and waxy accumaula-
tions may not be developed.
Automatic devices are on the market; but owing to the inertia
of the producer relative to trying out such seemingly revolution-
ary schemes, they have not been given a fair trial under the
conditions to which they are adapted. A general recognition of
the need of such automatic control for the pumping of oil wells,
governed by the natural underground conditions at each well,
would result in the perfecting of many details to adapt the
devices to the varying needs of different fields. Thus the pro-
duction of districts now being abandoned, with large quantities
of oil still remaining in the rock, would be increased. The re-
quirements of each well vary and the necessities of to-day will
not apply to-morrow. Conservation of rock temperature to
prevent chilled and ‘“‘cut” oil, by the use of head pumping,
-bleeders, or leaky valves causing the flooding of the sand and
reducing refrigeration of the gas by expansion, is necessary in the
fields producing high-grade paraffin oil. It is not so necessary
in the Mexican and other fields producing heavy oils that contain
less spontaneously volatile hydrocarbons. Conditions of ac-
cumulation are also very different in the Gulf Coast and Mexican
fields. High-grade gaseous oil containing high percentage of
paraffins, must, of course, be handied differently from the heavy
oil of the fields last mentioned.
404 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

The flowing of wells by compressed air is falling into disuse in

the Eastern and Mid-Continent fields, as it has a tendency to cut
the casing of the tubing. Flowing is not economical for small
wells, there not being a sufficient head of oil against which the
air may act. The effect in practice is to increase vaporization
and the formation of waxy sediments and to clog the face of the
sand.
Air-lift pumping has been tried with the same effects as regards
increasing the chilling of the oil and the formation of paraffin.
These methods are both more applicable to heavy oil of an
asphalt base. ~
Construction of Wells.—Increased production may sometimes
be obtained by using large casing. This makes possible the use
of large strainers where desirable, and the use of an inside per-
forated casing or liner where the formation is inclined to cave
and cause the casing to collapse; in fact, the large-sized holes
make the future handling of the well, or future deeper drilling,
an easier problem. It may be said that wells that might flow
naturally with a small-sized casing would cease to do so through
a large hole. This difficulty is sometimes overcome by using a
reducer on the bottom of the lowest string of casing, the well
flowing through a 2-in. tubing for a long period after it has ceased
to flow with only the 53/¢-in. casing in the hole. The larger hole
has a tendency to drain the territory more quickly, and conse-
quently the well will very probably be shorter lived than if the
hole were smaller in diameter. Also, the larger hole probakly
results more frequently in chilled oil, caused by the greater sur-
face from which volatilization occurs. Enough information has
not been gathered to give definite figures as to this.
Tapping all Overlying “Pay” Strata—In the early develop-
ment of new fields, in the hurry to tap the principal oil stratum
in advance of rival operators, all overlying ‘‘pays” are neglected
and usually are cased off, no record of them being kept by the
driller, who is usually paid for drilling by the foot or by the well. |
In later years, when production has fallen off in the older sand,
it often becomes desirable to tap the upper sands, but by that
time it is frequently impossible to know how deep they lie. In
drilling by the wet method in the early days, the water pressure
prevented some minor oil “pays” from indicating their presence.
These have since been developed and some of them have proved
large producers.
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS 405

Deep Drilling.—Improved methods of drilling, a better knowl-

edge of the geology of oil and gas, and the rapidly increasing
demand for petroleum, have recently resulted in a search for
petroleum by deep drilling in many of the older fields, some of.
which are enjoying a new lease of life—notably parts of the
Clinton sand fields of eastern Ohio, the St. Mary’s pool in West
Virginia, and some of the Pennsylvania fields. It is considered
not improbable that the Mid-Continent fields have a deep-sand
future.
Spacing Wells.—In spacing wells, the utilization of the move-
ment of the oil in a pool and the thorough draining of the maxi-
mum amount of territory with the minimum number of wells, are
the two main considerations. As regards the first, as has been
mentioned, the wells should be spaced closer together across the
dip of the formations than down the dip, or in the direction in
which the oil is draining.. In any given field advantage should
be taken of all available data bearing on the effects of wells on
each other at different distances and in different directions.
Hager! gives an interesting method for obtaining data regarding
the proper number of wells necessary to drain a certain given
territory, in the California fields, as follows:
The property, 640 acres, is underlaid by three sands. The
table below shows the known and the computed information
prepared from a study of a large number of wells.
TaBLE XX XVIII.

Area underlain Thickness of sands Number of Computed quantity

by sands. under each acreage. acre-feet. of oil available.
1 2 3 4

Acres Feet Barrels

200 95 91,000 9,000,000
200 65 13,000 6,600,000
240 40 3,600 4,400,000
640 41,600 20,000,000

Columns 1, 4, and 5 are taken from Table XX XVIII. and corre-

spond to columns 1, 2, and 4, respectively (which are of impor-
tance in reaching a conclusion as to the number of wells needed).
Columns 2 and 3in Table XX XIX. are derived from data collected
1 Dorsey Haar, “Geological Factors in Oil Production,” Min. Sci. Press,
103 (1911), 739.
406 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

from a study of a large number of wells. Column 6 is obtained

by dividing the figures in column 5 by those in column2. Column
7 is obtained by dividing the figures in column 4 by those in
column 6. These results are purely assumptive, and should in
no way be considered as of value except for the purpose of
illustration.
TaBLE XXXIX.

Production Life per Computed | Number| Acres

Thickness | per thickness thickness Number number of of wells per
of sands, in 1. in 15 of acres. barrels needed. well.
available.
1 2 3 4 5 6 if

Feet Barrels Years

95 180,600 9 200 | 9,000,000 | 50 4.0
65 120,000 7 200 | 6,600,000 | 55 3.6
40 80,000 5 240 4,400,000 55 4.4

640 |20,000,000 160 4.0!

As Hager states:
“‘Eivery operator desires some idea of the amount of oil he may reason-
ably expect from a property. Estimates of this kind are only approxi-
mate and are useful guides to conservative men.”

The above method should be used with care and in connection

with all data obtainable as to the location of the property in re-
lation to the rest of the pool; and in estimating the theoretical
quantity of oil available from the thickness of the sand, good
judgment based on accurate data is necessary to determine the
true thickness of the sand as shown by the drillers’ logs. In some
pools only a part of the porous stratum is saturated with oil, or
other prevailing conditions make calculation of the oil content
on this basis incorrect. The method could, of course, be used only
in territory already proved.

CLEANING WELLS

With regard to cleaning wells, Roswell H. Johnson, of the

University of Pittsburgh, makes the following statement regard-
ing the Mid-Continent fields:
I find that there are operators who never clean their wells, those who
do so only as a last resort when the well is near abandonment, and
1 Average.
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS 407

others who do so periodically. I should say that on an average wells

are not cleaned oftener than once in three years. The consideration of
this matter is important, because the practice is so variable and the
work is so expensive. My own views are as follows:

METHODS OF CLEANING UNDER DIFFERENT CONDITIONS

Where Water is not Found in the Sand.—In case the sand does not
carry water, a pocket at least 10 ft.1 deep should be drilled below the
sand. Besides the possibility of revealing a second pay, the pocket
provides a receptacle for loose sand or cavings without affecting the
well. I would have the intake of the pump opposite the bottom of the
pay and have a small air hole in the working barrel near its top at the
top of the pay. The first cleaning immediately after the shot should
be thorough and should empty the pocket. Such a well, by sanding its
pump cups, will automatically show when cleaning is needed. When
the pump is pulled for renewing the cups, the depth of the well should
be measured with a tape to see how much the pocket has filled. If
the filling is more than 2 ft. above the bottom of the pay, it probably
will be practicable to clean the pocket; if the filling is less, the working
barrel can be set higher until the cups have to be replaced again. Of
course, with oil selling at 60 cts., one would not be as intent on cleaning
as with oil at $1.50. As soon as a well is‘in good shape, I think the der-
rick should be removed and used elsewhere. Pulling is done with a
pulling machine and cleaning with a drilling machine. I think the
shot should be placed at the bottom of the pay, so that the hole will
extend still farther and, with the pocket, give space for a considerable
accumulation of loose sand before the intake is reached. When the
well becomes unremunerative a working barrel without the air hole
may be put in; then the well can probably be pumped a little while
longer.
Where there 1s Nonencroaching Water under Low Pressure in the
Bottom of the Sand.—If there is water under low pressure in the bottom
of the sand, drilling should be continued until water is evident, and
should not be stopped at the depth where water is expected. The pocket
should be omitted and the well should be shot at a point only 1 ft. above
the supposed line between the water and the oil. The first cleaning
should be thorough. Effort should be made to have the well ‘‘make”
considerable water with the oil, care being taken, of course, not to get
so much that a 24-hr. pumping through the 3-in. pipe will exhaust the
water, if fuel is cheap. By taking this water, assurance is had that no
pay will be missed; also, the current of the water flowing to the hole
helps to move in the oil.
1JTn the Ontario peninsula pockets 50 to 100 ft. deep are drilled by the
leading operators.
408 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Where there is Nonencroaching Water under High Pressure—In case

there is nonencroaching water under high pressure, care should be ©
taken to stop wells a little short of the water. They may be drilled
deeper to the water when it is desired to clean them. In my opinion,
many of our wells, deserted because drilled through oil into high-pressure
water, could have been handled a year or two later when neighboring
wells had reduced the pressure.
Where there is Encroaching Water——If there is encroaching water,
wells must stop a little short of the water; hence the shot should not
extend to the bottom.

