EARLY PHILIPPINE SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Before the advent of Spanish colonization, the barangay was the primary political,
economic and sociocultural institution in the Philippines. Among other factors, the
archipelagic nature of our country allowed these localized, independent and decentralized
communities to exist. A barangay can be composed of 30-100 families living in a not well-
defined, but customarily agreed territory. A barangay can also form an alliance with other
barangays to become powerful and prosperous. This can be achieved through marriage
and blood compact.

THREE SOCIOECONOMIC CLASS

1. RULING CLASS OR NOBILITY – known as “maginoo” in Tagalog and kadatoan
in Visayan
2. COMMONERS OR FREEMEN – formed the majority of the people in the
barangay; known as maharlika in Tagalog and timawa in Visayan.
3. SLAVES – a person become one through debt bondage, raids and wars, and
punishment for a crime.

DATU
• the highest official of the barangay
• most powerful person in the barangay
• governs the barangay as its primary maker, executor, and adjucator of laws
• responsible in providing protection for the barangay in times of raids and wars as
the leader of the bagani, the warriors of community

LABOR EVANGELICA
• considered as an attempt to expand Chirino’s Relacion thereby becoming Jesuit’s
“official” account in their mission in the Philippines
BUHIS
• tributes paid by the people in the barangay

THREE KINDS AND CLASSES OF PEOPLE

1. CHIEFS (Dato in Visayans and Maginoo in Tagalogs)
2. TIMAUAS (Maharlica among Tagalogs)
3. SLAVES (Oripuen by the Visayans and Alipin by Tagalogs)

FANEGA
o a unit in Spanish measurement and was used in agricultural products such rice
and other grains; roughly equivalent to 55.5 liters

CRONICAS OR PHILIPPINE CHRONICLES – a comprehensive study of the early

Filipinos as well as the Chinese and the Japanese in the Philippines during the early
colonial period
DOWRY/BIGAYCAYA – given by the groom to the bride’s parents; the practice of dowry
varied depending on the socioeconomic status f of the couple

BOXER CODEX
o a comprehensive account of the Philippines and other parts of Asia-Pacific in
the late sixteenth century
o significant source of early Filipino belief systems, customs and traditions
o acquired by the British scholar Charles R. Boxer in 1947
o manuscript was translated by the National Artist Carlos Aquino and scholars
Ma. Luisa Garcia and Mauro Garcia
o original manuscript of the Boxer Codex is presently housed by the Indiana
University in their Lilly Library, one of the largest rare book and manuscript
libraries in United States

SUCESOS DE LAS ISLAS FILIPINAS – prominently annotated by Dr. Jose Rizal in 1890
where his annotation gives light to the precolonial conditions of the Philippines as well as
during the Spanish colonization

TUGBUK (PENIS PIN) AND SAKRA (PENIS RING)

o must be used simultaneously because the pin holds the ring in place
o was used to give women sexual pleasure
o highly symbolic representation of the egalitarianism and autonomy of women in
Southeast Asian communities

BETEL CHEW OR BUYO

o was a staple of every household in pre-colonial and Spanish in Philippines
o due to its popularity, betel was used to monopolized by the Spanish government
to generate revenues for the colony

Chapter Summary
1. As opposed to colonial perception, early Filipinos already had their own rich and
complex traditions and customs before the coming of the Spaniards in late
sixteenth century. These cultural patterns varied throughout the archipelago due
to social, geographic. and linguistic differences
2. The barangay was the primary political, economic and sociocultural institution in
the Philippines before Spanish colonization. The baranganic society can be divided
into three socioeconomic classes namely: Ruling class (maginoo in Tagalog and
kadatoan in Visayas). Commoners (maharlika in Tagalog and timawa in Visayas)
and Slaves (alipin in Tagalog and oripun in Visayas).
3. The system at slavery in the Philippines was different from other societies since
the slaves are not properties. One can become a slave through unpaid debts,
punishment, and raids. Another characteristic of this kind of slavery is that there
was a high possibility of becoming a freeman.
 4. Early Filipinos had a highly complex marriage customs as well as tattooing tradition
and body ornamentation. Meanwhile, the betel chew as a staple dainty was not
just consumed by the Filipinos but also by the Chinese and the Spaniards.

