3rd semester Mining Engineering

SUBJECT-DRILLING AND BLASTING:

UNIT-1 Production Drilling in Mines

SYLLABUS

● Production drill machines- factors of selection, different types including pneumatic

drilling operationalAspects
● Types of flushing fluid and circulation of flushing fluid- Direct circulation &
Reverse circulation
● Different drilling patterns used in UG mines
● Drill bits- different types; their field of applications
● Different types of drill rods & their applications
● Pollution control measures in drilling.- basic concepts only

Production drill machine:-

● Drill machine which is related to commencing production is known as a production drill

machine.
● Drill Machine is the simplest, moderate, and most accurate machine used in mining
industries for production of coal and other valuable minerals.
● It is basically a single-purpose machine tool as its main purpose is to make holes.
● A machine consists of a spindle that provides rotary motion to the drilling tool, which
finally makes the hole in the hard mineral deposit.

Factors of selection of production drill machine

● Hardness of different types of deposit.

● Depth of deposit.
● Production target .
● Rate of extraction
● Geological condition of mineral & rock deposits.

Types of Production drill machine:-

Classification of drilling method.

Rotary Drilling:

● For rotary drilling, hollow drill rods of steel or aluminum are used.
 ● These are thread- connected and transmit torque and feed pressure to the drilling bit or
drilling tool which is attached at the end of a column of the drill rods.
● Rotation of the drill rods is through gearing driven by a prime mover at the surface.
● As the rods rotate, the drilling tool abrades the rock and the cuttings are cleared by
pumping water under pressure or compressed air down the hole through the hollow drill
rods.
● The water or air, along with the cuttings, comes to the surface through the space between
the drill rods and the sides of the drill hole.

Percussion Drilling:
● In this method which is the oldest one of drilling.
● Hole is drilled by striking a number at short intervals on the rock by a chisel-type tool
and between the blows the tool is rotated slightly.
● The rock is chipped away with each blow and a circular hole is formed.
● During drilling the chisel is suspended from the surface by rods or wire rope and the
weight of the chisel, rods, etc., is utilized to give the striking force.

Classification of drill machines on the basis of manner.

1. Manual drill machine

2. Mechanized drill machine

Manual drill machine

● Manual drilling is basically carried out with the light equipment, and
The drilling is carried out with the handheld apparatus.
● The drill bit onto the rock is basically experienced in the human body.
● The human hand is giving the thrust that is also getting the reaction force.
● Handheld equipment for drilling machines is always lightweight equipment. And
a significant thrust is not allowed. So, for small operations these machines are
used.
● These Machines are used for the smaller size also. And that is why these are not
very costly machines.
● The diameter of the drill hole has to be limited for the manual drilling machines.
The modern handled rock drills are available which are a little bit lighter in
weight and convenient to use.
● Most of these drill machines are either pneumatically operated or electrically
hydraulically operated .
Manual drill machine

● Handheld pneumatic rock drill

● Handheld hydraulic rock drill
● Internal combustion rock drill
● Handheld electric rock drill

Mechanized drill machine

● Mechanized drill machines are large drilling equipment which are mounted on the rigs,
and operators can sit away from the rig. And control the operation of the rig from a
comfortable position.
● Nowadays, most modern mechanized machines are completely computerized. So, the
penetration depth, penetration rate all these are can be absorbed (feed levels, thrust) all
these can be observed or controlled by the operator.
● Mechanized drill situated in the underground mines ,called jumbo drill, is the crawler
mounted drill.
● Drilling is carried out by the drilling rig, drilling rig and the operation of the drilling rig is
controlled from a cabin or somewhere else.
● It may be possible that this control cabin and drill rigs are mounted on a same truck,
mounted on a same platform or truck, or it may be mounted differently, the rig may be
separate and the operator's cabin may be separate.
● This structure or chassis can themselves be mounted on the wheels of tracks, and either
be self-propelled or towable. So, there are also provisions for the mechanized drill
machine.

Mechanized drill machine

● crawler rig for surface drilling

● wheel mounted for underground drilling

Types of flushing fluid and circulation of flushing fluid- Direct circulation & Reverse
circulation

Flushing fluid
The liquid or gas applied on the cutting zone to reduce friction, heat generation,tool wear, and
improve chip removal and surface finish.
Types of flushing fluid
● Water based fluids
● oil based fluids
● synthetic based fluids
● all oil based fluids
● pneumatic drilling fluids
circulation of flushing fluid- Direct circulation & Reverse circulation

Direct circulation

Direct circulation drilling, the drilling fluid is circulated from the drill stem and then flows up the
annulus between the outside of the drill stem and borehole wall. The drilling fluid that carries the
drill cuttings flows to the surface and the subsequent settlement pits. Pumps are employed to lift
the cuttings free fluid back to the drill stem.

The direct circulation method occurs through the pumping of the circulating fluid (bentonite
and/or polymers based mud) inside the rods. It is then returned back in the annulus between the
rods and the hole, with the material drilled by the bit.

Reverse circulation

Reverse circulation drilling, the direction of flow of drilling flow is opposite to that of direct
circulation drilling. Drilling fluid flows from the annulus( ring shaped structure) between the
drill stem(all the parts of the equipment used for rotary drilling) and the hole wall to the drill
stem. The drilling fluid is pumped to nearby sump pits where cuttings are dropped and settled.

Different types of flushing fluid used in drilling?

Types of flushing fluids are
● Water based fluids
● Oils based fluids
● Synthetic –based fluids
● All-oils fluids
● Pneumatic-drilling fluids

Different types of Drilling Pattern used in underground mines?

(1). Pyramid Cut or Cone Cut:

● Pyramid cut consists of drilling holes at corners of a square with 0.7 to 1 m sides almost
to meet at a point at the back of the round of holes.
 ● In cone cut holes are drilled forming corners of a polygon with a centre hole almost
nearly meeting at a point, at the back of the cut.
● It is suitable for uniform, thickly bedded and hard rocks.

PYRAMID CUT/DIAMOND CUT

(2). Wedge Cut:

● In this two or four pairs of holes are drilled to form a wedge, each pair starting from two
sides of the drift centre and inclined at an angles less than 450 towards the centre almost
meeting at the back of the cut along a line.
● It is suitable for uniform, thickly bedded and hard rocks. Less explosive consumed. Pull
is up to the width of drift.
(3). Drag Cut:

● Pattern consists in drilling holes at an angle to the cleats so that the strata break along the
cleavage plane suitable for small drift of well cleated rocks.
● The holes near the roof are drilled to rise towards the roof.

DRAG CUT
(4). Fan Cut:

● Holes are drilled in a fan-like pattern to cover the whole face oriented such that the holes
are inclined towards the centre of the drift.
● Suitable for laminated and soft rocks.

FAN CUT

(5). Burn Cut:

● This cut is effective in hard brittle, homogeneous ground which breaks evenly.
● In this parallel holes at right angles to the face are drilled in a cluster in different forms.
● Few holes are left uncharged to give relief to heavy concentration of explosive in
charged holes.
 BURN CUT

(6). Coromant Cut:-

● This cut hole pattern in a few types to achieve greater advance per round in a tunnel or
drift of a small area.
● Coromant cut consists of a slot which is left unloaded together with six outer holes
loaded, the locations of which are carefully decided. The upper holes are drilled first,
slightly upward.
● A special drill jig or template which gives desired precision.
● The template normally used is the 6 hole template to fit the Coromant cut.
● Drilling is carried out with a 20mm drill rod with topper and a special drill bit of 57mm
diameter.
● Suitable for majority of rocks, normally blasted in the same round with the help of
millisecond delay detonators.
(7). Ring Drilling:-

● Mostly applicable in metalliferous mines drilling with long holes is practiced.