GENERAL METHOD OF CLEANING

The methods of cleaning in general use may be enumerated as follows:
1. Removal of accumulated sand by tools and sand pump.
2. Hot-billet treatment. Too uneconomic and inefficient.
3. Gasoline treatment. I believe this method is very useful where
the refinery owns the well and can thus recover the gasoline.
4, Freshening the hole with a small torpedo. This expedient is not
necessary when the sand runs in freely. It is probably most useful
where some kinds of water are associated with the oil and make a deposit
on the sand face.
5. Electric heat. This seems very promising.
In regard to freshening the hole with small shots, so-called
“‘squibbing,”’ it may be said that the effect is probably to furnish
the heat necessary to redissolve the accumulated waxy paraffins
that clog the hole and to cause their expulsion by fresh oil. Even
though it be conceded that close argillaceous and calcitic sand-
stones saturated with petroleum require shattering, the conclusion
does not follow that all sandstones should be treated with large
quantities of high explosives, as shooting often produces a heat-
ing rather than a shattering effect. In a hole full of water the
liquid takes up the shock of the shot and prevents shattering,
yet the shooting results in increased production by causing a
fluxing of the waxy sediments.
In other wells “pay” streaks are unknown, but shooting in
later years may start them flowing.

CONCLUSION

The spacing of wells, the construction and management of

wells, the encroachment of water, the conservation of gas, the
cleaning and pumping of wells, are all subjects demanding the
 DECLINE OF OIL WELLS 409

closest attention and the most detailed study at this time, for
the reason that the life of the industry depends on the lessening
of waste and the proper exploitation of our petroleum resources.
Exact information regarding the yield of wells is meager and
unclassified, so that the preparation of an account of the tech-
nology of this important branch involves not so much com-
pilation of published data, but rather, to a large extent, the
recording of results of extended inquiries in the field. The
persons consulted frequently have no conception of the relation
of the information they give to the problems under considera-
tion. On the other hand, many producers and operators are
improving their methods as a result of experience, realizing that
the problems in new fields or new pools cannot be handled by
rule-of-thumb methods. Such methods, although excellent for
the conditions under which they originated, cannot always be
applied to conditionsin new fields and to drilling and operating
under unforeseen difficulties.
 CHAPTER X

EFFICIENCY IN THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM

By Rosweiui H. JoHnson?

The wisest management of our oil resources demands (1)

the production of maximum amounts with a minimum sacrifice
of human effort; and (2) the utilization of this product with the
maximum satisfaction to ourselves.
The discussion falls under two general heads, increased effi-
ciency in production and in utilization.
Efficient Production.—The present methods of producing oil
leave very much to be desired. We may reasonably hope, if
proper research is given to the subject, that in the next decade
such advance will be made as to secure the product with a de-
cided reduction in drilling expense, and, what is more, to obtain
a far higher percentage from the sands that are reached. Un-
fortunately, current practice fails to make use of even those im-
proved methods that have been already proposed or demonstrated.
Leasing.—The method of leasing to-day is peculiarly wasteful,
for the reason that the royalty to be paid to the land owner is a
fixed percentage. It is perfectly obvious that as the decline
continues, the well must be abandoned when the producer’s
fraction of the production, for instance, seven-eighths, no longer
exceeds the maintenance charge, although the well could still
yield more than the maintenance charge, if this one-eighth was
not deducted. Some kind of a sliding scale or graduation should
therefore be adopted in order to reduce the rate as the well ages.
This may be accomplished either by the block, period, uniform
or class method.
The block method calls for a fixed royalty rate on all oil
produced up to a certain amount, after which a lower rate would
be charged. This method is objectionable since the rate is
reduced without reference to the decline of the well. It fails
to adjust the ability to pay to the amount of payment.
1 Professor of Oil and Gas Production in the University of Pittsburgh, and
member of the firm of JouNson and Huntuey, Consulting Oil Geologists,
306 State Hall, Pittsburgh, Pa.
410
 EFFICIENCY IN THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM A\11

In the period method, the royalty rate is changed by some

definite amount when the well produces less than a specified
quantity per day or other given unit of time. While simple in
character, it operates badly because a great deal is made to depend
upon a small reduction in production, whereas the reduction, as
a matter of fact, declines rather erratically, owing to the exi-
gencies of lease management, connecting of tankage, and the
vagaries of the gaugers.
These disadvantages are obviated by the uniformly degressive
method. In this method, all the production less than a certain
amount per week pays no royalty. The amount paid in royalty
declines gradually, rather than suddenly, as in the period method.
The fear has been expressed that if uniformly degressive
royalties are adopted, too high a royalty would be charged in
the early life of the well, which would have the effect of de-
stroying the occasional high rewards essential to the producer
to recoup him for the heavy expenses of the inevitable pro-
portion of dry holes. Such a result would necessitate a great
increase in the cost of oil to the consumer to produce higher
profits on small wells, in order to stimulate the producer to
continue his activities. Such a result would be a social loss;
but the fear, in the author’s opinion, is not justified, for the
land owner would not get such high, early royalties without
serious sacrifice in the bonus, which he would usually prefer
not to make.
Another advantage of the uniformly degressive royalty is to
prevent the excessive flat royalties now frequently offered for
promising land, such as the 50 per cent. on the Cimarron River
bottoms and the 25 per cent. that we occasionally hear of in other
fields. These royalties always lead in a few years to unpleasant
threatening and bargaining between land owner and lessee,
resulting in successive agreements to reduce the royalty rate.
This awkward process, it is true, does accomplish a gradual re-
duction of the royalty rate. But the asperities of such negotia-
tions are very annoying and sometimes lead to premature
abandonment of the well, with a consequent serious offense
against wise conservation. The uniformly degressive royalty,
while avoiding the difficulties just referred to, still retains a
flexibility, by virtue of which the producer, who desires to, may
increase the royalty rate when the well can stand it, in this simple
way transferring some of the speculative profits to the land
412 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

owner in lieu of bonus. This bonus the producer may not be

able to pay, or the land owner may prefer not to accept.
The uniformly degressive royalty lengthens the life of the well
and increases the percentage of the oil which is recovered. If
the royalty is ene-sixth and the maintenance and interest on
the “junk” is 8314 cts. per day, then a well must be abandoned
when its net income to the producer declines to that amount.
Yet the gross income is still $1 per day; and if the decline of the
well is one-sixth in a year (a common decline in old wells in
Oklahoma), it might continue to produce for a year longer, except |
for the prohibitive royalty. Thus, 300 bbl. per well might easily
be saved by a mere royalty adjustment. The Osage Nation is
leased at one-sixth, so that all its wells will be abandoned pro-
portionately earlier, and a most serious loss result. To retain
this high fixed royalty is one of the most serious offenses against
the conservation of petroleum.
A fourth method of using a sliding rate is the class method.
Here the wells are classified at the beginning and a different
rate used with each class. The classification is based upon the
ratio of the value of the product to the cost of production.
Normally some one variable factor in either of the items above
would be the basis of the sliding. The one which will be most
used and which the author recommends is the depth of the well.
To charge the same royalty rate for wells of 600 ft. as for those
of 3,000 ft., has the effect of promoting “‘post-hole” drilling, as
we call holes of inadequate depth. Such a wide distribution of
shallow dry holes, where the untouched underlying strata are
worthy of test, results not only in a direct waste, because the
area must later be redrilled, but also in an indirect waste, be-
cause later operators, being in doubt as to the depth of the older
holes, are afraid to risk drilling in territory thus improperly
condemned. ‘The classes should be few, and all wells in one pool
should be in one or another of the classes.
For instance, if the one-sixth royalty charged in the eastern
Osage Nation is extended to the western Osage, then the deeper
sands of the western Osage would not be as systematically or
economically prospected, as would be the case if the royalty was
graded by depth of well. The author suggests one-sixth for
oil in pools averaging less than 2,000 ft. deep, one-eighth from
2,000 to 3,000, and one-tenth below 3,000, for the present leases
with their partly developed production.
 EFFICIENCY IN THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM 413

Let it be remembered that the Mississippi lime (Boone chert)

lies deeper than 3,000 ft. in much of the western Osage and that
no test is thorough unless the drilling is continued until that
formation is reached, when the upper horizons prove barren. Let
no one suppose that because the Cushing and Boston pools have
been great producers, all the deep pools of the Osage will be of
that kind. West Virginia has plenty of deep small producers, and
so has the Bartlesville sand. The system above outlined would
encourage more thorough prospecting.
The objection that one-tenth and one-sixth are too great a
difference will arise in the minds of those who think only of success-
ful wells. It seems none too great when one remembers the
amount of futile drilling which must be paid for by proceeds
from wells that are successful.
The following are the requirements of a proper system of
royalties:
1. It must be simple, so that it can be readily understood.
2. It must not be expensive or difficult to calculate.
It follows from these two considerations that it should have
but few rates.
3. It must avoid uncertainties as to the time or point of chang-
ing rates.
4. Most important, it should permit the well to be pumped
until its gross income has fallen to its maintenance cost.
To accomplish.this last, the author suggests an exemption from
royalty on the oil equal to the maintenance and interest on the
junk. The slight loss to the land owner will be met ordinarily
in the bonus, but sometimes by a higher royalty. For practical
reasons the amount that should be exempted, instead of being
exactly equal to the maintenance and interest on the junk,
would be an approximate integral number of barrels, ordi-
narily one. When several wells discharge into one field tank,
they may be averaged.
5. It should not encourage post-hole drilling, as opposed to
thorough prospecting. |
6. It should bear some relation to the cost of production.
For these two reasons we should, in addition, classify the
royalty according to depth.
The objection which might be raised that the land owner would
in some cases receive nothing for the use of the land during the
last months of the history of the well, is met by the fact that he
 414 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

has received advance payment for such use either in bonus or in

large royalty during the early history of the well.
The application of the proposed method is shown in Fig. 145.
In this case, with a decline of 15 per cent. and a royalty of one-
eighth, which are not unusual, the life of the well was prolonged
9.6 months.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Fria. 145.—To show that a fixed exemption from royalty prolongs the
life of a well. Price of oil, $1.89. Maintenance, $0.70 per well per day.
’ Exemption from royalty of $0.70 worth of oil per day.
A-A’, Income from well; B—B’, maintenance and royalty without exemption; Cc-C’,
maintenance and royalty with exemption; D—D’, time of abandonment without exemption;
E-E’, eed of abandonment with exemption; D’—E’, the prolongation of working life of well,
9.6 months,