Excerpt from Relation of the Worship of the Tagalogs, Their Gods, and Their Burials
and Superstitions by Fray Juan De Plasencia
The Relation of the Workship of the Tagalogs, Their Gods, and Their Burials and
Superstitions is the second part of his Costumbres de los Tagalos which was a report to
a Spanish noble after receiving His Lordship’s letter requesting information about the
natives. The Costumbres is Plasencia’s account of the traditions, society, marriage, laws,
dowries, and spiritual beliefs of the Tagalogs.
Primary Source
In all the villages, or in other parts of the Filipinas islands, there are no temples
consecrated to the performing of sacrifices, the adoration of their idols, or the general
practice of idolatry. It is true that they have the name simbahan, which means a temple
or piece of adoration; but this is because, formerly, when they wished to celebrate a
festival, which they called pandot or 'worship,’ they celebrated it in the large house of a
chief. There they constructed, for the purpose of sheltering the assembled people, a
temporary shed on each side of the house, with a root, called sibi, to protect the people
from the wet when it rained. They so constructed the house that it might contain many
people - dividing it, after the fashion of ships, into three compartments. On the posts of
the house they set small lamps, called sorihile; in the center of the house they placed one
large lamp, adorned with leaves of the white palm, wrought into many designs. They also
brought together many drums, large and small, which they beat successively while the
feast lasted, which was usually four days. During this time the whole barangay, or family,
united and joined in the worship which they call nagaanitos. The house, for the above-
mentioned period of time was called a temple.
Among their many idols there was one called Badhala, whom they especially
worshiped. The title seems to signify “all powerful" or "maker of all things.” They also
worshiped the sun, which, on account of its beauty is almost universally respected and
honored by heathens. They worshiped, too, the moon, especially when it was new, at
which time they held great rejoicings, adoring it and bidding it welcome. Some of them
also adored the stars, although they did not know them by their names as the Spaniards
and other nations know the planets-with the one exception of the morning star which they
called Tala. They knew, too, the “seven little goats" [the Pleiades]-as we call them-and,
consequently, the change of seasons, which they call Mapolon; and Balatic which is our
Greater Bear. They possessed many idols called lic-ha, which were images with different
shapes; and at times they worshiped any little trifle, in which they adored, as did the
Romans, some particular dead man who was have in war and endowed with special
faculties, to whom they commended themselves for protection in their tribulations. They
had another idol named Dian Masalanta, who was the patron of lovers and of generation.
The idols called Lacapati and ldianale were the patrons of the cultivated lands and of
husbandry. They paid reverence to water-lizards called by them buaya, or crocodiles,
from fear of being harmed by them. They were even in the habit of offering these animals
a portion of what they carried in their boats, by throwing it into the water or placing it upon
the bank.
Their manner of offering sacrifice was to proclaim a feast, and offer to the devil
what they had to eat. This was done in front of the idol, which they anoint with fragrant
perfumes, such as musk and civet, or gum of the storax-tree and other odoriferous woods,
and praise it in poetic songs sung by the officiating priest, male or female, who is called
catolonan. The participants made responses to the song, beseeching the idol to favor
them with those things at which they were in need, and generally, by offering repeated
healths, they all became intoxicated. In some of their idolatries they were accustomed to
place a good piece of cloth, doubled, over the idol, and over the cloth a chain or large,
gold ring, thus worshiping the devil without having sight of him. The devil was sometimes
liable to enter into the body of the catolonan, and assuming her shape and appearance,
filled her with so great arrogance he being the cause of it--that she seemed to shoot
flames from her eyes; her hair stood on end, a fearful sigh to those beholding, and she
uttered words of arrogance and superiority. In some districts, especially in the mountains,
when in those idolatries the devil incarnated himself and took on the form of his minister,
the latter had to be tied to a tree by his companions, to prevent the devil in his internal
fury from destroying him. This, however, happened but rarely. The objects of sacrifice
were goats, fowls, and swine, which were flayed, decapitated and laid before the idol.
They performed another ceremony by cooking a jar of rice until the water was evaporated,
after which they broke the jar, and the rice was left as an intact mass which was set before
the idol; and all about it, at intervals, were placed a few buyos-which is a small fruit
wrapped in a leaf with some lime, a food generally eaten in these regions-as well as fried
food and fruits. All the above-mentioned articles were eaten by the guests at the feast;
the heads [of the animals], after being “offered.” as they expressed it, were cooked and
eaten also.
The reasons tor offering this sacrifice and adoration were, in addition to whatever
personal matters there might be, the recovery of a sick person, the prosperous voyage of
those embarking on the sea, a good harvest in the sowed lands, a propitious result in
wars, a successful delivery in childbirth, and a happy outcome in married life. If this took
place among people of rank, the festivities lasted thirty days.

Source: The Philippine Islands. Vol VII.

Excerpt from Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas
by Antonio de Morga
Antonio de Morga was a Spanish high-ranking official in the Philippines from 1593
to 1603. A lawyer by profession, Morga held the position of oidor or judge of Real
Audiencia when he first came the colony. With little experience in military combat, Morga
led the Spanish fleet in its Pyrrhic victory against the Dutch in 1600. However, Morga was
best known as the author of Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Events in the Philippine
Islands) one the most comprehensive accounts or sixteenth century Spanish colonization
of the archipelago.
Sucesos, as it is and by today’s students of history, was published in 1609 when
Morga was already in Mexico City. The book covers the political economic, social and
cultural life of the Filipinos and Spaniards from 1493 to 1603. This encompassing work
was based on documentary research as well as Morga’s personal involvement and
observation. This was possible due to his position in the colonial government. The work
became more popular when Jose Rizal annotated and critiqued the book in 1890. In the
excerpt of the Sucesos below, Morga talks about the “ignorance” and “stubbornness” of
the non-Christian Filipinos.