● Vertical ring drilling where rings are drilled in vertical planes radially like the blades of a
fan, to break a vertical face, applicable in sublevel caving.
● Horizontal ring drilling where the holes are fanned out radially in the horizontal face as in
shrinkage stopping.
 RING HOLE PATTERN

Different types of drill rods & their applications

(i) Turbine section drill rod:

● It is used to drill in the coal or soft rock having diameter 32mm and length 1.5 meter.
● The drill rod is attached to the coal drill through the chuck. It is used in the rotary
drilling method.
● Drill bit is fastened at the one end for drilling.

(ii) Diamond section drill rod:

● It is a rigid rod made up of high carbon steel of length up to 2 meters. It is attached to a

hammer drill (percussive drill).
● It has a tungsten bit fixed at one end.
● It has a minute hole along its length for air or water flushing.

(iii) Circular section drill rod:

● It is made up of high carbon steel of length up to 5 meter and diameter up to 300mm.

● It is a hollow cylindrical drill rod having thread for attaching drill bit and other end to the
drill motor shaft.
● This type of rods can be used for percussive and rotary or combination of both.

Drill bits- different types; their field of applications

 ⮚ Saw-Toothed Cutter
⮚ Tricone Rock Roller Bits
⮚ Diamond Drilling
⮚ Chilled Steel Shots

SAW-TOOTHED CUTTER:
● The drilling tool is a saw-toothed steel crown or cutter.
● The teeth are set alternately inward and outward to give the necessary clearance. The
speed of rotation is only 5 to 10 r.p.m. and the drill bits are suitable only for drilling
through rocks of medium hardness; only holes of diameter not less than 150 mm are
possible.
TRICONE ROCK ROLLER BITS:
● These are suitable for hole diameters between 75 mm and 300 mm.
● In mining areas these are commonly used for drilling large diameter holes in mechanized
quarries.
● Flushing of the hole with compressed air instead of by water under pressure is the
common practice with this type of bit. Rock roller bits can be used for deep hole drilling
with speed and are suitable for mostly vertical downward holes.
DIAMOND DRILLING:
● This method is commonly adopted where cores of rocks passed through are desired for
accurate records of the strata or for testing the rocks for their strength, composition,
porosity, etc.
● the common type of drill bit which consists of a cylindrical cast steel shell having in its
lower face a number of small sockets in which pieces of black diamonds are set.
● Diamond drilling method is suitable for drilling at any angle to obtain cores of friable
strata as well as the hardest rock.
● It has been adopted for drilling upto a depth of 3000 m and hole diameter upto 200 mm.
● Drilling upto such large depths is not required in coal mining areas where the maximum
drilling depth is upto 1000 m, as coal mines are rarely deeper than that.
CHILLED STEEL SHOTS:
● These shots are prepared by heating very finely divided steel particles to a very high
temperature and then suddenly cooling them in ice cold water.
● Chilled shots are used in conjunction with a plain steel shell or cylinder with a diagonal
slot near the bottom.
● They are fed through the hollow drill rods and pass to the bottom of the hole where they
get caught between the bottom end of the cutting shell and the rock.
● As the shell and the drill rods rotate, the chilled steel shots cut the rock by a milling
action.
● The method is suitable for vertical and large diameter holes of 100 mm to 750 mm.
● It is also called calyx drilling, but is not much favoured these days as diamond drill bits
have gained wide popularity and are available in large diameters upto 250 mm.

various pollution control measures in drilling?

 ● Dust suppression system
● Wet drilling
● Dust extraction and filtration system during drilling
● Dry fog system and atomized water spray in crushing plant
● Dust encapsulation system conveyors.
● Regular monitoring of ambient air ,emission from vehicles and other machineries.

Some important questions and answers

Q.1 What do you mean by drilling?

It is a cutting process in which a drill bit is used to cut or enlarge a hole in a solid material.

Q.2 Explain in short about the blasting operation in Mining industries?

It is the process of reducing a solid body such as rock to fragments by using an explosive.

Q.3 Define production Drilling?

In the mining cycle ,drilling performed for the placement of explosives is termed as production
drilling.

Q.4 Writes the factors affecting the selection of production drill machines?

● Hardness of different types of deposit.

● Depth of deposit.
● Production target .
● Rate of extraction
● Geological condition of mineral & rock deposits.

Q.5 Classify the production drilling on the basis of drilling method .

Rotary Drilling:

● For rotary drilling, hollow drill rods of steel or aluminum are used.
● These are thread- connected and transmit torque and feed pressure to the drilling bit or
drilling tool which is attached at the end of a column of the drill rods.
● Rotation of the drill rods is through gearing driven by a prime mover at the surface.
● As the rods rotate, the drilling tool abrades the rock and the cuttings are cleared by
pumping water under pressure or compressed air down the hole through the hollow drill
rods.
● The water or air, along with the cuttings, comes to the surface through the space between
the drill rods and the sides of the drill hole.
Percussion Drilling:
● In this method which is the oldest one of drilling.
● Hole is drilled by striking a number at short intervals on the rock by a chisel-type tool
and between the blows the tool is rotated slightly.
● The rock is chipped away with each blow and a circular hole is formed.
● During drilling the chisel is suspended from the surface by rods or wire rope and the
weight of the chisel, rods, etc., is utilized to give the striking force.

Q.6 Writes the names of different types of flushing fluid used in drilling?
Types of flushing fluids are
● Water based fluids
● Oils based fluids
● Synthetic –based fluids
● All-oils fluids
● Pneumatic-drilling fluids

Q.7 Differentiate to direct circulation and reverse circulation of flushing fluids?

Direct circulation fluid flows from drill stem and then flows up the annulus between the outside
of drill stem and borehole wall.

Reverse circulation fluids flow from opposite to that of direct circulation.

Q.6 Illustrate the types of drill bits? Discuss about the various types of drill bits used in
drilling?
⮚ Saw-Toothed Cutter
⮚ Tricone Rock Roller Bits
⮚ Diamond Drilling
⮚ Chilled Steel Shots

SAW-TOOTHED CUTTER:
● The drilling tool is a saw-toothed steel crown or cutter.
● The teeth are set alternately inward and outward to give the necessary clearance. The
speed of rotation is only 5 to 10 r.p.m. and the drill bits are suitable only for drilling
through rocks of medium hardness; only holes of diameter not less than 150 mm are
possible.
TRICONE ROCK ROLLER BITS:
● These are suitable for hole diameter between 75 mm and 300 mm.
● In mining areas these are commonly used for drilling large diameter holes in mechanized
quarries.
● Flushing of the hole with compressed air instead of by water under pressure is the
common practice with this type of bit. Rock roller bits can be used for deep hole drilling
with speed and are suitable for mostly vertical downward holes.
DIAMOND DRILLING:
 ● This method is commonly adopted where cores of rocks passed through are desired for
accurate records of the strata or for testing the rocks for their strength, composition,
porosity, etc.
● the common type of drill bit which consists of a cylindrical cast steel shell having in its
lower face a number of small sockets in which pieces of black diamonds are set.
● Diamond drilling method is suitable for drilling at any angle to obtain cores of friable
strata as well as the hardest rock.
● It has been adopted for drilling upto a depth of 3000 m and hole diameter upto 200 mm.
● Drilling upto such large depths is not required in coal mining areas where the maximum
drilling depth is upto 1000 m, as coal mines are rarely deeper than that.
CHILLED STEEL SHOTS:
● These shots are prepared by heating very finely divided steel particles to a very high
temperature and then suddenly cooling them in ice cold water.
● Chilled shots are used in conjunction with a plain steel shell or cylinder with a diagonal
slot near the bottom.
● They are fed through the hollow drill rods and pass to the bottom of the hole where they
get caught between the bottom end of the cutting shell and the rock.
● As the shell and the drill rods rotate, the chilled steel shots cut the rock by a milling
action.
● The method is suitable for vertical and large diameter holes of 100 mm to 750 mm.
● It is also called calyx drilling, but is not much favoured these days as diamond drill bits
have gained wide popularity and are available in large diameters upto 250 mm.

