QUANTUM PHYSICS
Wave and particle model
Particle model: object that are hard, have mass and move about
according to newton’s laws of mechanics.
Wave model: shape like a sine graph, do not have mass or charge. Their
defining characteristics are diffraction and interference.
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
When an electromagnetic radiation of sufficiently high frequency
falls on a metal surface, electrons are emitted.
Delocalized electrons in metals are removed by supplying a small
amount of energy provided by the incident electromagnetic
radiation.
What is the evidence of photoelectric effect/emission?
a) Demonstrating photoelectric emission using a gold leaf
electroscope.
• A clean zinc plate is placed on the cap of a negatively charged
electroscope.
• UV radiations are shone on the plate
• Leaf falls slowly
Explanation
Oshwal Academy Msa Physics: Quantum Physics Compiled by Mr Benedict
Electrons from zinc surface are emitted hence negative charge on
electroscope decreases.
When the electroscope is positively charged and uv radiation is shone on
the zinc plate, the leaf remain diverged
Explanation
• Though electrons emitted, they do not move away from the zinc
surface because they are attracted back by the positive charge in
the electroscope.
b) Demonstrating photoelectric emission using a photocell.
When there is no source of light, the micro-ammeter reads zero. When uv
light is shown on the cathode some current is detected by the micro-
ammeter.
Explanation
The uv light cause photoelectrons to be emitted from the surface of the
cathode. The photoelectrons are attracted to the anode and the circuit is
completed hence current flows.
The current caused by these photoelectrons is called photocurrent.
Increasing intensity of uv increases the photocurrent.
Explanation of photoelectric effect
Oshwal Academy Msa Physics: Quantum Physics Compiled by Mr Benedict
For electron to be released from metal surface, energy is required to
overcome the attractive forces of the positive charge in the nuclei of
the atoms.
This energy comes from e.m radiation incident on the metal surface.
The energy is in the e.m radiation is in tiny amounts called
photons.
Photon
Is a packet/quantum/discrete amount of energy; of electromagnetic
energy/radiation/wave.
Each photon is has its own frequency and travels in a transverse
wave form.
The speed of a photon in a vacuum is the same as that of light and
its denoted by letter c. c = 3.0 × 108 ms-1
Energy of a photon
The energy of a photon (E) is given by
o E =hf
where h is planck’s constant equal to 6.63 × 10 -34 Js and f is the
frequency of the e.m radiation (in Hz)
The speed of the radiation in a vacuum is c equal to 3.0 × 10 8 ms-1.
So c = λ f
c
f=
λ
c
E=h
λ
Each photon can liberate one electron if its energy is sufficient.
When more photons with sufficient frequency or energy fall on the
metal surface, more electrons will be emitted.
Oshwal Academy Msa Physics: Quantum Physics Compiled by Mr Benedict
The energy is in joules. However the energy of a photon is extremely
small compared to the joules. Therefore the unit electronvolt (eV) is used
for energies of photons.
The electron volt (eV)
One electronvolt (1eV) is the energy transferred when an electron travels
through a potential difference of one volt.
W=QV
= 1.6 × 10-19 × 1V
= 1.6 × 10-19 J
Note:
To convert from eV to J multiply by 1.60 × 10 -19
To convert from joules to eV, divide by 1.60 × 10 -19
When a changed particle is accelerated in an electric field or by p.d, V, its
kinetic energy increases,
eV= ½ mv2
v=
√ 2 eV
m
Questions
1. A red light has a wavelength of 700nm and that of violet is 400nm .
Calculate the energy of each photon of light colour.
2. An electron travels through a cell of e.m.f. 1.2 V.
How much energy is transferred to the electron?
Give your answer in eV and in J.
3. Calculate the energy in eV of an X-ray photon of frequency 3.0 ×10 18
Hz.
Oshwal Academy Msa Physics: Quantum Physics Compiled by Mr Benedict
4. A proton (charge = + 1.60 × 10−19 C, mass = 1.67 ×10−27 kg) is
accelerated through a potential difference of 1500 V. Determine:
a its final kinetic energy in joules (J)
b its final speed.