Primary Source
In matters of religion, the natives proceeded more barbarously and with grater blindness
than in all the rest. For besides being pagans, without any knowledge of the true God,
they neither strove to discover Him by way of reason, nor had any fixed belief. The devil
usually deceived them with a thousand errors and blindnesses. He appeared to them in
various horrible and frightful forms, and as fierce animals, so that they feared him and
trembled before him. They generally worshiped him, and made images of him in the said
forms. These they kept in caves and private houses, where they offered them perfumes
and odors, and food and fruit, calling them anitos.
Other worshiped the sun and the moon, and made feasts and drunken revels at
the conjunction of those bodies. Some worshiped a yellow-colored birds that dwells in
their woods called batala. They generally worship and adored the crocodiles when they
see them by kneeling down and clasping their hands, because of the harm that they
receive from those reptiles: they believe that by so doing the crocodiles will become
appeased and leave them. Their oaths, execrations and promises are all as above
mentioned namely May buhayan eat thee, if thou dost not speak truth or fulfil what thou
hast promised and similar things.
There were no temples throughout those islands nor houses generally used for the
worship of idols: but each person possessed and made in his house his own anitos
without any fixed rite or ceremony. They had no priests or religious to attend to religious
affairs except certain old men and women called catalonas. These were experienced
witches and sorcerers who kept the other people deceived. The latter communicated to
these sorcerers their desires and needs and the catalonas told them innumerable
extravagancies and lies. The catalonas uttered prayers and permuted other ceremonies
to the idols for the sick and they believed in omens and superstitions with which the evil
inspired them, whereby they declared whether the patient would recover or die. Such
were their cures and methods and they used various kinds of divinations for all things. All
this was with so little aid, apparatus or foundation which God permitted, and so that the
preaching of the holy gospel should find those of that region better prepared for it, and so
that those natives would confess the truth more easy and it would be less difficult to
withdraw them from their darkness, and the errors in which the devil kept them for so
many years. They never sacrificed human beings as is done in other kingdoms. They
believed that there was a future life where those who had been brave and performed
valiant feats would be rewarded: while those who had done evil would be punished. But
they did not know how or where this would be.
They buried their dead in their own houses and kept their bodies and bones for a
long time in chests. They venerated the skulls of the dead as if they were living and
present. Their funeral rites did not consist of pomp or assemblages, beyond those of their
own house where after bewailing the dead; all was changed into feasting and drunken
revelry among all the relatives and friends.

Source: The Philippine Islands, Vol XVI

Excerpt of an Account of the Sumuroy Revolt

Another cause of early Filipino revolts was forced labor or polo. Read below an account
of the 1649 Sumuroy Revolt in Samar. Just like the previous account, this was written by
Fr. Casimiro Diaz.
The Sumuroy Revolt spread to Zamboanga, Northern Mindanao, Cebu, Masbate,
Camiguin, Albay, and Camarines.