Well Records.—The need of more accurate logs of wells has

been reiterated by nearly every student of this subject. Indeed,
inaccurate and inadequate logs, it must be said, are to be attributed
much more to careless, indifferent and ignorant contractors and
drillers than to any lack of appreciation of the part of superin-
tendents and managers. However, the requisites of a good log
include more than is usually appreciated, and, as time goes on,
 EFFICIENCY IN THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM 415

more and more complete logs are sure to be demanded. A log

should give an accurate steel tape-line measurement to the
top, at least, of the most widely used key horizon in the field, and
on the top of each producing sand. In addition, it should give
the top of the water, if there is any, the bottom of the sand, and
the bottom of the well. Other desirable items are a shallow
reference horizon, a reference horizon as near as possible to the
sand, and every sand yielding oil, gas, or water, and other lime-
stones or red beds, unless very numerous, for the purpose of
correlating the sands. These latter figures may be obtained by
strings on the sand line, a method less accurate than the tape
line, but so much cheaper as to be permissible for the less vital
parts of the log. An improvement, within feasible limits, in
logs alone would probably save us 5 per cent. of our dry holes.
Method of Locating.—All too many oil producers have settled
down into a fatalistic habit of thinking that the success of tests
is so uncertain that no care or skill is required in their location.
This is a very costly blunder. While all experienced persons
know full well the uncertainties of drilling, the demonstrable
success of improved methods in locating wells is so manifest
that a neglect of geological considerations bespeaks incompetence.
No extended description is here possible, but the following brief
outline may arouse interest for further study of these methods. —
In locating test wells the age of the rocks should be favorable.
Commercial gas has been produced as low as the Potsdam forma-
tion in the Cambrian period, and oil as low as the Trenton forma-
tion in the Ordovician period. There are no good theoretical
reasons why both should not be found in commercial quantities
lower in the Cambrian. Prospecting in the Pre-Cambrian is
not to be encouraged, though occasionally, when the Pre-Cam-
brian is in some particular relation with other formations, it
has derived oil or gas from them. It must be said that in America,
however, the producer finds much more encouragement in the
formations from Ordovician to Upper Pennsylvanian, and again
from Upper Cretaceous through the Tertiary (Fig. 146).
The nature of the beds is of vastly more importance than their
age. Ideal conditions are furnished by extensive dolomitization
of limestone or beds of porous sandstone, 5 to 100 ft. in thickness,
lying within shales twice or more as thick again. The shales
should be gray, black, brown or greenish in color. White, yellow,
red and purple shales are unpromising. Outcrops bearing
416 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

asphalt or ozokerite (mineral wax) are indicative of the presence

of petroliferous beds, but by no means are infallibly safe indica-
tions of commercial deposits. Nor, on the other hand, does the
lack of such evidence condemn a region. When drilling is not
upon the crest of an anticline, dips of less than 5 per cent. are
to be preferred, but are not necessary (Fig. 147).
The expected sandstones should be at a suitable depth at the
selected point. An adequate cover wthout too much faulting is

Production of World Periods ___ Production in United States

Miocene

FP
onscene|
En
= Upper Cretaceous mm

Permian

eee
Lower

| sitortan’ |

Scale
FEE] 25,000,000 Bots

Fia. 146.—Stratigraphical distribution of petroleum production to 1913.

Tertiary 1,935,763,780 bbl. California, Gulf Coast; foreign except Canada.
Upper Cretaceous 42) 548, 025 bbl. Marion Co., Corsicana to Powell, Texas; Wyo-
ming; Colorado.
Pennsylvanian 343,843,256 bbl. eras and Henrietta, Texas; Oklahoma;
ansas.
Mississippian 726,815,070 bbl. Illinois; one-half of the Appalachian field.
Upper Devonian 540,304,235 bbl. One-half of the Appalachian field.
Devonian 14,099,053 bbl. Canada.
Ordovician 318,095,570 bbl. Lima-Indiana.

to be desired. This requires a greater thickness in the case of

gas where high pressures are desirable, than with oil. Yet it is
rarely wise to go to the very considerable expense of deep drill-
ing when the expected sand lies below 3,600 ft. However, other
exceptionally favorable circumstances might make it worth
while, such as very promising geological conditions, high price
of oil, or very large mounts of land owned or leased by the
company.
 EFFICIENCY IN THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM 417

Tests in new territory are best located at the highest points of

well-marked domes. In the event of the dome being unsym-
metrical in its dips, the well should be drilled a certain distance
toward the lesser dips from the center, since the dome in the sand
may not lie directly under the dome on the surface. This dis-
tance should be carefully computed according to Holland’s
method.!| And next, where domes are not available, anticlines
with level axes are to be preferred. Anticlines that plunge
become proportionately less valuable.
When oil or gas has been discovered in one well, skill is nec-
essary to locate adjacent wells, and also to choose and secure

wo
Cases
of
No.

20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
Fic. 147.—Graph of frequency of various dips in feet per mile. The pools
were those in a district of southeast Ohio and northern West Virginia.

leases wisely, in order that there may be a minimum of dry holes

and worthless leases. The producer may proceed according to
several methods.
1. Method of Strike-—In this method new locations are made
away from the discovery well in the two directions of the strike,
that is, in such a direction that the sand is found at the cor-
responding level. This can be ascertained by learning the lay
of the beds at the surface. From this data a map of some upper
formation is prepared and, when enough holes have been drilled,
the convergence or lack of parallelness between this upper bed
and this sand can be mapped and allowed for. Then a map of
1J. Inst. Pet. Tech., 1, 15.
27
418 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

the particular oil-sand can be made. I. C. White’ has ye

particularly instrumental in advancing this method.
2. Method of Dip.—In the event that a well has oil only in the
lower part of the sand and gas in the top, when oil is sought for,
the next well should be drilled down the dip, in order to reach the
sand where the oil occupies a relatively greater thickness in the
sand. Conversely, where the oil is found only in a few feet of
the top of the sand and is underlain by water, the next well
should be up the dip.
3. Method of Streak.—The oil reservoirs have neither uniform
thickness nor great extent from side to side, except in rare
instances. More frequently than not, the oil-sand extends farther
in one direction than at right angles, making what is known to

Fra. 148.—The direction of the long axis in the same pools, showing the
origin of the common belief of N. 45° E. as the prevailing direction in this
region and yet how variable it is.

the producer as a streak. In any one particular horizon, these

streaks, though variable, generally have a prevailing direction.
A comparison of near-by streaks in the same sand, or, if these are
lacking, of other sands in the same field, offers some guidance.
The producer should be alert to detect the thinning of the bed
or reduced porosity in the several directions in order that the
streak direction may be inferred as early as possible.
The method of streak is also valuable in connecting up two
groups of wells, each centered around a successful test, but
both in one streak. This possibility should always be kept in
mind when the two groups are not separated by a distance
exceeding the reasonable and common area of the reservoirs in
1W. Va. Geol. Survey, 1a.
 EFFICIENCY IN THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM 419

that sand. This is the more probable when the producing sand
is at a corresponding depth below a reference horizon, and when
the gas, oil, and water of the two groups are of similar quality.
The prevailing direction of the long axis of these sand bodies
(or of the pool axes, if the data are not adequate for recognizing
the former) is most easily expressed by means of polar coérdinate
paper, as in Fig. 148.. The relative importance of streak and
strike in determining the long axis of any field is well represented,
after the strike has been determined, by plotting the angle, which
the long axis of the pool makes with the strike, as in Fig. 149.
4. Method of Inferred Shore Line-In fields where develop-
ment has not gone far enough to determine the prevailing direc-
tion of the streak directly, an inference of some value may be
er °
“% co)
Oo 8 °o
ioe) °°
wo.
oQ° N °

Do &
¢.> ° S

°
180

Fic. 149.—The deviation of the long axis from the strike in the same pools.
Figures = degrees of angle.

based upon the probable shore line at the time of deposition.