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Observing photoelectric effect
A clean zinc plate is placed on the cap of a negatively charged
electroscope.
Uv radiations are shone on the plate
Leaf slowly collapses
TERMS USED IN PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Threshold frequency (fo)
Is defined as the minimum frequency required to release electrons
from the surface of a metal
Work function (∅ )
Is the minimum amount of energy required by an electron to escape from
its metal surface. The energy is needed to overcome electrostatic forces
due to the positive in the metal ions.
Different have different work function, so their threshold frequency also
vary.
Work function is given by
∅ = hfo where h is Planck’s constant
and fo is threshold frequency
c
also ∅ = h where λo is threshold wavelength
λo
Threshold wavelength λo
Threshold wavelength is the maximum wavelength beyond which no
photoelectrons are emitted.
Rules of photoelectric effect
Electrons from the surface of the metal are removed
A single photon interact with a single electron and exchange its
energy.
Energy is conserved during interaction
Surface is released instantaneously from metal surface when energy is
incident to photon, is greater than or equal to the work function of the
metal.
Oshwal Academy Msa Physics: Quantum Physics Compiled by Mr Benedict
Increasing the intensity of radiation does not cause electrons to be
emitted if frequency is below the threshold frequency.
Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
When the energy of photon is absorbed by an electron part of it is used to
overcome the work function of the metal surface and the remaining
energy is used by electron to move away with maximum kinetic energy.
Energy of photon = work function + maximum k.e of electron
hf = ∅ + k.emax
The more the work function the less energy remains to give electron
maximum kinetic energy.
The work function ∅ = hfo and k.e = ½ m(vmax)2
hf = hfo + ½ m(vmax)2
Also k.emax = hf - ∅
Or Ek = hf - ∅
Questions
You will need these values to answer the following questions
• speed of light in a vacuum c = 3.00 ×10 8 m s−1
• Planck constant h = 6.63 ×10−34 J s
• mass of electron me = 9.11 ×10−31 kg
• elementary charge e = 1.60 × 10−19 C
1. Photons of energies 1.0 eV, 2.0 eV and 3.0 eV strike a metal surface
whose work function is 1.8 eV.
a State which of these photons could cause the release of an electron
from the metal.
b Calculate the maximum kinetic energies ofthe electrons released in
each case. Give your answers in eV and in J.
2 Electromagnetic waves of wavelength 2.4 × 10−7 m are incident on the
surface of a metal whose work function is 2.8 × 10−19 J.
a Calculate the energy of a single photon.
b Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of electrons released from the
metal.
c Determine the maximum speed of the emitted photoelectrons.
Oshwal Academy Msa Physics: Quantum Physics Compiled by Mr Benedict
3 When electromagnetic radiation of wavelength 2000 nm is incident on a
metal surface, the
maximum kinetic energy of the electrons released is found to be 4.0 ×10−20
J. Determine the work function of the metal in joules (J).
Determining the maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons
(photoelectrons)
Using photocell
Note: work done in accelerating an electron is given by W = QV = eV. The
work done W is equal to the maximum k.e gained by emitted electrons
Ek = eV
where V is the stopping potential
Stopping potential is the p.d which stops electrons with maximum k.e
from reaching the anode.
o Shine light of known wavelength or frequency on the cathode.
o Vary the p.d using the sliding contact until the current is zero.
Record the value of the p.d V.
o Repeat this for other values of wavelength or frequency to obtain
values of p.d V.
o For each value of λ calculate the maximum k.e (E k) where Ek = eV
1
o Plot a graph of Ek against or frequency f.
λ
o Next repeat experiment by keeping frequency constant but vary the
intensity of the incident e.m radiation.
o Draw a suitable to analyse the results.