Primary Source
There was an Indian named Sumuroy, in the village of Palapag, with was regarded as
one of the best, although he was one of the very worst, and was as evil as his father—
who, accredited with the same hypocrisy, was a babaylan and priest of the devil, and
made the other Indian apostatize. He was greatly addicted to drunkenness, and he had
so promoted it [in others] that all the village was contaminated with this vice, as well as
that of lust—vices so closely allied to idolatry, of which truth there are many examples in
Holy Writ. The inhabitants of Palapag were corrupted by those evil habits at the time when
Governor Don Diego Fajardo—with the intention of relieving the near-by provinces of
Tagalogs and Pampanga from the burden of working, at the harbor of Cavite, in the
building of galleons and vessels necessary for the conservation and defense of these
islands—had ordered the alcaldes of Leite and other provinces to send men thence to
Cavite for that employment. That was a difficult undertaking, because of the distance of
more than one hundred leguas, and the troubles and wrongs to the said Indians that
would result from their leaving their homes for so long a time. The father ministers went
to the alcaldes, and the latter to Manila, to represent those troubles and wrongs, but the
only thing that they obtained was a more stringent order to execute the mandate without
reply. Consequently, they could do nothing else than obey the orders of the superior
government, although they feared what very soon occurred. But what good end could so
mistaken and pernicious a decision have?
As soon as the inhabitants of Palapag saw that alcaldes-mayor were beginning to
collect men to send them to the harbor of Cavite, they began to go oftener to the meetings
in the house of Sumuroy and his father, and to begin (when heated with wine; the ordinary
counselor of the Indians) to organize their insurrection. They quickly appointed leaders,
whom the chief was Don Juan Ponce, a very influential man and a bad Christian, but
married to a wife from a chief’s family in the village of Catubig; she was very different from
him in her morals, for she was very virtuous. The second leader was one Don Pedro
Caamug, and the third the above-named Sumuroy. Then they discussed the murder of
the father minister, Miguel Ponce of the Society of Jesus; an Aragonese, at the suggestion
of that malignant sorcerer, and the priest of the devil, the father of Sumuroy, who changed
that undertaking upon his son. On Tuesday evening, the first of June, 1649, he went to
the house of the father, who had just eaten his dinner, and wad ascending a narrow ladder
to his house. Sumuroy awaited him at the place, and hurling his lance, pierced his breast
from side to side, and left him dead, without more time than to say “Jesus, Mary.” They
spared the life of Father Julio Aleni, a Roman, saying that he was not their minister but
was dedicated to China, whence is inferred their motive in killing the [former] father. Next
day they despoiled the house and church of its furniture and holy ornaments; profaned
the altars and sacred images; scattered the holy oils; and used the silver chrismatories
for the ajonjoli oil with which they anoint their hair.
It was the will of divine Providence to show forth the devout fidelity of the women
amid the infidelity and apostasy of the men; for, the day before that spoliation, Dona
Angelina Dinagungan, wife of Don Juan Ponce, accompanied by another good Christian
woman, Dona Maria Malon went to the church and saved some holy images and
ornaments, besides a chest belonging to the father, with the little that it contained, which
they afterward surrendered to him. Among the images that that devout women saved from
the sacrilegious hands of the rebels was an image of our Lady of the Conception, which
was kept with great propriety in the house of Dona Maria Malon, and which was often
seen to sweat abundantly and to shed tears, a miracle which spread throughout the
village. When the perfidious Sumuroy heard of it, he said: “The Virgin Mary is weeping.
Let us see if she will weep if we burn the house,” and he went thither, with other men like
himself, and set fire to it. But Divine Clemency did not permit the fire to catch in that house,
although it was of bamboo and nipa like the others. The husband of Dona Maria Malon,
called Don Gabriel Hongpon, was a head man [cabeza de barangay]; and only he and all
his people remained faithful to God and to their King. God gave him courage to resist so
many, who always respected him as he was so influential a man in that village of Palapag.
The insurgents incited the inhabitants of Catubig, who also revolted. They killed a
Spaniard, and burned the church and house of the father minister, after having sacked it.
The contagion having spread to other villages, the people did the same at Pambohan or
Bayugo, Catarman, and Bonan, and thence passé to infect the provinces of Ibalon and
Camarines, where they killed a Franciscan religious, the guardian of Sorsogon. They
killed Alferez Torres in Masbate in Caraga, the inhabitants of the village of Tinao revolted
and killed their minister, a discalced Augustinian, and a few Spanish soldiers of a small
presidio established there, the rest escaping the fury of the insurgents. The Iligan, the
village of Cagayan, a mission of our discalced religious, revolted. In the adjacent island