This requires the broad knowledge and experience of a geologist,
who, in brief, would base his conclusions on the following prin-
ciples. In general, the shore line lies at right angles to the
direction of deepest water on the one hand, and of the dry land
on the other. The direction of deepest water is indicated by in-
creased thickness and purity of the limestones and the increased
fineness of the material. The direction toward the continent
is shown by increased coarseness of the material and the greater
time interval represented by the unconformities. The present
distribution of outcrops of different ages can also be used, but
with great care, since subsequent movement and erosion of the
beds introduce many complications,
420 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

5. Method of Proximity —The rule of drilling next to good wells

doubtless seems too axiomatic to be dignified asa method. Yet

70 Abscissa, 1 Space=1 Mile

60 Ordinates, 1 Space = 10%

Percentage

OSE 2) Sera 5 Gt Ss 0 10 PL Iis 1401S 1617 eStore

Miles
Fria. 150.—The percentage of the number of the same pools as long or longer
than the distances indicated in the area studied.

one of the most important decisions a producer must make is that

of leasing nearer to or farther from a discovery well of established
production at correspondingly
graded prices. It is therefore im-
perative that he estimate the rela-
tive values of different degrees of
cs ae 1 Space = 1 Mile
proximity. To do this, we take
Ordinates, 1 Se 10% statistics of the dimensions of the
—
known pools in that sand or in
sands that seem most comparable.
8s
s These should be plotted in a cumu-
Percentage
J So lative curve of frequency, sepa-
rately as to the long axis (Fig. 150),
short axis (Fig. 151), and for both
axes of the pools (Fig. 152). From
such curves the relative chance
0
OR) Com eb 68
of a pool being of any particular
Fre. 151.—The percentage of size may be read. From these,
the number of the same pools as after some allowance is made for
broad or broader than the dis-
tance indicated in the area
the insurance of risk and after the
studied. value of the discovery well is com-
puted, a proper price for leases at
given distances from the discovery well can then be decided
upon,
 EFFICIENCY IN THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM 421

6. Method of Pressure Decline-—An unusual persistence of

pressure after prolonged flow is of the highest value as indicating
an undrilled extension of the reservoir.
7. Method of Chemical Analysis —When the gas from a gas
pool is relatively dry and light, considering its pressure, we may
infer that that reservoir contains no oil, and save ourselves the
expense of drilling further down the dip, so far as that sand is
concerned. If, on the contrary, the gas is relatively heavy and
oily in odor considering its pressure, we have strong indications,
unless the sand is of extremely fine porosity, that prospecting
down the dip does offer encouragement. It should be remem-

Ls
Abscissa, 1 Space=1 Mile
Ordinates, 1 13 =10%

10
cy Wetal Dey Oey a a
Miles

Fie. 152.—The percentage of the number of the same pools having an

average diameter as great or greater than the distances indicated in the area
studied.

bered that the very same pool will have its gas dryer and lighter
in its earlier period when its pressure is high, than later when
this is reduced. But when the gas is intermediate in quality,
rather than markedly light or heavy, then a chemical analysis
or compression test should be made. The results would guide
the producer’s further operations and also determine whether a
gasoline extraction plant is advisable.!
The analysis of oil may be of use in making locations in the
following circumstances: (1) To find if two pools some distance
apart may be in the same sand, as, in that event, there would be
a stronger chance of production in that sand in the intermediate
territory. (2) To determine whether a given sand is the same
as an outcropping sand showing oil, asphalt or ozokerite. (3) A
1See p. 437.
422 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

very heavy oil at a considerable depth causes a suspicion of

a near-by fault or outcrop, whereas oil of extraordinary light-
ness has probably moved a long distance and has been subject
to considerable fractional filtration. It is, therefore, less likely
to be a successful commercial proposition, as in the recent strike at
Calgary, Alberta. On the other hand, it is an indication of the
general petroliferous character of the strata.
In the case of salt water, an analysis is also of value. The
nature of the salts it contains assists in the correlation or non-
correlation of the two sands in question. It may also help to
determine whether the water pumped with the oil comes fromthe
producing or some upper sand. But most important of all is the
fact that methane and the next three members of the paraffin
series are soluble in water to an extent of about 3 per cent., which
varies, of course, with temperature and pressure. We may then
analyze the water for a particular sand, and deduce from the
content of methane and ethane the presence or absence of natural
gas in the same sand farther up the dip. Andifthe analysis shows
propane and butane, we should expect oil also in the same
reservoir farther up the dip. If a test hole on the side of an
untested anticline encounters water, we may by this method
determine whether another test up the dip will be worth while.
Producers might wisely urge the Government.to make a large
number of comparative analyses to be used as standards of com-
parison, and further, that the various, possible analytic methods
be compared with respect to their economy and efficiency for this
class of work. Inthemeantime, however, wemay employ current
methods. Several companies are constantly making gas analyses,
for the purpose of ascertaining whether the quality of the gas
warrants the installation of a gasoline extraction plant. The
method of sampling is of supreme importance in either case and
should be done according to explicit directions.
8. Geothermic Method.—H6fer believes, and presents some evi-
dence to substantiate his theory, that the increase of heat with
depth is greater over oil deposits. The Carnegie Geophysical
Laboratory is investigating along this line. But it must be said
that the outlook for a successful use of this method is not very
promising. It is difficult to see any connection between the
isogeotherms and the presence of oil. It would appear theo-
retically reasonable to look for the association of gas with regions
where the isogeotherms lie higher, since the greater heat may, as
 EFFICIENCY IN THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM 423

indicated by the work of David White, have produced more

gas. But nothing can be done in a practical way until the whole
subject has been very much more thoroughly reported upon.
Spacing of Wells.—In the Oklahoma field half a million dollars
has been spent on unnecessary wells in 2 square miles. Nearly
any field shows most extraordinary waste from too close spacing.
A marked contrast, as regards closeness of wells, may be observed
where one company owns a very large tract and a group of small,
competing leases hold adjoining properties. No general rule
can be given as to the proper distance between either oil or gas
wells. For each sand, the producers must watch closely the
result of wells drilled later among the older wells. Since it is the
common practice to lease in blocks or multiples of blocks of 10
acres, which equal 660 ft. square, it is wise to put oil wells at
this distance of 660 ft. from each other, if this is approximately
the distance that would have been selected for other reasons.
There is a growing tendency to approach this distance among
Mid-Continent and Illinois producers at the present time. In
California, they still drill much closer than that ordinarily,
because of the large size of the wells. And in the Appalachian
field the leases are so irregular in shape that there is less incentive
to conform to any particular distance.
Gas wells should be spaced at much greater distances, 1,320 ft.
being sufficiently close.
When wells for either oil or gas are drilled on a very large tract
of land, so that the offsetting of neighbors’ wells is not a considera-
tion, there is a more economical arrangement than the old one of
locating the wells in straight lines crossing each other at right
angles. By a staggered, or quincunx, arrangement, all of the
given area may be brought within closer range of some one well,
as is demonstrated by Fig. 153. This diagram also shows a
common error when staggering is attempted. The distance
between the rows should be shortened, so that the distance from a
second row well to each adjoining first row well is the same as its
distance to its neighboring second row well. Unfortunately,
the staggered arrangement is seldom feasible on small leases
held by competing producers.
On these small leases there is generally a well located in each
corner. Between these corner wells, other wells are distributed
at a distance from the property line equal to the distance at which
the neighbor’s wells stand back from the line. However, it is
424 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

by no means advisable to put in as many wells between the corners

as the neighbor does. Very frequently a conference between
two neighboring producers will lead to an agreement for each
to omit a side well; for example, to omit a well between the
two that may be already producing at the two ends of a lease
1,320 ft. long. Whereas, without such an agreement, one of the

aaiiae
producers might drill in between, which would nearly always lead
his neighbor to meet him with an offset, though it would be to the
ultimate interest of both not to drill these accessory wells. The

Fig. 153.—To show rectangular vs. staggered arrangement of wells. The

area in the small square is farther from the wells than any point in the
staggered arrangement.

same situation arises inevitably on all sides of a lease. A pro-

ducer should always seek to enter into an agreement with each one
of his neighbors, to the end that their wells may be as nearly
330 ft. back from the line and as nearly 660 ft. apart along their
lines as each will consent to; this is, of course, if 660 ft. has
been decided upon as the Bart aidan so8 that sR A 5 sand
and depth.

Taste XL.—Loss By OMISSION OF OFFsETTING WELL

200 ft. 150 ft.

from line | from line
Along the long side of an 80-acre lease:
Loss in Loss in
acres acres

Case 1, 5 wells meeting 8 on the side of 4 tens......... 1.05 1.69

Case 2, 5 wells meeting 6 on the side of 2 forties....... 0.55 0.90
Case 3, 4 wells meeting 5 on the side of an eighty...... Tait 1.88
Along the side of a forty:
Case 4, 3 wells meeting 4 on the side of a forty........ 0.24 0.42
Case 5, 3 wells meeting 4 on the side of 2 tens......... 0.13 0.41
Case 6, 2 wells meeting 3 on the side of a forty........ 1.39 2.45
a
 EFFICIENCY IN THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM 425