From Ek = hf – Φ compare with y = mx + c
y = Ek
x=f
Oshwal Academy Msa Physics: Quantum Physics Compiled by Mr Benedict
m(gradient) = h (Planck’s constant)
c = -Φ = y-intercept
Graph Analysis
• From Ek = hf – Φ compare with y = mx + c
• y = Ek
• x=f
• m(gradient) = h (Planck’s constant)
• c = -Φ = y-intercept
∆ Ek
Planck’s constant, h =
∆f
Threshold frequency (fo) = x – intercept, at the point line intersect with
frequency axis.
If a graph of stopping potential against frequency is plotted the results will
be as follows.
Oshwal Academy Msa Physics: Quantum Physics Compiled by Mr Benedict
From Ek = hf - 𝛷 and Ek = eV, we rewrite equation as eV = hf - 𝛷
Dividing both sides by e we have
hf Φ
V= − and comparing with y =mx + c
e e
h
The slope/gradient = .
e
Therefore h = gradient × e
If a graph of k.e maximum against 1/wavelength is plotted the results will
be as follows
c
From Ek = hf - and f = we rewrite equation as,
λ
c
Ek = h - and comparing with y = mx + c
λ
The slope/gradient = hc.
So, Planck’s constant h = gradient/c
Where c = 3.0 ×10 8 ms−1
FURTHER ANALYSIS OF PHOTOCELL EXPERIMENT
From the photocell experiment if the intensity of radiation is constant but the
frequency is varied the graph of p.d against photo-electric current.
Oshwal Academy Msa Physics: Quantum Physics Compiled by Mr Benedict
When the frequency of incident photon is large the larger the value of the stopping
potential because photoelectron emitted have greater maximum kinetic energy.
f3 > f2 > f1 and V3 > V2 > V1
However, since the intensity is constant the saturation current will be the same.
Saturation current is obtained when the rate at which photoelectrons reach the
anode is constant. (all photoelectron emitted at the cathode reach the anode)
Therefore the factors affecting the max k.e of photoelectrons are
i) The frequency of the incident photons or e.m radiation. The higher the
frequency the greater the max k.e of photoelectrons.
ii) The work function of the metal surface. Low work function higher max k.e
of emitted photoelectrons.
If the frequency of the incident e.m radiation is constant but the intensity is varied the
results will be as follows
The higher the intensity the greater the saturation current.
The intensity affects the number of photoelectrons emitted and hence affect the
photo electric current
I3 > I2 > I1
LNE SPECTRA
There are two types of line spectra.
i) Emission line spectra:- it is composed of light emitted from hot gases.
It consists of frequencies emitted by atoms which de-excited from higher to lower
energy levels.
It can also be used to identify elements.
Oshwal Academy Msa Physics: Quantum Physics Compiled by Mr Benedict
Diffraction gratings
OR Glass prism
Absorption line spectra:- it is observed when white light is passed through cool
gases.
The continuous white light spectrum has some black lines across it. This shows
certain wavelength are absorbed when they pass through the cool gas.
Diffraction gratings
OR
Glass prism
ENERGY LEVELS
The energy of an atom is the total energy of its electrons,
Ground state: is a condition where the atoms possess the minimum possible
energy.
• When the atom absorbs energy, the energy of the atom increases and the
atom is in an excited state.
• The excited is unstable so atoms are eventually emit absorbed energy by
bringing atom to the ground state.
• There are permitted energy levels (or energy states) the electron can occupy.
• Energy levels have negative values because an external force has to be
applied overcome the attractive force of the nucleus.
• The energy of the electron in the atom is quantised.
Oshwal Academy Msa Physics: Quantum Physics Compiled by Mr Benedict
Transition: it is a shifting of electrons between energy levels.
From higher to lower energy level, electron emit energy in form of a photon of e.m
radiation e.g light
The energy of emitted photon is equal to the difference between energy levels.
e.g photon energy = ∆ E
∆ E= hf = E1 – E2
c
Or h = E1 – E2
λ
Due to distinct energy levels of an atom, unique photon energies and hence
wavelengths are emitted.