Q.7 Explain in detail the different types of Drilling Pattern used in underground mines?

(1). Pyramid Cut or Cone Cut:

● Pyramid cut consists of drilling holes at corners of a square with 0.7 to 1 m sides almost
to meet at a point at the back of the round of holes.
● In cone cut holes are drilled forming corners of a polygon with a centre hole almost
nearly meeting at a point, at the back of the cut.
● It is suitable for uniform, thickly bedded and hard rocks.

(2). Wedge Cut:

● In this two or four pairs of holes are drilled to form a wedge, each pair starting from two
sides of the drift centre and inclined at an angle less than 450 towards the centre almost
meeting at the back of the cut along a line.
● It is suitable for uniform, thickly bedded and hard rocks. Less explosive consumed. Pull
is up to the width of drift.

(3). Drag Cut:

 ● Pattern consists in drilling holes at an angle to the cleats so that the strata break along the
cleavage plane suitable for small drift of well cleated rocks.

(4). Fan Cut:

● Holes are drilled in a fan-like pattern to cover the whole face oriented such that the holes
are inclined towards the centre of the drift.
● Suitable for laminated and soft rocks.

(5). Burn Cut:

● This cut is effective in hard brittle, homogeneous ground which breaks evenly.
● In this parallel holes at right angles to the face are drilled in a cluster in different forms.
● Few holes are left uncharged to give relief to heavy concentration of explosive in
charged holes.

(6). Coromant Cut:-

● This cut hole pattern in a few types to achieve greater advance per round in a tunnel or
drift of a small area.
● Coromant cut consists of a slot which is left unloaded together with six outer holes
loaded, the locations of which are carefully decided. The upper holes are drilled first,
slightly upward.
● A special drill jig or template which gives desired precision.
● The template normally used is the 6 hole template to fit the Coromant cut.
● Drilling is carried out with a 20mm drill rod with topper and a special drill bit of 57mm
diameter.
● Suitable for majority of rocks, normally blasted in the same round with the help of
millisecond delay detonators.

(7). Ring Drilling:-

● Mostly applicable in metalliferous mines drilling with long holes is practiced.

● Vertical ring drilling where rings are drilled in vertical planes radially like the blades of a
fan, to break a vertical face, applicable in sublevel caving.
● Horizontal ring drilling where the holes are fanned out radially in the horizontal face as in
shrinkage stopping.

Q.7 Describe the various types of drill rod used in drilling?

(i) Turbine section drill rod:

● It is used to drill in the coal or soft rock having diameter 32mm and length 1.5 meter.
 ● The drill rod is attached to the coal drill through the chuck. It is used in the rotary
drilling method.
● Drill bit is fastened at the one end for drilling.

(ii) Diamond section drill rod:

● It is a rigid rod made up of high carbon steel of length up to 2 meters. It is attached to a

hammer drill (percussive drill).
● It has a tungsten bit fixed at one end.
● It has a minute hole along its length for air or water flushing.

(iii) Circular section drill rod:

● It is made up of high carbon steel of length up to 5 meter and diameter up to 300mm.

● It is a hollow cylindrical drill rod having thread for attaching drill bit and other end to the
drill motor shaft.
● This type of rods can be used for percussive and rotary or combination of both.

Q.8 Writes the various pollution control measures in drilling?

● Dust suppression system

● Wet drilling
● Dust extraction and filtration system during drilling
● Dry fog system and atomized water spray in crushing plant
● Dust encapsulation system conveyors.
● Regular monitoring of ambient air ,emission from vehicles and other machineries.

—-----------------------------------------------------------
3RD SEMESTER MINING ENGINEERING

CHAPTER II:- EXPLOSIVES

EXPLOSIVES:

Explosive is a solid, liquid mixture of compounds on combustion, detonation or on heating

releases rapidly large volume of gases with high temperature and pressure. On combustion or
detonation, initiate chemical reaction which builds up chemical energy having heat and
mechanical energy results in high pressure which breaks rocks.

Constituent of an explosive:
(a) Oxidizing agent - Sodium Nitrate, Ammonium Nitrate, Potassium Nitrate.
(b) Combustible substances- Charcoal, Wood meal, fiber, Sulphur etc.
(c) Stabilizers- Calcium Carbonate, Magnesium carbonate etc.
(d) Sensitizers- Metallic Power (Al powder) etc.
(e) Anti setting Agents- Prevents caking of salts.
(f) Flame Depressants- Sodium chloride, Sodium bi-carbonate etc.

Classification of explosives

Low Explosives: Low explosives are those explosives which when blasted the effect of
explosion energy and velocity of propagation of flame is low because the process of oxidation of
the constituent substances is propagated by rapid combustion from particle to particle through
the mass of explosive. The particles of the explosive body burns at surface thus building gradual
pressure and temperature by the released gases. Explosives are fired by ignition of safety fuse.
Ex – Gun Powder
High Explosive: Constituents of high explosives are explosive by nature and when the
explosive explodes, the effect of explosion energy and velocity of detonation and the chemical
reaction of the chemical ingredients is very rapid and instantaneous with very high velocity. The
process of oxidation does not proceed from particle to particle but is instantaneous. High
explosives are fired by detonation (to provide shock) and on explosion produces shattering
effect. Both the pressure and temperature of the released gases built up a large volume of gases
instantaneously within the confinement. Example – Nitroglycerine, Ammonium Nitrate.
Permitted Explosives: A permitted explosive is a high explosive for special purpose which
has been subjected to stringent tests thus the name permitted market by letter P on the wrapper. It
is tested by CMRI and approved by DGMS for use in underground mines and some specified
places.
The idea behind the development of permitted explosive is that all explosives on explosion create
heat and flame, to avoid explosion of gas or coal dust in an u/g coal mine it is essential that the
heat and flame produced by an explosive should be incapable of igniting the inflammable gas or
coal dust when used in charges up to a specified weight.
To render safety, primarily a permitted explosive has an essential constituent like sodium
chloride, potassium chloride, sodium fluoride etc as an cooling agent. Its main constituents are
Nitroglycerine, Ammonium Nitrate, sodium chloride and absorbing material.
Its characteristic feature is low temperature and very short flame duration in the order of
1/1000th of a second.
Permitted explosives are grouped as follow:
P1: Unsheathed or ordinary explosives. Mainly used in drilling and for pulsed infusion shot
firing. Example – Ajax – G, Viking – G, Godyne.
P2: Sheathed Explosives, used for instantaneous or simultaneous firing in coal or ripping.
P3: Equivalent sheathed explosives, these may be used where sheathed explosives are used.
Example – Unisax – G, Permadyne, Unipurf – G.
P4: These are semi – ion exchange explosives and are suitable for delay firing in ripping and
cross measure drift. Example – Carribel, Carrifrax – G.
P5: This is ultrasafe explosive used in delay firing in coal. These are suitable for Blasting of the
solids. Ex – Soligex, Pentadyne etc.