of Camiguin, a mission of the same religious, they bound their minister and set their feet
on his neck. The Subanos mutinied in the jurisdiction of Zamboanga, in the village called
Siocon, where they killed Father Juan del Campo of the Society of Jesus. The villages of
the islands of Cebu and Bohol, who are warlike people, were wavering in their loyalty. But
Divine Clemency did not permit them to declare themselves. Thus, with the patience and
tolerance of the father ministers, who suffered many hardships and found themselves in
great danger, those fires—which could have consumed the loyalty of the provinces of
these islands—were soon extinguished. The first village to rebel in the island of Leite was
Bacor, where the church and house of the father minister wore burned, and the people
joined the inhabitants of Palapag, leaving the village deserted. The insurgents pretended
that two Dutch ships were near, which were coming to aid them as equals in their rebellion
against the church and the vassalage due to their lawful king; and that pretense greatly
aided them in their evil design.
As soon as the alcalde-mayor of Leite heard of the insurrection, he collected all
the boats and men possible, but these were very fragile means to oppose to so vast a
multitude of insurgent and desperate men. Consequently, although they went to Palapag
with the said alcalde-mayor, one Captain Don Juan Gomez de tres Palacios y Estrado,
they served no other purpose than to make the rebellion worse, and the encourage the
enemy. The latter entrenched themselves on an impregnable hill called “the table of
Palapag,” and what is the greatest cause for surprise is that a Spaniard called Pedro
Zapata, who had married an Indian woman in Palapag (who must have perverted him),
went with them. But the insurgents gave him his pay by killing him, in order to take away
the woman, a worthy reward for his incredible treason. They made trenches and strong
stockades, with many sharp stakes and snares, and many stone boulders suspended,
which, by being thrown upon the strongest army, would cause cruel injury. To work
greater harm, they gave command of their men to Don Pedro Caamug, who descended
the hill with two hundred insurgents and returned to the village of Palapag, where he killed
the father minister, Vicente Damian, and two boys who were serving him, who in their fear
were clinging to the father. They again burned the church, a chamber of nipa and bamboo
which Don Gabriel and his faithful followers had erected for the celebration of mass,
furnishing this additional bond their apostasy and rebellion. They returned to their
impregnable hill after this, which was in their eyes a great victory, and began to fortify
themselves much more strongly than they were, as they feared the war that was expected
from Manila.
Governor Don Diego Fajardo, seeing that the undertaking of the reduction of the
inhabitants of Palapag was an affair requiring much more care and consideration,
because of the evil effects that would result from any unfavorable event, after holding a
council of war determined to entrust this undertaking to the commander of the galleys,
Andres Lopez de Asaldegui (already named on many occasions), as he has all the good
qualities which can form a good soldier; for he was very brave and prudent, fortunate in
the enterprises that had been entrusted to him, and a prime favorite with the soldiers
because of his great liberality. That commander left Manila with the best men whom he
could enlist, both Spaniards and Pampangos, and went to Catbalogan, the capital of that
province, where he mustered thirteen oared vessels and two champans. His first order
was to send some vessels to Panay and Iloilo for food. Well informed of the condition of
the rebels of Palapag, he found that he needed more war-supplies for that conquest; for
the insurgents had extended their revolt to many villages of the island, and the other
neighboring islands were apparently prepared to follow their bold acts, if they were at all
fortunate. Therefore, Andres Lopez de Asaldegui sent to ask the governor for the galleys
in his charge; but the latter did not send them, in order to avoid the expenses that would
be caused the royal treasury, which was very needy. But he sent order instead that the
fleet of Zambaonga should be his disposal.
[At this juncture, Asaldigui is summoned by the governor to investigate the loss of
the galleon “Encarnacion,” and “entrusting the Palapag enterprise to Captain Gines de
Rojas-a brave soldier, but one who had little reputation and affection among the soldiers
who regretted that order exceedingly, and would have returned home had they been able.
To such an extent does the reputation of the leader further any enterprise.”]
Don Gines de Rojas assembled the thirteen oared vessels and the two champans,
in the latter of which he stowed the food. Likewise, the fleet of Zamboanga came up with
four caracaos and some Spaniards, and four hundred Lutaos; these are Indians of that
region who have been recently converted to our holy faith from the errors of the cursed
sect of Mahomet, by the efforts and toil of the religious of the society. Their commandant
was their master-of-camp Don Francisco Ugbo a Lutao, and a barve man; and their
sargento-mayor Don Alonso Macobo of the same nation. The chief commander of that
fleet was Captain Juan Muñoz, the admiral was Juan de Ulloa, and the captain was