Table XL. gives the territory lost if ong does not offset in the
most familiar situations that arisé.
The method of ascertaining the lost area is to draw ifs on the
map, each midway between aline well and each of its two opposing
line wells, if one is not exactly opposite. This is done by draw-
ing circles, with each well in question as a center, and joining the
points of intersection with a line. These lines then make
triangles, with the lease boundary showing areas lost or gained.
The area of the lost territory thus outlined must now be com-
puted as well as any territory which may be gained from the
neighbor. .Thismay be doneby making this construction on cross-
section paper, counting the number of squares or fractions of
squares included in the area. A more exact method is to com-
pute the area of the triangle by the usual formula of the base
times one-half the altitude. In the event that the area is poly-
gonal instead of triangular, it is divided into triangles and the
area of each computed and added together.
In unusually shaped leases, it is well to plan several methods of
placing wells. If the cost of wells, the price of oil, and the royalty
are fairly constant, it is quite possible to construct tables show-
ing how much production to the acre the lease must have to
warrant the drilling of a particular extra well. The tremendous
loss occasioned by the cutting up of an oil or gas pool into many
small holdings will be discussed later under the head of large
versus small companies.
' In fields where the dip is high and the sand coarse, such as is
likely to be the case in some of the new fields to be developed in
Alberta, it is better to have wells drilled closer along a lease boun-
dary, paralleling the strike and less close to one paralleling the
dip, as the interference of well with well is much less in the
former case.
Depths to Which Wells should be Drilled.—This is an ex-
tremely important consideration, second only in importance to
the selection of the location. And as regards depth, as in the
case of locations, geological knowledge and skill are necessary.
Quite commonly the tradition is established in a field that it does
not pay to drill below a certain “farewell sand.’”’ In some
instances this decision has been a wise one, but all too frequently
it has been the result of ignorance of the formations below, and
has resulted in the premature abandoning of thousands of
wells. Before any test is drilled, the producer should investigate
426 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

the formations he is likely to meet, so as to have some idea of the

depth. This advance knowledge is also useful to him in drawing
up the drilling contract, and in deciding on the method of drill-
ing and the size of the hole. A good illustration of the losses
occasioned by loose work in this matter is that of the Cherokee
Nation, where most of the early wells were stopped at the
Bartlesville sand. Whereas, only 150 ft. deeper, more or less,
depending upon the location, there is another sand distinctly
worth while, and to which new tests now extend, and to which old
wells, about to be abandoned, are being deepened. Another
illustration, also in Oklahoma, is offered by the region from
Owasso, to the Arkansas River, where it is quite probable that
some producers have stopped wells at the Pitkin limestone, mis-
taking it for the Boone chert (Mississippi lime), which is not very
much deeper and is yet worth drilling to. The Bridgeport,
Illinois, pool is another instance where the early unsuccessful
tests were almost all discontinued at too shallow a depth, often
causing the surrender of leases that have since become productive.
The most frequent cause of too shallow drilling is the indiffer-
ence paid to the dip by drillers or producers who have come from
older fields, where the dip is so slight as to be ignored by them.
A well was unwittingly started at Boulder, Colorado, that could
not have reached the producing sand till a depth had. been
reached more than twice that of the producing wells of the North
Boulder pool. In most fields the geologist can predict the age
and general nature of the strata to depths exceeding that feasible
for drilling.
One should generally take care to drill through the whole of
the oil-sand, for occasionally the shale which seems to underlie
the sand may in reality be merely a break of a few feet of shale
with additional pay beneath. Even though a lower pay is not
obtained, this pocket is often valuable to receive sand and
mud, which otherwise would accumulate in the hole and reach
up to the level of the perforations and interfere with the pump-
ing later.
However, in the event that the oil is found under very high
pressure, the driller needs to be particularly careful in penetrat-
ing the sand, inasmuch as any underlying water will rush in the
hole more readily than the oil and in some instances drown it out.
In these cases of high pressure, it is best to let the well flow until.
 EFFICIENCY IN THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM 427

the pressure is reduced. when deepening can more safely be

continued.
But where the contents of the pool are not under high pressure,
because relieved by neighboring wells, there need be no such
fear of water. It is desirable to drill through into the water
sand, where the sand has a high porosity, since such a well, while
pumping some water, also pumps an increased amount of oil.
This happens because the removal of this water leaves a funnel-
shaped depression in the top of the water sand and in the bottom
of the oil-sand, which induces a more ready flow of oil into the
hole, both by means of the gradient established and by contact
of the oil with the less viscous and more easily flowing water.
This method of purposeful deepening of oil wells into the water
sands is patented in the United States, but not in Canada.
Neglect of Shallow Sands.—We have in the history of many
fields a later development of a shallow sand that was passed
through by early operators, being considered too insignificant
for production, or because gas only was sought at the time.
There have been many instances in Oklahoma where oil has
oozed slowly from some shallow sand around the casing to the
surface. Such a sand has, in nearly every instance, later proved
worth while when properly shot. It is remarkable how shooting
has made sands productive, which at first seemed disappointing.
Unless absolutely necessary, the operator should avoid drilling
test holes by the rotary method, as in that case he gets poorer
logs, and may pass through a very fair oil-sand without detect-
ing it, because of the weight of the considerable quantity of
mud and water which holds back the oil and gas.
Pumping.—The best results in pumping, after the pressure
has declined, is obtained by frequent, intermittent pumping
rather than by prolonged, occasional pumping. In wells of
reduced pressure and very porous sand, one of the principal
factors in bringing the oil into the hole is gravitational seepage,
and, of course, this cannot be effective when the oil stands high
in the hole. Devices for automatic pumping, controlled by the
accumulation of the fluid, have not as yet been successful. An
automatic periodic, mechanical, turning on and shutting off of
power would be quite feasible, if the pumping were by electricity
or compressed air, steam or gas engine powers, equipped with
self-starters. Producers should appreciate the great economy of
1 United States Patent 1083018.
428 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

pumping several wells by one power. All too frequently the

installation of multiple powers is too long delayed. We can
anticipate, with the improvements time will bring, improved
powers that will not only pump a larger number of wells, but
will also pump from greater depths.
More Efficient ‘‘Extraction.’’—It is customary at the present
time to continue pumping in the usual way, till the receipts have
fallen below the maintenance charges. Then the well is aban-
doned without any additional efforts to get the last of the oil.
If we calculate the amount of oil per acre from the porosity of
the sand, we find that the amount actually “extracted” is con-
siderably less than 50 per cent. in the case of firm sandstones,
and even in the loosest sands is seldom more than this. In the
aggregate this loss is staggering. ‘The time has come when we
should make a determined effort to obtain the “unextracted”’ oil.
The first step in this direction is doubtless a more careful con-
servation of well pressure, as it is this which is especially effective
in driving the oil to the hole. To this end, itis advisable to equip
all drilling holes where high pressure is expected with control
casing heads. By this means a sudden strike of oil or a pro-
longed flow after a shot may be piped into the tank, without that
occasionally long and useless gushing over the derrick.
The method of handling new wells is greatly affected by the
rate at which the neighboring wells are calling upon the pressure
and dissipating it. The following procedure would require
modification if the neighboring wells were dissipating pressure
faster than is here assumed.
It is desirable to tube a flowing well early with the perforations
set low in the sand, for this does not seriously reduce the pro-
duction, and it has the merit of keeping the pressure of the gas
in the upper part of the sand in place, where it is valuable for its
power of expulsion. But there is a small hole in the working
barrel at the top of the sand to keep the top of the oil high
and so not expose the sand face as long as the pressure is such
that the oil is forced into the hole up to a point far above the
top of the sand. From the gas trap the line should go to a
covered tank. ‘This, if other circumstances, such as aridity, favor
its use, should be of iron instead of wood, for the greater tight-
ness. The vapor from the top of such tanks, as well as that from
the gas trap, should be piped to a gasoline extraction plant.
Miles W. Quick contends that the casing head should be
 EFFICIENCY IN THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM 429

periodically closed and opened at this stage, so as to save pres-

sure and yet obtain a pressure gradient forcing oil into the hole,
and at the same time to warm the sand face so as to prevent the
clogging effect of refrigeration, caused by the expansion of the
oil and gas as it enters the hole. Care should be taken not to
pump after the oil has been pumped out down to the perforations.
When production has greatly dwindled, and the pressure is
found to be low, the regular perforations should be a little below
the bottom of the sand, and the working barrel should have no
perforation. But if there is water, then the perforations
should be placed only partly below the level of the water. From
this time on, pumping should be at frequent intervals, so as to
keep the level of the ‘fluid low. This may increase the paraffin
deposit on the sand face; but it isnecessary to get the full effect of
gravitational seepage, and the paraffin will be very much less
than it would have been earlier, when the pressure was high.
The casing head can now be pulled upon regularly by the gasoline
extraction plant, only slightly at first, then gradually more and
more, till as high a vacuum is attained as is feasible. In Smith
and Dunn’s method, the pressure gradient is further sustained
by a like device of introducing compressed air into some aban-
doned wells. Then, in turn, this method will also be abandoned
as too unproductive.
There will ordinarily be little trouble from paraffin with the
procedure above described, until the perforations have been set
low. After this, when the production is considerably reduced, it
is sometimes desirable, after as much cleaning as is necessary,
to treat the sand face with an electric well-heater for 100 hr.
Tn case the producing company refines its own product, it would
be advisable to follow the heating with a naphtha bath or the
naphtha bath may-replace the heating.
When production has reached an unprofitable point, the well
should not be abandoned, but held in reserve until the whole pool
can be brought under the management of one great company or
of several cooperating companies. Only by concerted action can
the next effort by the water-flush method be used to extract the
remaining oil. Water should be turned down the well situated
at the lowest point of the sand. It can be obtained either from
one of the shallow sands or else introduced from the surface.
This should be run in fast enough to keep the hole filled up to the
source of the water, in order to have a good head and correspond-
430 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

ingly rapid penetration. Then an adjacent well should be given

test pumpings, if not regularly pumped, until the on-flow of this
water increases its oil output of the second well. After a period
of much improved oil production, it will yield more and more
water in ever-increasing proportions. Then when the amount

Sar a Fie SST SETESTY SS a = eae

= =e Sa a = —- +
OA a Se ee SS
SS a Ss Se
—— ——— + ~
————— ——— C-t |] a — at
(SSS SSS =a ——s ee eg se

Showing the accumulation of the oil in the lower part of the sand as it
becomes drained. ‘The oil becomes dependent upon gravitation for move-
ment to the well. As it flattens out, the gradient becomes less and the move-
ment declines. 4, shale; 5, water; 6, drained sand; 7, 0

=
as
i fomess Ss aes
= Naar al ele a ee ee
Pe ee aac STSSs
Sa RTE a ey

Seal <a

Showing the effect of deepening the well into the water sand, and so caus-
ing a flow of water to the well and a funnel-shaped depression in the water
surface, which increases the flow of oil to the hole.
Fie. 154.