Detonator: High Explosives are initiated by detonators or detonating fuse, as it contains

special explosive in aluminum and copper tube when initiated by a flame or electric current in
the special explosive, a chemical reaction on explosion of an explosive can build up very rapidly
into an explosion of sufficient intensity and propagate detonation wave through the high
explosive around its external periphery and initiate the later. Detonators are of Al or Cu tube
containing high explosive.
Detonators are of following types:-
(1). Plain Detonator or Ordinary Detonator: Plain detonator are fired by safety fuse,
the spark from the fuse explode the detonator which contains a base charge of PentaErythritol
Tetra Nitrate (PETN) with a priming charge of A.S.A composition(Lead Azide, Lead Styphnate
and Aluminum powder) in an Aluminum Tube. The A.S.A. initiates base charge PETN. It is
sensitive to shock, friction and lighting. These are fired by ignition
(2). Electric Detonator: Electric Detonators are made of either Aluminum or copper tubes
and are fired by passing electric current through tube head. A current of 0.5amps at a minimum
3.5 volts can ignite the fuse head composition. The fuse head assembly for electric ignition of the
charge consists of an LMNR/Chlorate fuse head fitted and a Neoprene sealing plug. The fuse
head initiate the priming charge of A.S.A and base charge PETN.
Electric Detonators are of two types:-
(a) Instantaneous type Detonators:
(i.) Low Tension Detonators: The internal resistance of low tension detonators is 1.3 Ohm,
the resistance of lead wires is 2 to 5 Ohm. The total resistance is about 7 Ohm with 45m long
shot firing cable.
(ii.) High Tension Detonators: Not used for normal mining work.
(b) Delay Detonators:
(i.) Long delay or half second delay detonators: Delay interval of 300 milliseconds
between successive delay series. The delay element is slow burning composition of Antimony
and Potassium Permanganate.
(ii.) Short delay or millisecond delay detonators: Delay interval of 25millisecond
between successive delay series. The delay element having composition of Red Lead and Silicon
which has faster burning rate.
Electric Detonators are of two types:
The delay detonators are low tension electric detonators made of either aluminum or copper tube and
are fired by passing electric current through the fuse head. A current of 0.5amp at a minimum of 3.5 Volt
can ignite the fuse head composition. The fuse head assembly for electric ignition of the charge consists
of an LMNR/Chlorate fuse head fitted with PVC covered timed iron or copper leading wires, and a
Neoprene sealing plug. The fuse head assembly and the priming charge are separated by a delay
element consisting either copper or brass sleeve fitted with special composition. The delay is resulted by
varying the length of the sleeve containing special composition which burns at a specified rate thus
initiate the priming charge is separated by a delay element consisting either copper or brass sleeve fitted
with a special composition. The delay is resulted by varying the length of the sleeve containing special
composition which burns at a specified rate thus initiate the priming charge of A.S.A. and detonation
wave propagate to the base charge of PETN, initiate the later.
The delay and instantaneous detonators are distinguished by the color of the lead wires and the delay
no. marked on the tag and also on the bottom of the detonator tube.
In underground coal mine delay detonators of copper tube is permitted and prior permission from DGMS
is required for use in u/g coal mines. Delay and Non-delay detonators should not be kept in the same
box.
Safety Fuse: - A safety fuse which looks like a cord consists of a core of fine grained gun powder
wrapped with layers of a tape or textile yarn and water proof coatings. The burning speed is usually 100
to 120 sec/meter. When one end of the fuse is ignited, it carries the flame at a uniform rate to ignite gun
powder or to detonate an ordinary detonator which in turn can detonate a high explosive.
Detonating Fuse: - For blasting long and large number of holes at a time in bench blasting, long length of
detonator leads are required. To avoid long length of leads, detonating fuse is used in common like
cordtex. The fuse consists of a core of PETN enclosed in a tape which is wrapped with cloth, enclosed in a
tabular cover of plastic material. Its external dia. is 5mm and 16 – 20 gm in wt per meter. VOD is 6500
m/s. A large no. of shots can be fired by single detonator by connecting with detonating fuse. It is water
resistant; however water may penetrate through the cut end of core.
Detonating Relays:- A detonating relay is essentially an assembly of two open ended delay
detonators coupled together with flexible neoprene tubing in an aluminum sleeve suitable for
crimping into a cordtex. In detonating relay, the delay element at either end so that the detonation
wave may pass in either direction. The delay interval varies from 15 – 45 milliseconds. At any
convenient point on detonating fuse is cut where a delay is required, and the detonating relay is
then crimped between the two ends of the main or branch line.
Exploders: - The portable hand held apparatus which provides the requisite amount of current
necessary for firing electric detonators or in electric shot firing is known as an exploder.
Exploders are of following types or categories:-
(1). Magneto or Dynamo Exploder :- In this type of exploders generate the necessary electrical
power by means of a dynamo or magneto, known as magneto or dynamo exploder. Example –
Little demon an schaffer 750 exploder. L.T. exploder – 15 V, H.T. Exploder- 125 V, Single shot –
1 or 2 shots, Multi-shot – 6 shots.
(2). Battery Condenser Exploder: These exploders have a capacitor which is charged either by
a battery or a dynamo, current is discharged from capacitor through the shot firing circuit.
Example – Rhino Exploder. The capacitor charging current is provided by the battery of 4 or
more dry cells connected in series. Rotation of the key half a revolution, connect the battery with
the condenser to charge up in small fractions of seconds. On turning the key on the either
direction the residual current discharges in the circuit to explode the detonators. Rhino – 25 fires
25 shots at a time, firing current 1.5 amp Input – D.C. 6V and output 600V, firing duration 3 – 4
millisecond. Permitted in deg – 1 & 2 Gassy coal mines.
(3). Electronic Exploder :- Electronically controlled sophisticated exploders with transistorized
circuits where current magnitude and duration can be controlled. Ex.- M.E. – 12, T2K – 100G
Exploder.

EXPLOSIVE USED IN OPENCAST MINE:

Ammonium Nitrate Fuel oil Explosives (ANFO): ANFO is a simple mixture of prilled
Ammonium Nitrate (AN) and Fuel oil (FO) at the nearly oxygen balance ratio of 94:6. The 6% FO.

Ammonium Nitrate Fuel oil Explosives (ANFO): ANFO is a simple mixture of prilled
Ammonium Nitrate (AN) and Fuel oil (FO) at the nearly oxygen balance ratio of 94:6. The 6% FO is
important to raise the heat of explosion from 1.5KJ/g for AN prills alone to 3.8 KJ/g for ANFO. The major
constituent is pores prilled AN has available porosity about 0.07 cc for right absorption of FO. ANFO does
not detonate ideally and their performance property strongly depends upon charge diameter and
confinement. It is cheap and very good for dry holes for its free flowing properties. For detonation, a
primer or booster is required in small quantity in primer cartridge at the top or bottom of the hole or as
deck charge. Because of specific gravity 0.8 to 1.0, ANFO do not sink in holes having water, thus it should
be packed in polythene bags and forced in holes. Holes of above 62 mm dia. are preferred for ANFO and
considered economic. Detonation velocity ranges from 2500 m/s to 3500 m/s.

Slurry Explosives: Since the ANFO is hygroscopic in nature and has poor water resistant property,
the development of AN based slurry explosives with TNT as reducing agent came into existence. This
type of explosives besides oxidizer(Ammonium Nitrate, Sodium Nitrate etc), water, sensitizer, hydrophilic
colloid such as guar gum which results in velocity build up. Cross linking agents usually a polyvalent
metal ion and gel network imparts water resistant characteristics.
It has density 1.05 to 1.25 gm/cc, velocity of Detonation –> 3800 – 4200 m/s, excellent fume
characteristics. It is poured in holes of above 62mm dia. in quarries mixed at site and directly loaded into
holes (SMS) Site Mixed Slurry. Transported at site by bulk trucks and loaded in blast holes.
Liquid Oxygen Explosives (LOX): Liquid oxygen explosive (LOX) comprises of two main broad
constituents i.e., the combustible component and an oxidizing agent. In this type of explosive the
combustible component is saturated with liquid oxygen, thus each particle of combustible substance is
surrounded with an adequate amount of oxidizing agent to ensure complete combustion. Under
confinement when detonated or ignited the reaction assumes explosive proportion resulting in release
of tremendous instantaneous energy for blasting. LOX has VOD in the range of 4000 m/s to 5000 m/s
depending upon liquid oxygen content and choice of combustible substance which should have high
degree of porosity and should easily mix with suitable additives is important.