Suarez, who were veteran soldiers. In addition to that succor there came from Cebu
Captain Don Francisco de Sandoval and Juan Fernandez de Leon, who brought many
men from Sialo, Caraga, and other provinces. When all those forces were assembled in
Catbalogan, Don Gines de Rojas divided them into three divisions, two under command
of Sandoval and Leon and the third in his own charge. He ordered Captain Sandoval to
go to his encomienda at Catubig, and thence, with all the men whom he could assemble
to go to reduce the village of Palapag. Captain Leon was ordered to go with his men
through Tubig, Sulat, Borongan and other villages—first, however, to go to Guigan, to get
as many men there as possible. Don Gines de Rojas chose the villages of Catarman and
Bobor, where his encomienda lay.
All things were ready to undertake the conquest of the impregnable hill. Nothing
worthy of note happened to Captain Don Francisco de Sandoval, but the Indians of Bacor
prepared an ambush against Juan Fernandez de Leon in a very dangerous pass. Juan
de Leon de Paranas had gone out, embarking in the river of Nasan, which is very rapid
because of its great current—and among other dangerous places is one more dangerous
than all, namely, a fall and cataract which is two spear lengths in height. Consequently,
in order to proceed, one must unlade the boats; and after raising them with great toil by
means of certain very thick and strong rattans, must, after suspending or letting the boat
down thus, again lade it. There did the enemy set their ambush for Juan de Leon, but it
was disclosed by a friendly Indian. Our men firing muskets and arquebuses at that side,
the Indians fled with great loss; and our men proceeded to the bar of the river, where they
fortified themselves in a stout stockade. Sandoval did the same in Catubig, as did Don
Silvestre de Rodas, whom Don Gines sent as reinforcement to Sandoval.
Those leaders, having arranged matters in this manner continued to invite and
pacify the many Indians who presented themselves. But those who were entrenched on
the hill confident in their fortress and defense, persisted obstinately in their revolt, and
tried to get the other villages not to declare in our favor. Don Gines fortified his post, and
ordered each captain to do the same with his, for he had resolve to blockade and capture
the natives in the hill by hunger. The natives learned from their spies that Don Gines had
but few men in his quarters, as the rest had gone to get provisions; and, having
determined to use so favorable an opportunity, many of them went at night, by the river,
near the land. When they thought that our men were very careless and sound asleep,
they pulled some stakes out of the fortification of Don Gines, and entered in a disorderly
mob. But the sentinels hearing the noise, sounded the alarm. Don Gines, awaking, seized
his sword and buckler; and, accompanied by those who could follow him so hastily,
confronted the enemy, and drove them to flight with great loss—as was judged from the
abundance of blood that was seen in the camp in the morning. But it was not without any
harm to our men, some of whom were wounded, although no one died. One ball struck
Sumoroy on the shoulder, but only one dead man was left in the camp; for our opponents
dragged the others away and threw them into water. Don Gines did not care to pursue
them, fearing some ambush, which would have been easy in the darkness.
The soldiers grumbled much at the great caution, and prudence of Don Gines de
Rojas, who thought only of strengthening his fortification, to the great labor of those who
now desired to busy themselves with the enemy, and not the trees of the forest. That rose
to such a pitch that the sargento-mayor of the Lutaos. Don Francisco Macombo, went to
Don Gines impatiently, and told him that neither he nor his men had come from
Zamboanga to cut timber but to fight with the enemies of Palapag. Don Gines was not
displeased to see the willingness of his soldiers to fight, and therefore, in order to employ
it, he had the men called to arms, and arranged the attack. He formed two divisions [for
attack] from the whole army, and left the third to guard the camp. The assault was made
in two parts—one by the open road, although it was better defended by the opponents;
and the other by a precipitous path which was passable for the birds alone—for it was a
huge steep rock, and so narrow at the place where the camp of the insurgents was
established that only a single man could enter an opening made by nature—a place called
for that reason by the natives, in their own language, “the eye of a needle.” The men
climbed up by that path, using feet and hands without carrying their arms; for these were
carried by him who followed, and afterward given to him who was ahead; and so, they did
one with another. In addition to that, the insurgents had posted a sentinel there to advise
them of any new move for which a few coming to his aid would be sufficient to prevent
many from affecting an entrance.
Don Gines entrusted that difficult undertaking to Captain Silvestre de Rodas, a
native of Rota, and a soldier of great renown in his time, of whom are recounted incredible
exploits performed by him in Ternate. He gave him command of the Lutao soldiers, with
their commander Don Francisco Macombo, for himself Don Gines took the battalion of
the soldiers who attacked the hill in front. The vanguard and rearguard were palced in
