Course: Instrumentation

and Sensors
Bachelor in Mechanical
Engineering
Unit 2: Signal Conditioning and Processing
June 2025
2.1 Signal: Introduction
• Any physical phenomena that conveys or carries some information can be
called a signal.
• The music, speech, motion pictures, still photos, heart beat, etc. are
examples of signals that we normally encounter in day-to-day life.
• Usually, the information carried by a signal will be a function of an
independent variable. The independent variable can be time, spatial
coordinates, intensity of colors, pressure, temperature, etc. The most
popular independent variable in signals is time and it is represented by the
letter “t”.
2.1 Signal: Introduction
 The value of a signal at any specified value of the independent variable is called its
amplitude.
 The sketch or plot of the amplitude of a signal as a function of independent variable is
called its waveform.
 Mathematically, any signal can be represented as a function of one or more independent
variables. Therefore, a signal is defined as any physical quantity that varies with one or
more independent variables.
 Let us consider the following examples:
𝑥1 𝑡 = 0.7 𝑡 (1.1)
x 𝑝, 𝑞 = 0.6 𝑝 + 0.5 𝑞 + 1.1𝑞2 (1.2)
2.1 Signal: Introduction
• The functions 𝑥1 𝑡 and 𝑥2 𝑡 as defined by equations (1.1) and (1.2)
represents two signals: one that varies linearly with time “t” and the other
varies quadratically with time “t”.
• The equation (1.2) represents a signal which is a function of two
independent variables “p” and “q”.
2.1 Signal: Types
• The signals can be classified in number of ways. Some of the ways of
classifying the signals are:
I. Depending on the number of sources for the signals.
• One-channel signals
• Multichannel signals
II. Depending on the number of dependent variables.
• One-dimensional signals
• Multidimensional signals
III. Depending on whether the dependent variable is continuous or discrete.
• Analog or Continuous signals
• Discrete signals
2.1 Signal: Types
• One-channel signals
• Signals that are generated by a single source or sensor are called one-channel signals.
• The record of room temperature with respect to time, the audio output of a mono-speaker,
etc. are examples of one-channel signals.
• Multi-channel signals
• Signals that are generated by a multiple source or sensors are called multi-channel signals.
• The audio output of two stereo speakers is an example of two-channel signal. The record of
ECG (Electro-Cardio Graph) at eight different place in a human body is an example of eight-
channel signal.
2.1 Signal: Types
• One-dimensional signals
• A signal which is a function of single independent variable is called one-dimensional
signal.
• The signals represented by equation (1.1) are examples of one-dimensional signals.
• The music, speech, heart-beat, etc., are examples of one-dimensional signals where
the single independent variable is time.
• Multi-dimensional signals
• A signal is a function of two or more independent variables is called
multidimensional signal.
• The equation (1.2) represents a two-dimensional signal.
• A photograph is an example of a two-dimensional signal. The intensity or brightness
at each point of a photograph is a function of two spatial coordinates “x” and “y”,
(and so the spatial coordinates are independent variables). Hence, the intensity or
brightness of a photograph can be denoted by b(x,y).
2.1 Signal: Types
• Analog or Continuous Signals
• When a signal is defined continuously for any independent variable, it is called
analog or continuous signal.
• Most of the signals encountered in science and engineering are analog in nature.
• When the dependent variable of an analog signal is time, it is called continuous time
signal.
• Discrete Signals
• When a signal is defined for discrete intervals of independent variable, it is called
discrete signal.
• When the dependent variable of a discrete signal is time, it is called discrete time
signal.
• Most of the discrete signals are either sampled version of analog signals for
processing by digital systems or output of digital systems.
2.1 Signal: Types
 The different types of signals are classified as:
2.1 Signal: Types
2.1 Signal: Acquisition
2.1 Signal: Acquisition