Emulsion Explosive: An emulsion is a two phased system in which a dispersed phase (oxidizer) is
distributed in a continuous phase (fuel). It is an intimate mixture of oxidizer and fuel which are both in
liquid form but they do not dissolve in each other. The water levels are reduced with the use of the super
saturated salt solutions. But with the help of an emulsifying agent an intimate mix of oil and water is
possible and hence the name emulsion. By an emulsifier, an intimate contact in between oxidizer and
fuel is obtained. The proximity of each unit of oxidizer and fuel approaches in molecular proportion due
to minute size of the nitrate solution droplet (0.001mm) and their tight compaction with continuous
phase fuel. Commonly used oxidizers are Ammonium Nitrate, Barium Nitrate, Sodium Nitrate, Calcium
Nitrate etc. Fuel oil, mineral oils, waxes are used as fuel. Various grades of Aluminum is different
proportion are added to increase the energy content of explosives sensitivity is enhanced by the addition
of Micro Balloons(Hollow Gas Spheres) or chemical gassing agent.
There are two types of emulations:-
(a) Water – in – oil type (Water dispersed in continuous oil)
(b) Oil – in – water type (Oil dispersed in continuous water)
It has property like high velocity of detonation between 5000 m/s to 6000 m/s, having excellent water
resistant property since every droplet of oxidizer is covered by a layer of fuel as in oil – in – water type
Emulsion explosive is very safe during manufacture, transport and usage.
 3rd Semester Mining Engg
Subject – Drilling & Blasting

UNIT - III BLASTING PRACTICE IN UNDERGROUND MINES:

Shot firing tools:
1. Detonators, detonating fuse, safety fuse, detonating relay
2. Exploders
3. Circuit tester
4. Stemming rod
5. Stemming materials
6. Pricker
7. Shot firing cable
8. Crimper
9. Crack detector
Preparation of charge:
Before charging the shot hole charge is prepared by inserting the detonator in the cartridge and
the process is known as priming of charge. The primed cartridge is said to be a primer cartridge
which has lead wires of detonators tied to the cartridge ready to be inserted in a hole. The
cartridge is pricked by a pricker for better insertion of detonators. Then the primer cartridge is
pushed in the hole along with clay stemming cartridge by a stemming rod up to the end of the
hole with the detonator pointing outbye of the hole known as direct initiation. Stemming is done
by inserting a clay cartridge one by one until the full length of the hole is packed.
1) Test shot holes of any breaks or cracks and also the length of the holes.
2) Test for inflammable gas in the face and up to 18m.
3) Make sure that the shot holes are 150mm less than the depth of the cut.
4) Charge all the holes by the required charge with a primer at the end.

5) Stemming of holes is carried out first lightly then heavily up to the mouth of the holes.
6) Perform spraying of stone dust or water up to 90 m of the face.
7) Connections are made with the same delay numbers in series and different delays in parallel.
8) Shot firing cable is laid and coupled with detonators leads.
9) Warn the workers to clear up and post the helpers at suitable places to inadvertently enter the
area.
10) Test for inflammable gas in the face is again carried out to confirm the presence of gas.
11) Taking shelter at two right angles from the face to be blasted.
12) Couple shot firing cable to the exploder terminals.
13) Shout warning to the workers for reminding them to take shelter.
14) Allow the fumes and gasses to clear off for a few minutes.
15) Inspect the face, examine the roof, sides and supports and dress the over hangings for loose
and support the face.
Direct Initiation or Forward Initiation: When the primer cartridge is placed in the shot hole
having its business end i.e., the detonator points towards the main body of the charge then this
position of charge is known as Direct Initiation. The direct initiation enables the cartridge being
properly exploded to be maximum and is best to prevent ignition of fire damp, reduces risk of
blown out shot and maximum yield of coal.
Indirect Initiation or Inverse Initiation: When the detonator is at the back of the charge of
cartridge and the business end points towards the blind end of the shot –hole then this position of
primer cartridge is known as Inverse Initiation. This is practiced in cut holes of shots fired in
shafts and tunnels and when using delay detonators to fire rounds of shots.
CALCULATING POWDER FACTORS
The powder factor is a relationship between how much rock/ore/coal is broken and how much
explosive is used to break it. It can serve a variety of purposes, such as an indicator of how hard
the rock is, or the cost of the explosives needed, or even as a guide to planning a shot. Powder
factor can be expressed as a quantity of rock/ore/coal broken by a unit weight of explosives. Or,
alternatively, it can be the amount of explosives required to break a unit measure of rock. Since
rock is usually measured in cubic meters, there are several possible combinations that can
express the powder factor.
Powder Factor = cubic meters of rock/ore/coal per kilogram of explosive. The higher the powder
factor, the lighter the load. Lower powder factor means more explosives.
Detonator Factor: It is the unit weight of rock/ore/coal broken per detonator or number of
detonators required to break unit weight of rock/ore/coal is a measure of detonator efficiency.
SOLID BLASTING
Blasting of coal without giving a cut in the face by permitted type of explosives is known as
blasting of the solid or simply solid blasting. Permitted explosives of P5 type are charged and
blasted by using Carrick short delay detonators. After devising the pattern of shot holes and
recommended charge per hole, approval from DGMS, solid blasting is carried out in coal mines
of any degree of gassiness. Solid blasting is most common nowadays which follow the pattern of
shot holes drilled of wedge cut or fan cut. Wedge cut and fan cut provides free face better with
shot holes drilled at angle 450 to 60 in solid blasting.

Conditions imposed for granting permission to adopt solid blasting in a coal mine:-
(1) Person from explosive supply company shall train officials and supervisory staff in the initial
stages of firing.
(2) Only recommended permitted types of explosives and non – incendive millisecond delay
detonator to be used.
(3) The shot firer or the explosive carrier shall carry in the box only one P – type explosive.
(4) Pattern of shot holes to be laid down by the manager.
(5) In devising the pattern,
(a) The estimated period of delay between two consecutive delay shots shall not exceed 0.06
second or i.e., 60 milliseconds.
(b) The estimated period of delay between the first and last shot of the same round calculated by
reference to the marking on detonators shall not exceed 0.15 sec or 150 milliseconds.
(c) The minimum distance between the two adjacent shot holes of different delays shall not be
less than 0.6m or 60 cm.
(6) For Degree – I & II gassy mines, at least 284 m of air per minute shall be conducted in the
ventilation connection out bye of every face where solid blasting is to be carried out.
(7) For Degree – III gassy mines at least 284 m3 of air per minute shall be conducted upto every
face where solid blasting is to be done.
(8). No shot shall be fired if 0.5% or more inflammable gas is found at any place during
statutory examination within 60 m of the place of firing.
(9) The shot firer shall not fire more than 25 shots in one round.
(10) The roof and floor and sides of all working places within 90 m shall be drenched with water
or suitable stone dusted before blasting/shot firing.
(11) The shot firer shall take due precautions in respect of high voltage from the exploder, taking
shelter, warning other persons, connections of detonators.
Advantages of Solid Blasting
(1) By use of solid blasting, cut in the face by a coal cutting machine is abolished which is
hazardous and time consuming.
(2) Any height of seam and soft nature of floor and roof can be worked which is not possible
with cut blasting where C.C.M. is used.
(3) Capital cost involved is less as CCM and its accessories increase other expenditures.
(4) In the absence of C.C.M., track can be laid up to the face which enables tub movement up to
the face.
(5) Seams with irregularities and working over the caved area are possible as CCM movement is
hampered in the reverse case.
(6) Less time per blast required as compared to cut blasting.
(7) Overall operation cost is less and easy.