command of Captains Sandoval and Juan Fernandez de Leon. The assault being planned
in that form, Don Gines engaged the enemy with his men, with great valor, to the sound
of drums and trumpets, and went up the hill with great difficulty and danger. For the
insurgents, cutting the rattans by which the stones and very large trunks of trees were
fastened and kept back, would have been able by rolling them down to do great damage
to our men, had not divine Providence directed these missiles to places where they could
do no damage. Our men went up most of the hill with this obstinacy, and the enemy went
out to meet them with so great valor that it seemed rather desperation, and the damage
inflicted upon them by our arquebuses did not cool their obstinacy, for they tried to throw
themselves on our spears and swords in their anxiety to die while killing [others]. The
great advantage of the fortress of the hill increased their courage, as it could have caused
great loss to our men to fight in the open and unsheltered. The fight lasted many hours,
the enemy often being relieved, for they had many brave and well-armed men on the Don
Gines de Rojas, seeing that the fury of the enemy was invincible (for they were fighting
more like lions than like men), and that his men could not proceed with the undertaking,
because they has no further strength and were tired, and had many wounded, yielded for
the time being, and sounded the retreat, leaving more vigorous experience for another
day. The enemy also retired, satisfied at the resistance that they had shown, although
much to their cost.
Very different was the success of the brave Silvestre de Rodas with his Lutaos in
charge of Don Francisco Ugbo and Don Alonso Macombo, who on the second of July,
1650 made the assault in the most difficult point—which was the eye of the needle in the
rock, as we have stated above, through which Silvestre de Rodas was the first to go. He
chose the silence of the night, a time when they were least likely to be discovered.
Climbing up one by and without arms, with the labor that was necessary, at the middle of
the ascent an obstacle occurred that could have blocked so great an enterprise. That was
a very heavy rain, which lasted a great part of the night, and which the men endured
without the slightest shelter, but with great vigilance and care that fire for their matches
should not be lacking—availing themselves for that purpose of the shields of the Lutaos,
which are called the carazas, and are made of long narrow pieces of wood, with which
they cover all the body at the side. The rain ceased and, although they were soaking, they
all resumed the ascent of the hill; they reached the entrance of the rock at an opportune
time, when the sentinel, quite unsuspicious of such an assault, was absent, as he had
gone to get some fire (without the company of which those Indians cannot live) or indeed
have a smoke, for they think that furnishes them with fire company. On that account,
Silvetre de Rodas and some of the foremost who were the most vigorous were enabled
to enter. The sentinel returned with a brand in his hand, and when he was near perceived
the bad effect of his carelessness, and believed that our camp was already upon him. He
looked in astonishment, and then, hurriedly taking flight, began to cry out and announce
that our men had already entered the hill by means of the rock. Not less with the confusion
of all, who were quite free from the dread of so unexpected an assault. Confused and
lacking in counsel, a panic terror seized them and forced them into disorganized flight, so
that Silvestre de Rodas and the Lutaos were allowed to become master of the field.
Unfurling their victorious banners, they took possession of lodgings, trenches, and food
of the enemy. Don Gines de Rojas ascended the hill with his whole army, and destroyed
the insurgent quarters by setting fire to them. Having published a general pardon, those
who had been insurgents before presented themselves in peace.
The chief leader Sumoroy and his sorcerer father refused to put in an appearace,
or to talk of peace. But the very ones whom he had caused to rebel killed him, and carried
his head to Don Gines de Rojas, although they had been so loyal to him before that when
the alcalde-mayor of Leite went at the beginning to reduce them to peace, and asked
them ass the first condition to deliver to him the head of Sumoroy, they, making light of
the request, sent him the head of a swine. But afterward, as a token of their true
obedience, they delivered the head, without any asking for it. Don Juan Ponce remained
in hiding in the island of Cebu for a long time, but after having obtained pardon, he
returned to Palapag; there he commited crimes that were so atrocious that the alcalde-
mayor seized him and sent him to Manila, where he paid for those crimes on the scaffold.
He who had the best end was Don Pedro Caamug; for he was the first to present himself,
and showed great loyalty in the reduction of the others. He continued all his life to be very
quiet, and was governor of his village, where he was highly esteemed; and it was proved
that he was not the one who killed Father Vicente with his hands, although he was captain
of that band. Moreover, it was found to be advisable to overlook much on that occasion,
as the quiet of all the Pintados Islands, who were awaiting the end of the rebels of
Palapag.

