Mechanics of Materials
Chapter 3 –a-
Mechanical Properties
of Materials
Instructor: Twana A. Hussein
[email protected]
Fall Semester 2019-2020
Civil Engineering Dept.
Tishk International University
Normal stress
Stress is defined as force per unit area; the SI units for stress
are Pascals, the same as those for pressure. Consider the
following case:
The force on each bar is the same, but the stress in the beam is, on average:
Because A2 > A1, σ1 > σ2; therefore, we conclude that because the material breaks under the
same stress, the first beam would break under a lighter load
Engineering versus true stress
Consider a sample of material with cross section A initial. The material is
subjected to a load f that causes the cross-sectional area to change in one of
the following ways shown below:
Almost all materials shrink laterally when subjected to a tensile load
Another phenomena that is generally observed is called “necking” in which the strain
concentrated around a region prior to failure.
Engineering stress is the easiest to measure and is the standard for measuring material
properties.
Material deformation is often so small that the difference between engineering and true stress
is negligible
Material Response
The Stress–Strain Diagram
Basic material tests are generally
conducted using a tensile tester.
The idea is simple: pull the material until
it breaks. But this simple test can give us a
lot of information about the material.
By plotting the stress in the material as a
function of strain, we can identify
different regimes of behavior.
The Stress–Strain Diagram
Consider the following two stress-strain diagrams:
The Stress–Strain Diagram
The first regime is the linear elastic
region, where stress and strain are
linearly related, and the original
geometry is recovered on unloading.
The second regime corresponds to
plastic yield, where the material exhibits
permanent deformation even
once it has been unloaded.
The Stress–Strain Diagram
The third regime is Strain Hardening. When
yielding has ended, an increase in load can
be supported by the specimen, resulting in a
curve that rises continuously but becomes
flatter until it reaches a maximum stress
referred to as the ultimate stress
The differences between the diagrams begin
to appear in the strain-hardening range,
where the magnitude of strain becomes
more significant.
The Stress–Strain Diagram
In the fourth regime, the material begins
to neck, where strain localizes to the
point of eventual failure.
Why does the stress go down during this
stage?
Remember, we are using engineering
stress which uses the un-deformed area.
But necking causes the area of the
material to decrease, so the true stress
actually is still increasing
The Stress–Strain Diagram
The quantity σ 0 is called the yield stress
and is the maximum stress the material
can undergo before exhibiting
permanent damage.
The quantity σ UTS is the maximum
engineering stress that the material can
exhibit before necking occurs.
It is generally referred to as the ultimate
tensile stress, and sometimes
abbreviated UTS.
The Stress–Strain Diagram
Brittle materials do not have a yield
stress because there is no plastic regime.
In general, materials that are brittle
under tension are poor structural
materials because they are very
unforgiving.
Whereas ductile materials “flow”
without breaking upon reaching their
yield strength.
brittle materials generally fail
catastrophically
The Stress–Strain Diagram
True Stress–Strain Diagram
The values of stress and strain computed
from these measurements are called true
stress and true strain.
Use this diagram since most engineering
design is done within the elastic range.
True Stress–Strain Diagram
The true and conventional stress–strain diagrams are different
Most engineering design is done so that the material supports a stress within
the elastic range.
This is because the deformation of the material is generally not severe and
the material will restore itself when the load is removed.
The true strain up to the elastic limit will remain small enough so that the
error in using the engineering values of and is very small (about 0.1%)
compared with their true values.
Actual conventional stress–strain diagram
for a mild steel specimen.
The end of yielding occurs at a strain
of which is 25 times greater
than the strain at the proportional
limit!
By comparison, the strain at failure is
317 times greater than Єpl
Stress–Strain Behavior of Ductile and Brittle
Materials
Ductile Materials
Material that can subjected to large strains before it ruptures is called a
ductile material.
Engineers often choose ductile materials for design because these
materials are capable of absorbing shock or energy.
If they become overloaded, they will usually exhibit large deformation
before failing.
Stress–Strain Behavior of Ductile and
Brittle Materials
Brittle Materials
Materials that exhibit little or no yielding before failure are referred to as
brittle materials.
Compared with their behavior in tension, brittle materials, such as
gray cast iron, exhibit a much higher resistance to axial compression.
Like gray cast iron, concrete is classified as a brittle material, and it
also has a low strength capacity in tension.
The characteristics of its stress–strain diagram depend primarily on the mix of
concrete (water, sand, gravel, and cement) and the time and temperature of
curing.
By inspection, its maximum compressive strength is almost 12.5 times greater
than its tensile strength
Stress–Strain Behavior of Ductile and
Brittle Materials
It can generally be stated that most
materials exhibit both ductile and
brittle behavior.
For example, steel has brittle behavior
when it contains a high carbon content,
and it is ductile when the carbon
content is reduced.
Also, at low temperatures materials
become harder and more brittle,
whereas when the temperature rises
they become softer and more ductile.
Hooke’s Law
Hooke’s Law defines the linear relationship between
stress and strain within the elastic region.
E can be used only if a material has linear–elastic
behavior.
E will have the same units asstress, such as psi, ksi,
or pascals.
The proportional limit for a particular type of
steel alloy depends on its carbon content
Hooke’s Law
Modulus of elasticity
the modulus of elasticity is a mechanical property that
indicates the stiffness of a material.
Materials that are very stiff, such as steel, have large values
of E [ or 200 GPa],
Whereas spongy materials such as vulcanized rubber may
have low values [ or 0.70 MPa].
Hooke’s Law
Strain Hardening
When ductile material is loaded into the plastic region and then
unloaded, elastic strain is recovered.
The plastic strain remains and material is subjected to a permanent set
Strain Energy
When material is deformed by external loading, it will store energy internally throughout
its volume.
Energy is related to the strains called strain energy.
Modulus of Resilience
When stress reaches the proportional limit, the strain-energy density is the modulus of
resilience, ur
The modulus of resilience is defined as the maximum energy that can be absorbed per
unit volume without creating a permanent distortion. It can be calculated by integrating
the stress–strain curve from zero to the elastic limit.
Strain Energy
Modulus of Toughness
Modulus of toughness, ut, represents the entire area under the
stress–strain diagram.
It indicates the strain-energy density of the material
just before it fractures.
Strain Energy
Modulus of Toughness
This property becomes important when designing members
that may be accidentally overloaded.
Alloying metals can also change their resilience and toughness.
For example, by changing the percentage of carbon in steel, the
resulting stress–strain diagrams.
Example 3.1
A tension test for a steel alloy results in the stress–strain diagram
shown in Fig. 3–18. Calculate the modulus of elasticity and the
yield strength based on a 0.2% offset. Identify on the graph the
ultimate stress and the fracture stress
Example 3.1( solution)
Example 3.2
The stress–strain diagram for an aluminum alloy that is used for making
aircraft parts is shown. When material is stressed to 600 MPa, find the
permanent strain that remains in the specimen when load is released. Also,
compute the modulus of resilience both before and after the load
application
Example 3.2
Example 3.2( solution)
Thank you,