of oil is no longer in paying quantities, this well in turn, where

feasible, should serve as a point of entrance for water. In
this way, the oil is gradually flushed up the pool to the highest
wells. When only these highest are producing, discontinue
introducing water at the lowest wells, so as to prevent the oil
being washed by the water up to the dip past these wells. Theo-—
 EFFICIENCY IN THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM 431

retically, it would seem wise to keep the wells farther down the
dip open, so that compressed air could be forced in. This air,
bubbling through the water-filled sand, ought to disengage some
oil that the moving water alone could not dislodge. The ac-
cumulation of the air in little domes and pockets in the top of
the sand would dislodge oil that had been retained there, so that
it would move on up the dip to the pumping wells. Whether
this compressed air system will warrant the expense, only actual
trial can prove. But judging from the outcome of laboratory
experiments, the prospect is promising.
Where one company controls a pool, the percentage of oil
extracted will be greatly increased, if gas wells in the same porous
reservoir are not used until the oil is nearly exhausted. The
ideal would be to have oil taken from wells in the lower part of
the pool where the upper part of the sand does not contain
gas. Production from such wells only would show an unusually
gradual decline curve, for it is obvious that in this way the pres-
sure loss is slightest for a given production. The difference
would be less if the sand was very ‘“‘close.”
The rapid falling off of pressure in the north Cushing field is
very disappointing to the operators in that pool. If the full
significance of the loss in increasing the percentage of unex-
tractable oil were fully appreciated by them, it would be taken
still more seriously. Much of this loss of pressure was the re-
sult of escaping gas. The difficulties as well as the importance
of such wastes are well known to operators, and the waste took
place because they did not think they could afford to take any
other course. But there was one notable exception—the burn-
ing well in the Cimarron’ River bottom. This the owners of
the well, as well as all operators in the pool, were very eager to
control; but control was not accomplished for days, during which
the well was losing from 35,000,000 to 60,000,000 cu. ft. of gas
daily.
But, in addition to these fires, we have the drilling in of big
“gassers’’ near oil territory and in the same sand, or in the
upper part of the sand above the oil, which “get away” from the
driller. A bad blow-out may result or the well may catch on
fire. Only feeble efforts are made to control it, because the
operator does not know how. In any event, a long delay is
occasioned by incompetent methods or waiting for materials.
Such wells are frequently “wildcat”? and the operator cannot
432 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

afford to spend much money in expensive preparations to shut in a

bad blow-out or burning well, such as have occurred at Caney,
Kansas, at Oil Springs in the Caddo field in Louisiana, or in the
Cimarron River bottom at Cushing. Other operators look
upon it as a personal affair, without realizing that every day that
such a gas well burns or blows means just so many more barrels
of oil which can never be recovered from their own wells, and
brings so much nearer by months the time such oil wells will
have to go on the pump, and also the time when they must be
abandoned.
The fact is well known that such wells, drilled in the early
history of a pool and allowed to blow, very considerably reduce
the gas pressure in that pool—it may be as much as 100 to 200
Ibs. Now,-gas pressure in most pools is by far the biggest factor
in the expulsion of oil from the sand. In other words, if the
gas pressure is very low—say 25 lbs. or less—no oil in paying
quantities could be produced from any well whose sand has less
than a certain degree of fineness, without the aid of gas pumps
or other unusual aids, or unusual ne conditions, such as
encroaching water.
At Hamilton Switch, where the gas waste was notorious, the
pressure in the wells dropped probably more than a pound per
day forsome time. The effect of this was immediately shown in
the production curves of the wells in this pool, which declined
very rapidly. Proportionately less of the oil content of the
sand of Hamilton Switch was recovered than if this waste had not
been permitted. If a fire consumed the amount of oil which
was lost in that pool by failure to recover it from the sand, the
catastrophe would have been startling.
Control of Wild Wells—While we may expect a reduc-
tion in the number of wild wells, through the introduction
of control casing heads, some other means than reliance on the
individual producer must be found. It is well known that in
the mining industry the United States Bureau of Mines has
assumed as one of its functions the establishment and main-
tenance of rescue cars, which are at the call of any mine where
an accident creates an imperative need for efficient organiza-
tion and adequate equipment in coping with just that sort of
emergency. It would be very difficult for a group of operators
in the oil business to maintain such an equipment and organiza-
 EFFICIENCY IN THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM 433

tion, although it is to the general interest that such wild wells

be immediately capped.
When not only the possibility of such losses is considered, but
the fact that they are occurring every year, would it not be a
great additional service which the Bureau of Mines might render
to the petroleum industry in maintaining two cars located at
strategic points—as Bakersfield, Cal., and Tulsa, Okla—
equipped with the most approved fire-fighting apparatus and
other paraphernalia for controlling wild wells, and in charge of
an expert in this kind of work? The Bureau already has such
men in its service. Between times they could be engaged in
their present work near these points, but would be at the call
of any wild or burning well. The experience thus gained would
lead to improvements in methods and equipment, so that such
work would soon be much more expeditiously accomplished.
Two objections might be raised.! First, that it is better to
educate the operator to prevent blow-outs and fires. By all means
educate as far as possible. But let no one suppose that this will
end blow-outs and fires. Where the chances of disaster are very
small, men will never take precautions that are irksome or ex-
pensive. But itis these very small chances which lead to serious
disasters.
The second objection is that the Government should not
assume the expense in this way, since some individual was at
fault. However, the benefit is so much greater to the other
operators and land owners than to the operator in question,
that they cannot afford to leave the decision in his hands.
Further, the control is frequently so expensive to him as to be
ruinous. A close parallel can be found in the case of the fire
departments of cities. Because a fire threatens more than the one
house which is burning, the community finds it to its advantage
to accomplish the extinguishing in the quickest and most efficient
way, even though the Government incidentally pays for it.
We need an emergency car, then. Congress should provide an
additional appropriation to the Bureau of Mines, and thus
minimize the damage to the Nation’s store of oil and gas from
these recurrent disasters.
Size and Scope of Companies.—The relative efficiency of
large and small producing companies is a matter of great interest
1 See Jounson and Hunttey, “Plans for the Control of Wild Gas Wells,’
Oil and Gas Journal, May 6, 1915, 26.
28
434 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

and importance. The following theoretical considerations, as

well as actual practice, all point to the advantage of large units
‘of capital and management. The advantages are:
1. Ability to employ more efficient and more highly specialized men,
and give a wider application to their activities.
2. The reduction in the number of offsets to be drilled.
3. Ability to connect up the largest number of wells that each power
is capable of pumping.
4, Economy in labor, by having one pumper tend several neighboring
powers.
5. The more continuous utilization of the plant and equipment, such
as pulling machines, for instance.
6. Saving in time and teaming by maintaining well distributed and
stocked storehouses.
7. The ability to install a gasoline extraction plant, because of the
company’s control of the necessary number of neighboring wells.
8. The conservation of pressure and the use of water-flushing can
be more frequently employed when the whole pool is owned by one
company, or, at most, by but a few companies whose managers could
easily reach an agreement, which would be difficult were there, instead,
many small lease holders.
9. Important experiments can be tried, such as testing the relative
merits of competing methods and materials.
10. Economy of surveying.
11. By holding several contiguous leases, instead of a few scattered
ones, a large company may “‘feel out,” from established production,
location by location, relatively unhampered by property lines.
12. By holding several contiguous leases, the large company will
far less frequently be forced to drill according to the terms of the lease,
before the needed information is in hand.
13. The logs in a large company are nearly always more carefully
recorded and are always available. Whereas, among many small
companies, there are invariably some who keep very poor logs or hold
them secret, and in some cases there are some who even falsify their
records. By means of this fuller information, casing requirements and
the proper depths of tests can be anticipated, sometimes saving an
unnecessary hole, or preventing the premature discontinuance of a well.
14. Lower prices, better quality and greater uniformity in supplies are
possible when purchased in large lots.
15. The economy of a large company drilling its own wells without
letting them out to contractors. Or, if because of the difficulty of
getting a competent superintendent of drilling, the company decides
to contract, this can be done at far cheaper rates than ordinarily, from
the circumstance of there being many wells close together in one
contract.
 EFFICIENCY IN THE PRODUCTION OF PETROLEUM 435

16. A lessened danger from premature flooding by water from im-

proper casing or plugging. Also, less gas waste by small, irresponsible
or incompetent neighbors.

These foregoing reasons apply to the greater efficiency of con-

centrated or large producing companies. The following con-
siderations indicate the higher efficiency which results from the
integration of the industry, that is, the bringing under one manage-
ment of the various successive steps in the oil and gas industry,
such as production, transportation, refining, and distribution.
1. With integration, it would be possible to store oil in relatively
few central, large, steel tanks, when otherwise the oil would deteriorate
more rapidly in numerous small and more leaky tanks.
2. Gasoline extraction plants can extract gasoline from the storage
tank vapors, since there would be enough to make it feasible.
3. By controlling, to a certain degree, the rate at which wells are
drilled, the danger of overproduction may be reduced and a steadier
market assured.
4, The oil and gas business should be in the hands of the same com-
pany, as otherwise the one-sided eagerness of the oil producer may
lead him to waste vast quantities of gas. The search for gas is made
easier by the knowledge obtained in the oil operations and vice versa.
5. Pipe lines and laterals can be planned in a more systematic and
farsighted way.
6. Water and fuel for pumping and drilling can more frequently be
supplied from the nearest available source.
7. The guarantee of a regular production for the refinery makes for
greater economy and efficiency there, as well as in the marketing of the
oil.