A photon of just the right energy to lift an electron from one energy level to another
will be absorbed by the electron.
ELECTRON ENERGIES IN SOLIDS
In solids atoms are close together. Electrons in an atom experience force due to
charges in neighbouring atoms. The effect is to cause the energy of the electron to
change slightly. The energy is not fixed for all electrons and, consequently, the single
energy level in an isolated atom broadens out to an energy band.
If the atoms move closer together, the outer electrons in the n=3 energy shell will
begin to interact initially, so that this discrete energy level still split into a band of
allowed energies.
If the atoms continue to move closer together, the electrons in the n= 2 shell may
begin to interact and will also split into a band of allowed energies.
Oshwal Academy Msa Physics: Quantum Physics Compiled by Mr Benedict
Finally, if the atoms become sufficiently close together, the innermost electrons in
the n=1 level may interact, so that this energy level may also split into a band of
allowed energies.
The formed bands of energy levels have gaps in between where no energy levels
are allowed.
These gaps are known as forbidden gap.
An electron can occupy any position in the energy level of bands but not in the
forbidden gap.
BAND THEORY AND ELECTRICAL CONDUCTION
Conductors
Has a conduction band which is partly filled with electrons.
Valence band is full of electrons
The electrons in the conduction band are free so metals are good conductors
Some metals have no forbidden gap between valence and conduction band they
actual overlap.
A small amount of applied external energy such as energy of a photon
provides enough energy for the valence band electrons to move or be
promoted into the conduction band.
When valence band electrons moves to conduction band they becomes
free electrons. Number density increases as large number of free
electrons are present in conduction band at room temperature.
Insulators
Valence band is full of electrons
Conduction band is empty
The forbidden band is very wide
There is no sufficient energy for a p.d to cause electron to move to the conduction
band hence they remain insulators.
Oshwal Academy Msa Physics: Quantum Physics Compiled by Mr Benedict
Semi-conductor
Valence band is full of electrons
Conduction band is empty.
The forbidden band is very narrow compared to that of insulators
At room temperature a few energetic move to conduction band and become free to
conduct.
At high temperature more electrons gain energy enabling them to overcome the
forbidden gap and jump or get promoted into the conduction band. This leaves
behind holes in the valence which behave as positive charge carriers.
The number density of electrons increases hence, enhance their conductivity.
Resistance at this time is said to decrease.
Note: increase in temperature in metals increase vibrations and electrons collide
more with ions in the lattice hence resistance increase.
Intrinsic semiconductors are pure semiconductors whose conductivity is through
transfer of both electrons and holes. Increase in temperature enhances conductivity.
Extrinsic semiconductor, is an impure semi-conductor obtained by adding impurities
in pure semi-conductors to enhance conductivity.
ELECTRON WAVES
Electrons move in space as a wave. The wavelength is given by
Oshwal Academy Msa Physics: Quantum Physics Compiled by Mr Benedict
h
λ= where P is momentum and h is Planck’s constant
p
λ is referred as the de Broglie’s wavelength
and waves associated with electron are known as matter waves.
From P = mv
h
also λ=
mv
Electron diffraction
A beam accelerated by a high p.d from cathode rays.
When the beam of electron pass through a polycrystalline graphite, a diffraction
pattern is produced on phosphor screen. This reveals the shape of the crystals.
Since diffraction occur when λ = a, this shows that de Broglie wavelength is similar to
the spacing between the atomic layers.
From diffraction pattern;
λ = 2dsinθ
the speed of electron is given by
½ mv2 = eV
PROBING MATTER
Electrons can be used to investigate structure of matter.
Slowing moving neutrons can be used to study arrangement of atoms in metals
Slow moving electron can be used to study structure of DNA.
High speed electrons are used to determine diameter of atomic nuclei.
For speeds close to that of light, can be used to study of nucleus.
Oshwal Academy Msa Physics: Quantum Physics Compiled by Mr Benedict