MAGAZINE
Magazine means a building or structure (other than an explosives manufacturing building)
intended for storage of explosives, specially constructed in accordance with the specification
provided under these rules or of a design and approved by the Chief Controller.
Types of Magazine: Construction and Safety Features
A magazine shall be well and substantially and shall be made and close so as to prevent
unauthorized persons from having access thereto and to secure it from danger. Magazines can be
of the following types:
Type 'A' magazine:
Type 'A' magazine shall be of a type approved by the Chief Controller and shall primarily have
the following –
(a) Walls of reinforced concrete at least 225 millimeters thick or brick or stone at least 450
millimeters thick set in cement mortar. Concrete shall have a minimum compressive strength of
2,500 lb/sq.inch at 28 days (the required strength will be reached by a mixture consisting of 1
part cement, 1-1⁄2 parts sand, 3 parts of aggregate by volume). Reinforcement should consist of
square mesh, hard-drawn steel wire fabric, providing a cross-section area in each direction of not
less than 0.21 sq. inch of 2 ft. of wall. The reinforcement shall be covered by not less than 50
millimeters of concrete on either side. The bricks and concrete blocks shall conform to relevant
Indian Standard Specifications. Commercial grade steel is satisfactory for use in construction.
The cement mortar shall consist of not less than one part of cement and three parts of clean sand.
(b) Interior, and the benches, shelves and fittings therein shall be so constructed or so lined or
covered as to prevent the exposure of any iron or steel and the detaching of grit, iron, steel or
similar substances in such a manner as to come into contact with explosives. Such interior
benches shelves and fittings shall be kept free from grit and otherwise clean; and in the case of
any explosive that is liable to be dangerously affected by water, due precautions shall be taken to
exclude it therefrom.
(c) Roof shall be of reinforced concrete at least 150 millimeters thick.
(d) One ventilator at the top and bottom in each opposite side wall of the magazine shall be
provided where the weight of explosive stored is up to and including 500 kilogrammes and
minimum two in the top and bottom of each wall shall be provided where the weight of
explosive stored exceeds 500 kilograms. Number of the ventilators may be increased as
desired by the licensing authority. The ventilators shall be 22.5 centimeters x 11.25 centimeters.
Z type fitted with frame of iron bars set firmly in the wall on the outer face, the bars to be of 2.35
square centimeters, (3/8" sq.) iron set angle-wise with the frame. The inner opening to be
protected with a brass wire gauge of 3 meshes per centimeter.
(e) External doors — (i) that opens outwards and when closed fit tightly; (ii) to be constructed of
steel plate at least 5 millimeters, thick with or without internal lining of wood.
(f) Every internal door —
(i) made of wood;
(ii) locks and fittings of non-ferrous metal.
(g) External door-locks should be of "dead lock" type.
(h) A separate room for storage of detonators or other explosives of Class 6 Division 3 if stored
within the magazine. Such room shall have independent entrance and a minimum air-gap of 1
meter from any other room in the magazine and the thickness of the wall of the detonator storage
room facing any other room in the magazine shall be minimum 60 centimeters.
(i) Wooden trestles or raised cement platforms for storage of explosive packages.
(j) A porch if necessary shall be
(i) of the same construction as the remainder of the magazine; and
(ii) used only for keeping all tools or implements used in connection with the magazine or
the changing of clothes and shoes.
(k) 25 x 50 mm furring strips fastened to the wall, vertically on 300 millimeters centers starting
130 millimeter from floor and continuous to the stacking line, around the usable portions of the
walls to provide air circulation and to prevent cases of explosives being stacked directly against
the walls.
(l) A minimum 12 millimeter red line painted on the interior walls of the magazine at a height of
2.5 meters from the floor level. This line indicates the maximum height to which explosives may
be stacked. The licensing authority may specify lower stacking height if deemed necessary.
(m) An internal volume not less than 0.4 cubic meter for each 100 kilogrammes of explosives. In
addition sufficient space shall be provided for passage between stocks of packages if required by
licensing authority.
(n) Sufficient number of windows for proper lighting inside the magazine. The windows shall
open outside and constructed of steel plate at least 5 millimeter thick with or without internal
lining of wood.
Type 'B' magazine (portable magazine):
Type 'B' magazine shall be of a type approved by Chief Controller and shall primarily have the
following —
(a) Walls of steel plate at least 5 millimeters thick;
(b) A roof of steel plate at least 5 millimeters thick;
(c) Interior lining at least 10 millimeters thick on walls, doors and ceiling and 25 mm thick on
door and consisting of closed fittings boards or wood joined together by tongue and groove joints
in such a way that no iron or steel is exposed on the interior sides, ceiling, floor or doors;
(d) An internal volume not less than 0.4 cubic meter for each 100 kilogrammes of explosives.
The maximum internal volume shall not be more than 2 cubic meters.
(e) Ventilation by means of vents which shall be adequately protected;
(f) External hinges of steel welded to the door and to the frame of the magazine;
(g) A lock of "dead lock" type for an external door.