As a partial offset to these advantages of both concentration

and integration, there are the following five foes to efficiency in
all large scale business:
1. Unwarranted favoritism in appointments and promotion. How-
" ever, there is much more of this evil in small companies than is usually
supposed.
2. Slacking up, because the personal interest is less keen and vital.
3. The temptation to sacrifice the interests of the company to those
_of officers, superintendents and foremen.
4, Jealousy among departments or divisions of the company.
5. A clique spirit that tends to advance the men already with the
company, when sometimes new and valuable men from the outside
are needed,
436 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

These difficulties are not necessary, and can be overcome, in a

large measure, by a high degree of executive ability on the part
of the higher offices. In practice, the losses from these five
causes are evidently less than the gains in most cases, because,
as a matter of fact, the large, integrated companies are con-
stantly buying more properties, so that the percentage of leases
held by the great companies is steadily increasing.
The greatest losses of efficiency result from dividing the
operations in one pool among several companies. This con-
dition can only rarely be remedied in the old pools or where
the surface area is cut up among holders. On the public lands,
though, which are to produce so much of the oil of the United
States, the decision lies with the Government. To overcome
the difficulties and accomplish unified management, the Oliver
plan has been proposed.! In this the Government takes a large
area of the public land, making a natural unit (which has been re-
ported by the United States Geological Survey as probably pro-
ductive), and leases it to one company made up for the purpose.
The Government asks for subscriptions to stock in this company,
and the amount held by each subscriber is limited. Only by this
method can the desirable end—of one pool operated by one
company—be accomplished. .
Wiser Utilization of Oil—Once the petroleum is pumped to
the surface, there is very little preventable loss, other than that in
casing-head gas? and by evaporation. Yet there is one very
serious loss of a different and wilful type—the burning of good
oil for inferior uses. ‘For instance, it is common to burn a grade
of oil under the boilers that is capable of being refined into lubri-
cating oil, and which may even carry a fair percentage of gasoline,
kerosene, and paraffin. Doubtless where coal is scarce and oil
inferior and plentiful, this is justifiable. To burn the residuum
of most oils elsewhere, except for specific purposes, would be
a lamentable use to make a product that would be worth so
much more in the future for higher purposes. Moreover, when
an oil is to be used for the production of power, far greater
efficiency can be had by the internal combustion engine, of
either the carburetor or Diesel type, than by burning it under
a boiler. a
1See Senate Hearing on H. R. 16136, 63rd Cong., 8d Session.
2 See p. 438.
 CHAPTER XI

THE CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL

GAS!

The occurrence of gasoline in gas pipe lines, noted long ago,

probably first brought to mind the possibility of extracting gaso-
line from natural gas, but it required the increased demand for
gasoline of recent years to make its production in this way a
matter of commercial consequence.
A. Fasenmeyer made gasoline from the gas of oil wells near
Titusville, Pa., in the fall of 1904. His plant is almost within
sight of the old Drake well. His first equipment was a makeshift
affair. The gas from the wells, after leaving the gas pumps,
was cooled by passing through a coil of pipe immersed in a tank
of water. The condensate produced was allowed to drip into
a wooden barrel and the losses resulting from evaporation were
large. The product when first collected had a gravity of 80° to
90°Bé. Fasenmeyer’s production the first year was approxi-
mately 4,000 gal., for which he received 10 cts. per gallon. Tomp-
sett Bros., of Tidioute, Pa., claim to have preceded Fasenmeyer
in the operation of plant on a commercial scale, and they are
operating successfully at the present time.
As these ventures proved a commercial success, attention was
turned to the designing of better plant equipment.” Gas and
oil operators in other oil fields in the United States proceed to
install gasoline plants.
1 Based upon Bulletin 88 of the United States Bureau of Mines, 1915, to
which the reader is referred for detailed information. See also Technical
Paper 10 of the Bureau of Mines, 1912; and Stnapr’s comprehensive report
on the manufacture of natural gas condensates in Petroleum, 9 (1914),
453-75. SINGER gives an extensive bibliography.
For G. M. Saysotr’s absorption method, see United States Patent
* 989927, April 18, 1911. The Saybolt process, which is owned by the
Standard Oil Company, is now used by the Hope Natural Gas Company,
of Pittsburgh, Pa. Natural gasis caused to bubble, at a suitable pressure
above atmospheric pressure, through a medium (oil of sp. gr. 0.85 to 0.90)
capable of absorbing naphtha. On absorption methods, see BURRELL,
Bippison and OsBERFELL, Met. Chem. Eng., 14 (1916), 651; Bulletin 120,
Bureau of Mines; and also Bull. 73 of the Cal. State Min. Bur., 1917, 228.
2On the patented processes for making casing-head gasoline, see CHUTE,
Met. Chem. E'ng., 12 (1914), 147
437
438 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

Growth of Industry.—The making of gasoline from natural

gas increased from a production of a few thousand gallons in
1904 to about 43,000,000 gal. in 1914. Not until 1909 did the
industry assume commercial importance. According to the
United States Geological Survey, the increase in production of
gasoline for the year 1912 over 1911 was 63 per cent. The rate
of increase for the year 1913 over 1912 was 100 per cent. The
gas used represents that which previous to the installation of
plants for the production of gasoline was principally wasted,
being, for the most part, “wet”? gas which comes from the casing
heads of oil wells.
Constituents of Natural Gas—Natural gases are mixtures in
which the hydrocarbons of the paraffin series predominate, and
methane is the preponderating constituent, the characteristic
hydrocarbon of all natural gases. Small quantities of nitrogen,
carbon dioxide, and water vapor constitute the impurities. In
some gases, however, the percentages of nitrogen and carbon
dioxide are large. One analysis has been published in which
nitrogen comprised 98.5 per cent. of the total, and another in
which the carbon dioxide equaled about 30 per cent. of the total.
The exact proportions of the constituents in natural gases
cannot be determined by ordinary methods of analysis, although
the total quantity of paraffin hydrocarbons can be thus obtained
and the heating value and specific gravity determined. Natural
gas may be separated into its constituents by liquefying it by
means of liquid air and separating the constituents of the lique-
fied gas by fractional distillation. By this means Burrell, Seibert
and Oberfell? showed that the natural gas used in Pittsburgh
contained 84.7 per cent. methane, and that an extremely
“wet”? gas from which gasoline is condensed commercially con-
tained only 36.8 per cent. methane.
The paraffin hydrocarbons that principally concern the gaso-
line producer are methane, ethane, propane, and the butanes,
pentanes, hexanes, and heptanes. Of these, the first four are-
gases at ordinary temperatures, the last three liquids. The
gases after contact with the oil in the earth bring with them
the vapors of the liquid hydrocarbons. The vapors are carried
along with the permanent gases in the same manner that water
1On the production and technology of the natural-gas gasoline industry
in 1912, see Oil, Paint and Drug Rept., 85 (1914), No. 13, p. 33.
* Bull. 88 of the United States Bureau of Mines.
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440 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

vapor exists with air. After treatment in the gasoline plant,

where the capacity of the gases to carry the vapors is much
lessened, the vapors are deposited.
’ Factors Affecting Yield of Gasoline from Natural Gas.1—
The quantity of gasoline vapors in any particular gas mixture is
dependent upon the character of the oil in the sand, the tem-
perature and pressure existing in the sands, the porosity or
closeness of the strata, the intimateness of contact between gas
and oil, and other less important factors. The pentanes, hex-
anes, and heptanes are the only constituents of crude oil that,
at earth temperatures, have vapor pressures of such magnitude
that they are distilled in quantity from the crude oil; hence, they
are the chief liquid constituents of natural-gas gasoline.
In wells yielding gas suitable for gasoline condensation, the
three gases, methane, ethane, and propane, invariably occur in
the gaseous condition, and butane also is usually present in the
gaseous condition.
Methods of Testing for Gasoline Yield.—By itself the ordinary
eudiometric analysis is of little use for testing a sample of natural
gas in order to determine its suitability for gasoline production.
Laboratory methods in principal use have to do with solubility
and specific gravity tests. ‘The Bureau of Mines has used alcohol
and claroline oil; 100 c.c. of the gas is shaken with 35 c.c. of the
oil or with 50 ¢.c. of the alcohol until absorption ceases. For
the determination of specific gravity Burrell and his co-workers
have both weighed the gas and used Bunsen’s effusion method.
These investigators have found that natural gases at present
used for gasoline production have a specific gravity of 0.80 or
higher, and are soluble to the extent of 30 per cent. or more in
the solvents used. Laboratory tests serve best as preliminary
indications previous to tests of the gas at the well by means of an
experimental compressing plant.
Use of Pitot Tube and Gas-Analysis Apparatus.—The Pitot
tube as ordinarily used for measuring the flow of gases, that is,
where the static pressure is not obtained, may give results that
are 8 per cent. in error, even though the tube is correctly used.
When the static pressure is obtained and all readings are taken
with a sufficient degree of refinement, they may vary only 1 per
1 BURRELL, SEIBERT and OBPRFELL, loc. cit. It may be noted that
by absorption methods much of the so-called “dry” natural gas can be
treated.
 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS 441