Data domains are quantities used to

represent or transmit information
2.1 Signal: Properties of Digital Signal
2.1 Signal: Properties of Digital Signal
2.2 Resistance to voltage conversion: Wheatstone
bridge
 In mechanical measurement systems, many sensors and transducers—such
as strain gauges respond to physical quantities (like force) by changing their
electrical resistance.
 However, resistance changes are not directly suitable for processing or
display in most electronic systems.
 Therefore, it is essential to convert these resistance variations into a
measurable electrical quantity—typically a voltage signal—which can then
be easily amplified, digitized, and interpreted.
2.2 Resistance to voltage conversion: Wheatstone
bridge
 Resistance to voltage conversion is a crucial step in this process.
 It involves using electronic circuits that translate changes in resistance into
proportional voltage outputs.
 The two most common methods used for this conversion are:
 1) Ballast circuit
 2) Wheatstone bridge circuit
a) Quarter bridge circuit
b) Half bridge circuit
c) Full bridge circuit
2.2 Resistance to voltage conversion: Wheatstone
bridge
• an electric circuit suitable for detection of
minute resistance changes, therefore used to
measure resistance changes of a strain gage
• The bridge is configured by combining four
resistors
• The bridge is initially balanced making the
potential difference between opposite vertices,
E to be zero. Hence, any change in resistance
in one or more arms can be measured by
measuring E.
2.2 Resistance to voltage conversion: Wheatstone
bridge
2.2 Ballast Circuit

 Figure shows the simplest ballast circuit

where 𝑅2 =𝑅b is the ballast resistance in
ohms (Ω) and 𝑅1 =𝑅g is the gage resistance in
ohms (Ω). Let the input and the output
voltages be 𝑉(=𝑒i) and ∆𝐸 (=𝑒o) respectively.
2.2 Ballast Circuit
2.2 Ballast Circuit
2.2 Ballast Circuit

 Let’s define, sensitivity using the new

symbol η. Then for conditions of
maximum sensitivity,
 Hence, for conditions of maximum
sensitivity, the ballast resistance
should have same value as that of
gage resistance value.
 The output voltages from a ballast
circuit are typically very small,
especially when detecting slight
changes in resistance due to strain.
 As a result, highly sensitive
instruments with very fine resolution
are required.
2.2 Bridge Circuit
2.2 Bridge Circuit : Quarter-Bridge
 The condition at which the bridge is
balanced, there is no voltage difference
in between the points C and D.

For balanced condition,

Now, the voltage difference between

points C and D is given by,
2.2 Bridge Circuit : Quarter-Bridge
 When, the resistance of strain gage change under the application of load (resulting
change in strain), the corresponding change in the output voltage is given by,
2.2 Bridge Circuit : Quarter-Bridge
2.2 Bridge Circuit : Quarter-Bridge
2.3 Noise: Types, signal-to-noise ratio
2.3 Noise: Types, signal-to-noise ratio
 To quantify how much the true signal
stands out from the noise, we define
the Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) as:
2.4 Digital signal processing
2.4 Digital signal processing
2.4 Digital signal processing
 Digital Signal Processing (DSP) is the use of digital computation to perform a wide
range of signal processing operations.
 It involves the representation of signals in digital form and the application of
algorithms to extract, transform, or interpret information from these signals.
 Unlike analog signal processing, DSP is based on discrete-time signals that are
sampled and quantized, enabling precise and programmable manipulation.
2.4 Digital signal processing
 Analog-to-Digital
Conversion (ADC):
Before a signal can
undergo digital
processing, it must first
be transformed from its
original analog form into
a digital format.
2.4 Digital signal processing
 Steps of Analog-to-Digital Conversion (ADC)
2.4 Digital signal processing
2.4 Digital signal processing
2.5 Fourier Transform
2.5 Fourier Transform
2.5 Fourier Transform
Why are sinusoids used instead of, for instance, square or triangular
waves?
 Remember, there are an infinite number of ways that a signal can be
decomposed.
 The goal of decomposition is to end up with something easier to deal with than
the original signal.
 A sinusoidal input to a system is guaranteed to produce a sinusoidal output.
 Only the amplitude and phase of the signal can change; the frequency and
wave shape must remain the same.
 Sinusoids are the only waveform that have this useful property.
 While square and triangular decompositions are possible, there is no general
reason for them to be useful.
2.5 Fourier Transform
The general term Fourier transform can be broken into four
categories, resulting from the four basic types of signals that can be
encountered.
2.5 Fourier Transform
2.5 Fourier Transform
2.5 Fourier Transform
2.5 Periodic Series and Fourier Series
Representation
• Any periodic non-sinusoidal signal can be expressed as a linear weighted
sum of harmonically related sinusoidal signals.
• If the periodic function meets the Dirichlet conditions, i.e., if it has a single
value, be finite, and have finite number of discontinuities, and maxima and
minima in one cycle, it may be represented by Fourier series.
• That is,
∞
𝐴0
𝑓 𝑡 = + ෍ 𝐴𝑛 cos 𝑛𝑥 + 𝐵𝑛 sin 𝑛𝑥
2
𝑛=1
where 𝐴𝑛 and 𝐵𝑛 are called Fourier coefficients.
2.5 Periodic Series and Fourier Series
Representation
2.5 Conditions for Existence of Fourier Series
• The Fourier series exists only if the following Dirichlet’s conditions are
satisfied:
1. The signal x(t) is well defined and single valued, except possibly t a finite number
of points.
2. The signal x(t) must possess only a finite number of discontinuities in the period T.
3. The signal must have a finite number of positive and negative maxima in the
period T.