Type 'C' magazine (small brick cement magazine for storage of explosives up to 100
kilogrammes and one box of detonators):
Small brick cement magazine shall primarily have the following:
(a) The magazine shall be constructed of brick masonry or cement concrete on plinth 1 meter
above ground level with 45 centimeters thick walls and 15 centimeters thick RCC roof.
(b) The detonator room and high explosives room shall be at 1.5 meters separation distance.
(c) The magazine rooms shall be fitted with steel doors of thickness not less than 5 millimeters,
opening outside with efficient locking arrangements.
(d) The rooms shall have one Z type ventilator fitted with frame of iron bars set firmly in the
wall on the outer face, the bars to be of 2.35 square centimeters, (3/8 square inch) iron set angle
wise with the frame. The inner opening should be protected with brass wire gauge of 3 meshes
per centimeter.
(e) The magazine shall be fitted with a lightning conductor as per IS 2309.
Blown Out Shots
A blown out shot is one which has not done any useful work of blasting coal face but has ejected
itself out of the shot hole creating a socket.
Blown out shots occur due to undercharging of hole, overcharging of hole which results due to
some part of explosive is not utilized which ejects by the pressure. If stemming is not done
properly, blown out shots are a common occurrence. Planes of weakness having friable coal also
are a cause of blown out shots.
Reasons for blown out shots
1. Improper stemming- If stemming is not done upto the specified length and with suitable
stemming material, then the pressure exerted by explosion gasses shoots out of the hole.
2. Overcharging of holes with more charge than specified, causes development of very high
pressure which overcomes the strength of stemming and overshoots without doing useful work.
3. Undercharging of a short hole than specified, causing generation of less pressure which will
not be able to fragment the rock or coal as desired leaving a socket.
4. Intervening very hard or soft rock than the expected or may have cracks which results
insufficient pressure generation than the required.
Dealing with blown out shots
1. Inspection of the face for any remaining portion of the detonator or explosive is done and the
hole is cleared.
2. Blasting of the socket is done with placement of a charge if possible.
3. Otherwise, a hole is drilled beside the socket of equal length, charged and blasted.
Misfired Shot
When a detonator fails to explode, or after exploding fails to blast the charge, then the condition
is termed as misfire shot.
The misfire may happen due to the following reasons:-
(1) Faulty connection
(2) Defective exploder
(3) Defective detonator
(4) Discontinuity in shot firing cable.
(5) Short circuit due to bad insulation of cables or wires of lead.
(6) Defects in fuse, wet fuse, improper timing of fuse
(7) Improper stemming
(8) Damaged cartridge
Precautions against misfire shots
1) Good condition explosives to be used.
2) Detonators should be of specified quality and in proper condition.
3) Shot firing cable and lead wires should be checked for any defect and should be of proper
specification.
4) Exploder should deliver the rated voltage and current.
5) Proper stemming procedure to be adopted and stemming should be done by specified
stemming material.
6) Suitable connections of the circuit to be checked before firing.
Dealing with misfire shots
1) The face is inspected and checked for misfire. The connections are made and blasted again.
2) Again a misfire happens then a hole is drilled at a distance of 30 cm of the misfire hole by the
same driller parallel preferably parallel to the misfire hole. This hole drilled later is known as a
relieving hole.
3) Charge is placed in the relieving hole and the shot is blasted.
4) Search for an unblasted explosive and detonator is carried out and if found disposed to surface
separately.
5) If not found during the search, then the coal is loaded in a separate tub and marked and
dispatched to the surface and again searched for unexploded charge so that it is finally disposed
of.
Blown through shot
When the two faces of a gallery are approaching each other and separate by nearly less than 3m,
the blasting on those faces, the charge ejects at or blows through the opposite end without
blasting the face properly and may happen causing damages to men and materials. Due
precautions to be taken for thickness of parting, length of hole, charge concentration can
eradicate such problems.
Precautions against blown through shots
1. Burden should be adjusted according to the face thickness.
2. Charge can be altered to reduce the chance of shots blowing through.
3. Persons to be warned of such a blasting taking place and opposite face are freed of machines
and men.
4. Water accumulation in those faces at both the ends to be cleared.
Secondary Blasting
Secondary blasting is done to break oversize boulders produced during primary blasting to a size
suitable for the crushing plant.
1) Pop shooting:- In this a hole is normally drilled just beyond the centre of the boulder to be
broken with some kinds of rocks however, shot holes 30cm deep are sufficient to break a large
sized boulder. A hole is drilled by jack hammer for charging with explosive of special gelatin –
80% strength. The shot can be fired by using either a safety fuse or detonator.
2) Plaster shooting: - Plaster shooting provides a ready means of breaking even large boulders
in circumstances where drilling is difficult and expensive. A high velocity, high strength gelatin
type explosive is most suitable for this work. A charge of one or more cartridges per slab is
primed with a detonator and safety fuse, or an electric detonator, and laid on the surface of the
boulder. It is then covered with a shovel full of plastic clay, which is pressed into position by
sand. It is advantageous to wet the surface of the stone before plastering and the clay should be
well pressed down so that it is in good contact with the surface of the boulder around the
explosive. Special gelatin can be used for blasting having high VOD and strength.
 POWDER FACTOR
&DETONATOR FACTOR
 ▪ POWDER FACTOR:- It is a ratio of coal Or ore produced in
tonne to explosive required in kg.
▪ Tonnes of coal blasted per kg of explosive is known as
powder factor.
▪ POWDER FACTOR:- COAL PRODUCED( IN TONNE) /
POWDER EXPLOSIVE REQUIRED (IN KG)

FACTOR ▪ Powder factor-

solid blasting- 2-2.5 te/kg
Depillaring- 4.5-5 te/kg
Cut blasting- 5-8 te/kg
In opencast mines – coal – 7-10 te/kg, o/b 1.8-2.5 m3/kg
 DETONATOR FACTOR:- It is a ratio of coal Or ore
produced in tonne to no. Of detonator used.

▪ Tonnes of coal blasted per Detonator is known as

powder factor.

DETONATOR ▪ DETONATOR FACTOR:- COAL PRODUCED( IN TONNE)

/ NO. OF DETONATOR.
FACTOR ▪ Detonator factor-
solid blasting- 1.1-1.3 tonne/detonator