cent. more or less from the correct results. The amount of

casing-head gas that flows from a casing head may vary from
little or nothing up to 500,000 or more cu. ft. of gas per 24 hr.
Wells should be allowed to vent from 3 to 24 hr. before measure-
ments of the flow are made.
A simple gas-analysis determination will show an operator
whether air is leaking into his gas mains. Some gases that are
used for condensing gasoline contain 40 per cent. or more of air,
due to leakage.
Life of Wells as Regards Gasoline Production.—Regarding
the life of wells as to flow of gas for gasoline condensation, it can
be stated that wells from which gas has been escaping freely
for several years will be long enough lived to insure a return of the
initial investment with profit, that is, if the gas contains the
necessary quantity of gasoline vapors.
Data Regarding Compression.—The condensation of gasoline
from natural gas is a physical process.. The process in principal
use at the present time consists essentially in compressing the
gas to pressures up to 300 lb. and cooling it with water of ordinary
temperature (see Fig. 155). Cooling the gas by means of a re-
frigerant without compression, or using a refrigerant other than
water in conjunction with compressors, are processes that are
also employed.
The pressure best suited for the condensation of gasoline from
natural gas depends upon the partial pressures of the gases and
vapors present in the mixture. The partial pressures are diffi-
cult to determine. Hence the best that one can do in plant
operation is to experiment until the most suitable pressures are
found. Fl
Single-stage or two-stage compressors are generally used in
gasoline-plant operations. Single-stage compressors are used
where pressures of 110 lb. per square inch are not exceeded.
Several changes occur in the gas when it is treated in a gasoline
plant for the condensation of gasoline. One has to do with the
condensation of vapor, another with the liquefactionof gas, and
a third with the solubility of gases in the liquids produced.
The condensate as it is received in the accumulator tanks con-
sists principally of the liquids pentane and hexane and the lique-
1 See Laney, Bessemer Monthly, December, 1913, 1. Absorption methods
have been used for many years in Germany and to a large extent during
1915 and 1916 in the United States.
 442
THE
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 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS 443

fied gas butane. Some heptane and liquid propane may also be
present.
For a particular natural gas there is a certain pressure best
suited to produce the most salable gasoline. Increasing the
pressure may result in producing more condensate in the accumu-
lator tanks, but the additional yield may be so volatile as to
quickly escape after exposure to air.
The quantity of gas that dissolves in the condensate in the
accumulator tank is so small as to be insignificant.
At least one plant in the United States using a refrigerative
method with low pressures is in successful operation.
Cost Data.—Exclusive of foundations and housing for machin-
ery, pipe lines to wells, railroad sidings, storage tanks, etc., the
compression and condensing equipment for gasoline plants costs
from about $2,800 for a plant for handling 120,000 cu. ft. of
gas up to $7,800 for a plant for handling 600,000 to 700,000 cu.
ft. of gas. Two plants that produced 490,000 gal. of gasoline in
1913 cost $40,000 to complete. The owners realized 55 per cent.
on their investment the first year.
Heating Values and Explosive Limits of Natural Gases.—The
heating value of the natural gas used for the condensation of
gasoline from natural gas may be as high as 2,500 B.t.u. at 0°C.
and 760 mm. pressure. None of the residual gases tested by the
Bureau of Mines had a heating value lower than 1,000 B.t.u.
At one plant the residual gas had a heating value of almost 2,300
B.t.u.
The explosive limits of the natural gases used for the condensa-
tion of gasoline from natural gas are low and narrow. ‘These
limits are approximately, for the low limit, 3.5 per cent. gas, and
for the high limit, 9.5 per cent. gas.
Special precautions must be taken to avoid explosions.
Evaporation Losses.—Evaporation losses that resulted when
natural-gas condensates of different specific gravities were ex-
posed to the atmosphere in certain forms of containers ranged
at one plant from 4.5 per cent. to 24 per cent. at the end of the
first hour, from 8.5 to 33 per cent. at the end of the second hour,
from 9.5 to 40 per cent. at the end of the third hour, and about
54 per cent. at the end of 18 and 24 hr.
At another plant the losses for condensate ranging from a grav-
ity of 79° to 98°Bé. were 0 to 19 per cent. for the first hour, 0 to
26 per cent. for 2 hr., 1 to 34 per cent. for 3 hr., 2 to 38 per cent.
444 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

for 4 hr., 3 to 45 per cent. for 6 hr., 4 to 48 per cent. for 7 hr.,
4 to 46 per cent. for 8 hr., and 10 to 65 per cent. for 24 hr.
A slower rate of evaporation occurs from a mixture of refinery
naphtha and a condensate than when the condensate is allowed
to evaporate separately. In some tests conducted by Burrell,
Seibert. and Oberfell, the saving at the end of the first hour was
about 6 per cent. in favor of the blends; at the end of the second
hour, about 10 per cent.; at the end of the third hour, about 11
per cent.; at the end of the fourth hour, about 10 per cent.; at
the end of the fifth hour, about 12 per cent.; at the end of the
sixth hour, about 11 per cent.; at the end of the seventh hour,
about 8 per cent.; and at the end of the twenty-fourth hour,
about 14 per cent.
Vapor Pressures.—Freshly drawn condensates with a gravity
of 93°Bé. may have a vapor pressure of 14 to 48 lb. per square
inch at temperatures of 55° to 100°F. (13° to 38°C.). Condensates
with a gravity of 78°Bé. may have vapor pressures ranging from
3 to 19 lb. per square inch at temperatures of 55° to 100°F. (13°
to 38°C.). Condensates with a gravity of 78°Bé. may have
vapor pressures ranging from 3 to 19 lb. per square inch at tem-
peratures of 55° to 109°F. (18° to, 48°C.).
After a condensate with a gravity of 98°Bé. has lost 40 per
cent. of its volume by evaporation, the yapor pressures may range
from 1 lb. to 19 lb. per square inch at temperatures ranging from
55° to 109°F. (13° to 43°C.).
When a freshly drawn condensate having a gravity of 93°Bé.
is mixed with refinery naphtha with a gravity of 60°Bé., the vapor
pressures may be 57 to 70 per cent. of the vapor pressure of the
condensate alone. Condensates of the same specific gravity may
have different vapor pressures.
The Transportation of Natural-Gas Gasoline.—The rules of
the Interstate Commerce Commission regarding the shipment of
natural-gas gasoline are as follows.

REGULATIONS FOR THE TRANSPORTATION ON RAILROADS OF

NATURAL-GAS GASOLINE!

Liquefied petroleum gas is a condensate from the “‘casing-head gas”’

of petroleum oil wells, whose vapor tension at 100°F. (38°C.) (90°F-—
_.1 From “Regulations of the Interstate Commerce Commission for the
Transportation of Explosives and Other Dangerous Articles by Freight and
by Express, and Specifications for Shipping Containers,” published by the
 CONDENSATION OF GASOLINE FROM NATURAL GAS 445

32°C., Nov. 1 to Mar. 1) exceeds 10 Ib. per square inch. Liquefied

petroleum gas must be shipped in metal drums or barrels which comply
with ‘‘Shipping-Container Specifications No. 5,’’ or in tank cars espe-
cially constructed and approved for this service by the Master Car
Builders’ Association.
When the vapor tension at 100°F. (38°C.) exceeds 25 lb. per square
inch, cylinders as prescribed for compressed gas must be used.
[The commission has not deemed it best at this time to prohibit the
use of good wooden barrels in shipping inflammable liquids with a flash-
point below 20°F. (—7°C.). It is, however, expected that their use for
that purpose will be gradually discontinued and that within a reasonable
time metal-barrels will come into general use for such shipments. ]
Packages containing inflammable liquids must not be entirely filled.
Sufficient interior space must be left vacant to prevent distortion by
containers when heated to a temperature of 120°F. (49°C.). This
vacant space must not be less than 2 per cent. of the capacity of the
container, including the dome capacity of tank cars.
1. The provisions of ‘‘Shipping-Container Specifications No. 5”
apply to all containers specified therein that are purchased after Dec.
31, 1911, and used for the shipment of dangerous articles other than
explosives. Each such container purchased subsequently to Dec. 31,
1911, shall have plainly stamped thereon the date of manufacture thereof.
2. An iron or steel barrel or drum with a capacity of from 50 to 55
gal. must have a minimum weight in the black, exclusive of the weight
of rolling hoops, of 70 lb. and the minimum thickness of metal in any
part of the completed barrel must not be less than that of No. 16 gauge
United States standard.
3. An iron or steel barrel or drum with a capacity of from 100 to
110 gal. must have a minimum weight in the black, exclusive of the
rolling hoops, of not less than 130 lb. and the minimum thickness of
metal in any part of the completed barrel or drum must not be less
than that of full No. 14 gauge United States standard.
4, Each barrel or drum must stand without leaking a manufacturers’
test under water by interior compressed air at a pressure of not less than
15 lb. per square inch sustained for not less than 2 min., and the type
of barrel or drum must be capable of standing without any serious
permanent deformation and without leaking a hydrostatic test pressure
of not less than 40 lb. per square inch, sustained for not less than 5 min.
5. When filled with water to 98 per cent. of its capacity, the type of
barrel o- drum must also be capable of standing without leakage a test
drop on its chime for a height of 4 ft. upon a solid concrete foundation.

Bureau for the Safe Transportation of Explosives and Other Dangerous

Articles, in January, 1912, pp. 72, 148, 144, and 145, Effective Mar. 31,
1912,
446 THE AMERICAN PETROLEUM INDUSTRY

6. Bungs and other openings must be provided with secure closing

devices that will not permit leakage through them. Threaded metal
plugs must be close fitting. Gaskets must be made of lead, leather, or
other suitable material. Wooden plugs must be covered with a suitable
coating and must have a driving fit into a tapered hole.
_ 7. .The method of manufacturing the barrel or drum and the materials
used must be well adapted to producing a uniform product. Leaks in
a new barrel or drum must not be stopped by soldering, but must be
repaired by the method used in constructing the barrel or drum.
 LIBRARY
git OF PUGET SOUND
Bart TA
COMA, WASH,

Date Due
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00219 2030
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