Note:
1. The value of signal x(t) at 𝑡 = 𝑡0 is 𝑥(𝑡0 ) if 𝑡 = 𝑡0 is a point of continuity.
𝑥 𝑡0 + +𝑥 𝑡0 −
2. The value of signal x(t) at 𝑡 = 𝑡0 is if 𝑡 = 𝑡0 is a point of discontinuity.
2
2.5 Examples of Fourier Series
Question-1:
Determine Fourier series expansion for the time dependent signal shown in Figure.
2.5 Examples of Fourier Series
Question-2:
Determine Fourier series expansion for the time dependent signal shown in Figure.

A
0 2 4 6

Answer:
𝟐𝑨 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒇 𝒕 = 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒕 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟐𝒕 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝒕 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟒𝒕 + 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟓𝒕
𝝅 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓
2.5 Fourier transform: Discrete Fourier
transform
Definition
2.5 Fourier transform: Discrete Fourier
transform
2.5 Fourier transform: Discrete Fourier
transform  Matrix Formulation of the DFT
2.5 Fourier transform: Discrete Fourier
transform  Matrix Formulation of the DFT
2.5 Fourier transform: Discrete Fourier
transform  Matrix Formulation of the DFT
2.5 Fourier transform: Discrete Fourier
transform  Matrix Formulation of the DFT
2.5 Fourier transform: Fast Fourier transform
2.5 Fourier transform: Fast Fourier transform
2.5 Fourier transform: Fast Fourier transform
2.5 Fourier transform: Fast Fourier transform
2.5 Fourier transform: Fast Fourier transform
2.5 Fourier transform: Fast Fourier transform

Hierarchical grouping by even and odd sequence index

for 8 point Radix 2 FFT
2.6 Inverse Fourier Transform
2.7 Data presentation
 In mechanical instrumentation, presenting measured data clearly and accurately
is essential for effective monitoring, analysis, and decision-making.
 The two main categories of data presentation elements are
 Displays and
 Recorders/Printers.
 Each has specific roles depending on whether the need is immediate visualization
or long-term documentation.
 Displays are primarily used for real-time viewing of measured values. They are
classified into analogue and digital types based on their mode of operation.
2.7 Data presentation: Analogue Display
 Pointer-scale indicator

 This is the traditional form of data display where a mechanical pointer moves

over a graduated scale.

 Common in pressure gauges, speedometers, and voltmeters, this method offers

a continuous and intuitive representation of data.

 It is particularly useful where trends and relative changes are more important

than exact numerical values.

2.7 Data presentation: Digital Display
 These offer a direct numerical readout and are preferred where precision is
critical. They include several types:
2.7 Data presentation: Recorders/Printers
2.7 Data presentation: Recorders/Printers
Thank You