Depillaring- 1.4-1.5 tonne/detonator

Cut blasting- 1.8-2tonne/detonator

 ▪ These factors depends on hardness of coal, dimensions
IMPORTANCE OF of gallery, cleavage in coal, type of explosive etc., and
more importantly on effectiveness of drilling and
POWDER FACTOR blasting.
& DETONATOR ▪ These factors are indicative of efficiency of drilling and
FACTOR blasting operation.
TYPES OF EXPLOSIVES AND
ACCESSORIES USED IN
MINES
.
EXPLOSIVE DEFINITIONS
1. Explosive is a substance, which under the influence of heat,
shock or both, is capable of generating a large volume of gas at
high temperature in an extremely short space of time on confined
rock mass, thus breaking it.
2. The Explosive Act, 1884 defines “Explosive” means
gunpowder, NG, nitroglycol, guncotton, dinitrotoluene, tri-
nitrotoluene,picric acid, dinitro phenol, trinitro resorcinol,
cyclotrimethylene-trinitramine, penta-erythritol-
tetranitrate,tetryl,fulminate of mercury or any other metal, diazo-
di-nitro phenol, coloured fires or any other substance whether a
single chemical compound or a mixture of substance, whether
solid or liquid or gaseous used or manufactured with a view to
produce a practical effect by explosion or pyrotechnic effect, and
it inlcudes fog signals, fireworks, fuses, rockets, detonators,
ammunition of all descriptions and every adaption or preparation
of an explosive as defined in this clause.
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPLOSIVES
 As per Explosive Rules
◦ Class I : Gunpowder
◦ Class II : Nitrate mixture
◦ Class III : nitro compounds
 Div 1 – BG, special gelatin
 Div 2 – Guncotton, PETN, TNT etc.
◦ Class IV : Chlorate mixture
◦ Class V : Fulminate
◦ Class VI :
 Div 1- Safety fuse, Ignitor cord, etc
 Div 2 – DF/D cord, electric fuse, etc.
 Based on Sensitivity
◦ Cap Sensitive – detonated by detonator ex: permitted, etc.
◦ Non – Cap sensitivity – explosives cannot be detonated and need a cap
sensitive explosive for detonation ex: ANFO etc.
 Based on risk:
◦ Category X - explosives have a fire or a slight explosion risk
◦ Category Y – mass fire risk or moderate explosion risk but not mass
explosion.
◦ Category Z – mass explosion risk and major missile effect
◦ Category ZZ – mass explosion risk and minor missile effect
• Based on Strength:
Low explosive – gunpowder etc.
High explosive – dynamites, slurry, emulsion etc.
 Use Basis
Permitted Explosives – used in UG gassy coal/non coal mines or
excavations.
Non permitted
Small dia– 32mm holes drilled by jack hammers.
Large dia – 100 mm dia or more.
LOW EXPLOSIVE
 Oldest form of explosive.
 Gun powder/ black powder
 It burns and develop much low pressure
 It is a mechanical mixture of KNO3 (72-75%),
charcoal (15-16%) and sulphur (10-12%)
20 KNO3+30 C+10S →
(6K2CO3+K2SO4+3K2)+(14CO2+10CO+10N2)+600
cal/g
 Poor fragmentation with heaving effect
 Used in manufacture of safety fuse; extraction of
ornamental blocks.
 Used in small quarries, well digging etc.
HIGH EXPLOSIVES
 Highly oxygen balanced, Characterized by very high rate of
reaction and high detonation pressure.
 2 types
◦ NG based (1845)
 Dyanmites (1860)
 Gelatines
◦ ANFO (1947)
 LOX (1930, in India)
 Slurry (1960-62)
 Cap-sensitive Slurry (1970)
 Emulsion (1978)
 Bulk Explosives (1980 -90)
 NG based explosives
 Yellow oily transparent liquid made by action of nitric acid on
glycerine.
 Compositions:
◦ NG-5%-90%
◦ NC-Gelling/thickening agent & senstizer
◦ Oxidizer-AN & SN
◦ Fuel ingredients- Starches, wood flours, sulfur; NaCl-in
permissible exp.
 Sensitive to shock, friction & heat
 High VOD of 7800m/sec
 Temp of detn.- 3150O C
 Chemical reaction:
(NG) 4C3H5 (NO3) 3 → 12CO2+10H2 O+6N2 +O2+1500 cal/g
 Density:0.8-1.45, RBS: 73-79%, Temp.Res:17 deg
NG based explosives
Advantages:
 High strengths
 High densities
 High detonation velocity
 Greater water resistance and chemical stability
Disadvantages:
 Risk of accidents
 Sensitive to friction and heat
 Handling problems
 High manufacturing cost
Examples: TELGEX-80/90/LD (TEL), OCG(ICI).
 Ammonium Nitrate Fuel Oil
 94.3% AN +5.7% FO (Oxygen Balanced)
 Chemical Reaction:
94.3%AN+5.7%FO (Oxygen balanced) - 3NH4NO3+CH2
→3N2+7H2O+CO2+930 cal/g
 Fuel Oil –Diesel Oil No.2 ( for 50 kg of AN-3.7 liters)
 Sensitivity and Performance of AN, depends on ‘quality’ of
the Prill supplied
 Sensitivity or Energy increased by adding Fuel grade
Aluminum and affected by water
 PROPERTIES:
◦ Density – 0.3 to 1 g/cc
◦ VOD – 2000 to 4000 m/s
◦ Gas volume – 9770 litres/cc
◦ Heat – 900 Kcal/Kg
ANFO
Advantages:
 Superior in cost effectiveness
 Safe to handle
 Best suitable for dry holes
 Explosive is prepared only at the site
 No storage in magazine required
Disadvantages:
 Desensitized in water
 Inefficient in small dia holes
 Unsuccessful blasting in hard rocks
 Lower sensitivity
Examples: Deepak Fertilizers, Pune
LOX
 It is made by soaking cartridge of activated charcoal-27%
(combustible ingredient) - in liquid oxygen (73%).
 High detonation pressure (14*10000 atmos.) and explosion
temperature (6600 degree C)
 Large volume of gas is released at high temperature
Advantages:
 Suitable for dense and medium rocks
 No emission of noxious gases
 It causes less vibrations than conventional explosive
 Misfires can be handled safely after lapse of certain duration
Disadvantages:
 Cost is high
 Quicker evaporation ( life is shorter)
 Unsafe
Example: LOXITE (IOL)
SLURRY
 Addition of colloid such as ‘Guargum’ in
ANFO, which builds up ‘Viscosity’, followed
by Cross-linking agent which forms a gelled
mixture.
 Compositions:
Oxidizer: AN, SN
Fuel: Sugar, Coal.
TNT, Al- Sensitizer
 Plant or Truck mixed
 Detonation velocity: 3000-4500 m/sec
 Density:1-1.2, RBS: 53-65%
 Temperature resistance: 4 deg.C
.
Advantages:
 Water resistant
 Effective utilization of explosives
 Not subjected to friction or impact
 It produces low non-toxic fumes
Disadvantages:
 Life is only 6 months
 Not suitable for high temperature conditions
Example: TELGEL (TEL)
EMULSION
 Consists of oxiders dissolved in water
surrounded by a fuel – fine particle size
 Senstizer: air/gas bubbles or artificial glass
micro balloons-hot spot; Emulsifier-waxes,
gums
 VOD: 4000-5000 m/s
 Density range of 1.1 to 1.35 g/cc
 High water resistant in full concentration
 Plant of Truck mixed
 High velocity and bulk strength
 Temperature resistance: 4 deg. C
Example: Powergel (Orica)
PERMITTED EXPLOSIVES
 P1 – Unsheathed. simultaneous blasting in
coal, ripping. Used for CCM. Used in Degree
I mines
 P2 – Sheathed. Replaced by P3 explosives.
 P3 – Equivalent sheathed. Can be used in
Degree II, III mines.
 P4 – Ultrasafe explsoives. Not used in India.
 P5 – Delay blasting in solid blasting and in
gassy mines.
BULK EXPLOSIVES
 Explosives directly delivered into the
blast hole through mechanised and
mobile delivery system
 Supplied to large opencast mines and
civil construction projects
 Useful, annual explosive consumption-
2000 t
 Types – Bulk ANFO, Bulk Watergel,
Bulk Emulsion, HANFO
BENEFITS OF BULK EXPLOSIVES
 Safety
 Inventory
 Explosive vans
 Manpower
 Speed of operation
 Explosive product
 Blasting efficiency
 Other features
BLASTING ACCESSORIES
 Initiation / Firing Systems
◦ Non-Electric System
◦ Electric System
 Exploders
 Detonating Delay
 Cord Relays
 COMPARISON OF VARIOUS INITIATION
SYSTEM
FEATURE Shock Tube HEDC+dela Electric Fuse+IC LEDC
y deto
Timing ability Precise Limited Precise Limited -
Blasting Unlimited Unlimited Unlimited Limited -
limited
capability
Blasting Most aspects Mainly open Mainly UG Both ANFO+large
adaptability pit blasting blasting dia slurries
Air blast None-existent significant None-existent None-existent Limited

Fire risk None-existent None-existent None-existent Existent None-existent

Means of Visual visual Instrumental Visual visual

checking
Craftsmanship unskilled unskilled skilled Unskilled unskilled
DETONATING CORD
 It gets initiated by a detonator and in turn
propagates the shock wave to the
explosive column.
 It has a core of PETN (varying from 3 to
80 gm/m), wrapped in plastic tape/nylon
cord layer, textile layer and finally a
plastic covering to give strength of 50 to
60 kg.
 VOD of 6500 to 7000m/s.
 It is insensitive to shock and flame.
SHOCK TUBE SYSTEM
 It is the down the line initiation system.
 It comprising of high strength plastic/ polyfin
polymer shock tube of 3-4mm outside
diameter.
 It is coated inside with a thin film of reactive
explosive substance, HMX of 15-20mg/m.
 There is a delay detonator attached at the end
of tube. ‘Raydet’-developed by IDL, ‘Excel’-
developed by ICI, ‘Amardet’- by Premier
explosive Ltd.
ADVANTAGES
 True bottom initiation
 Less air & ground vibration
 Better high wall, roof and side stability
 Not susceptible to stray electric currents, current
leakage, radio frequency or static electricity, friction
and impact
 Better fragmentation.
 Minimum pre mature venting through stemming.
 Reduction in boulder generation
 Improved toe- breakage
 Reduced fly rock.
 Improved cycle time
TUNNELLING
 High density explosives are used.
 NG being replaced by slurry (high density).
 Shock tubes
◦ No premature explosion
◦ Accuracy in delay time sequencing.
ACCESSORIES
CIRCUIT TESTER
In electric shotfiring, the circuit is tested to
ensure that there is no open or short circuit
and such tests are being done by
‘Blastometer’.
CRIMPER
It is a pair of pliers to crimp or press the end of
a plain detonator tube on a safety fuse inserted
into it.
 Shot firing cables
◦ To fire the shots from the long distance
 Wooden stemming rod
◦ To stem the holes
 Scraper
◦ To clean the holes.
 Pricker
◦ To prick the cartridge and it is made of brass,
aluminum or wood.
REFERENCES
 G.K.Pradhan, explosives and blasting
techniques.
 D.J.Deshmukh, Elements of Mining
Technology Vol.1
 B.A.KENADY.,
 Alan Bauer William A. Crosby -
BLASTING
CONTROLLED
BLASTING TECHNIQUE