Source: The Philippine Islands, 1493-1898

Excerpts from Cronicas

by Juan Francisco de San Antonio
Juan Francisco de San Antonio is a missionary of the Franciscan order. Coming
from the order of zealous and influential missionaries such Juan de Plasencia and Pedro
de San Buenaventura, San Antonio’s account of early Filipino customs is deserving of its
place in the Franciscan’s (1738) rich contributions to early Filipino historiography. His
Cronicas: or Philippine Chronicles: is a comprehensive study of the early Filipinos as well
as the Chinese and the Japanese in the Philippines during the early colonial period. He
also discusses some parts of Mindanao and even other parts of Southeast Asia. He gives
a detailed discussion of early Filipino beliefs like his predecessors but San Antonio gives
a more detailed account on superstitious beliefs and omens. San Antonio also speculates
on the origins of the early Filipino people but none of those were well-founded. The native
languages, clothing, ornaments, and physical features of the Filipinos were also
thoroughly tackled in Cranial: However, the focus of this excerpt is the Visayans marriage
custom. In the account below, San Antonio thoroughly discussed not just the marriage
rituals and ceremonies of the Visayans, but also their dowry system.

Primary Source
It was not usual for them to have more than one own wife, and one own husband;
but those who were chiefs and wealthy were allowed to have some slaves as concubines,
especially if their own wives did not prove fruitful. Only among the Visayans did the first
religious ministers of the gospel find established the custom of one men having many
legitimate wives, and that of large dowries, which was no small obstruction to the planting
of the gospel. The general rule was for each man to have one legitimate wife; and they
tried to obtain one who was of their own family, and even very closely related to them,
barring out the first degree, for that was always a direct impediment to their marriage.
Their marriages were not indissoluble, as are those of Christians. For it the consorts
returned the dowry, one to the other, the one at fault to the one without blame, that was
sufficient for repudiation; and they could marry others, unless the couple had children, in
which case all the dowry was given to these. It profits had been made with the lapse of
time, while they had lived together, those profits were divided between them both, if the
gains were in common but if they were the secret gains of one of them, then that one kept
them.
The dowry, which is called bigaycaya, was always given by the man (and it is even
yet given), the parents of the girl determining the sum beforehand, at the time when they
discussed the marriage. The parents of the bride received that dowry, and neither the
bride nor her parents contributed any fund. The dowry was set according to the rank of
the contracting parties; and if, perchance, the parents of the bride asked more than the
ordinary sum, they were under obligations to bestow some gift to the married couple to
suit the occasion as, for instance, a couple of slaves, some small gold jewel, or a bit of
cleared land-for cultivation, as I have seen practiced even yet, and which they called
pasonor. In this bigaycaya was included what they called panhimuyat, which was the sum
that had to be paid to the mother of the bride in return for her care and labor in the rearing
and education of her daughter. In it was also included the pasoso, or the sum that was to
be paid to the chichiva, or nurse, who had reared her. At the present, if perhaps there is
no bigaycaya in any marriage, for any reason, they never fail to collect these revenues
from the groom, upon which there is generally a suit.
This dowry or bigaycaya was and is given before the marriage with all the solemnity
that they can muster up, amid a great concourse of maguinoos, relatives, and friends and
lovers. The latter are given the crosses on the money to kiss, which is counted and
exhibited in public, in confirmation of the pact; and then the marriage is immediately
celebrated with feasting and rejoicing. The employment of this bigaycaya is not the same
in all the villages. In some it is all converted into the property of the parents of the bride,
by way of trade, they selling their daughter (as do those of Mesopotamia) for a reasonable
price. If the men do not possess the wherewithal with which to buy them promptly,
innumerable sins follow and the two live in improper relations, even to the knowledge of
the parents themselves-the young man serving as a servant in the houses of the latter to
do their will, but in the capacity of a son, as far as familiarity and permission for evil are
concerned. Many efforts are employed to extirpate this diabolical abuse, but it still costs
great toil. Under the title of catipados (thus they call those who are engaged for marriage)
are some concubinage legitimate for all time, for which the bigaycaya is not necessary.
Having given up the bigaycaya, the poor couples are left destitute, for the parents of the
bride take charge of everything.
That money is better used in some villages; for it serves to provide all kinds of
clothes for the bride, and for one-half the expenses of the wedding (which are generally
very great), and the parochial fees of the marriage, so that scarcely any is left for the
parents of the couple. This is the practice that l have been observed where l have been.
These and other ogalis (which are customs) can only have their origin in the past, and
come from father to son, and even there is variety in them, according to their distinct
origins.
[. .]
The dowry was never returned to the one who gave it; unless the son-in-law were
so obedient to his parents-in-law that he should win their affection, in which case they
returned him the dowry, at the death of any one; but this was rather a matter of charity
than of obligation, as all confess. If the woman who was to be married was alone, and
had neither parents nor grandparents, she herself and no other received the dowry. At
present, the greed of the Indians must be greater; for this poor lone woman is never
without either the chichiva who gave her the breast who will not be left without her
payment, or uncle, aunt, or other relative in whose care she has been because of the loss
of her legitimate parents. And since the above consider themselves as her parents in this
matter (the pinaca ama, as the Indians call it) they take upon themselves the place of her
parents, and get all the money, just as if they were the true parents.
All the relatives and friends who go to weddings were also wont to take each some
little present. These gifts were set down very carefully and accurately, in an account,
noting whatever each one gave. For it Pedro So-and-so gave two reals at this wedding,
two reals were also given to him if he had another wedding in his house. All this money
is spent, either in paying, it anything is due for the wedding, or as an aid in the expenses.
Or if the parents of both the young couple are niggardly, they divide it and keep it. If they
are generous, they use it in the pamamuhay, or furnishing of the house of the couple.
Consequently, there is no regular custom in this. The nearest relatives give the couple a
jewel as a mark of affection, but do not give money. These jewels belong to the bride,
and to no one else.
Three days before the wedding all the relatives of both parties assemble at the
house where it is to be celebrated, to make the palapala, which is a sort of bower, by
which they make the house larger so that all the guests may be accommodated easily.
They spend three days in making this. The next three days are those customary to the
wedding and its feast. Consequently, there are six days of expense, of racket, of reveling,
of dancing and singing, until they fall asleep with fatigue and repletion, all helter-skelter
without any distinction. Often from this perverse river the devil in turn gets his little harvest-
-now in quarrels and mishaps which have happened, and now in other more common
sins; the greatest vigilance of the father ministers is insufficient to stop these wrongs, and
there are no human forces (although there ought to be) which can banish these pernicious
ogalis.
In the olden days they employed certain ridiculous ceremonies, which had but little
decency attending the intercourse of the couple upon the night of the wedding, customs
which have now been totally uprooted. The least indecent was the coming of the catalona
or babaylan to celebrate the espousals. They brought a hog for this purpose, and with it
and on it performed their rites as in other sacrifices. The young couple seated themselves
on their bridal bed, in the laps of certain old women who played the part of godmothers
of the espousal. These women fed the young couple with their own hands from one dish,
and they both drank from one vessel. The groom said that he loved the bride, and she
that she loved the groom. Thereupon the shouts of joy broke out and cries, and there was
singing and dancing and drinking. Then the catalona arose with great gravity, and so
many were the blessings that she showered down upon the youth couple that, according
to some that I have heard among these natives, they would exceed without any doubt the
flatteries of our gypsy men and women, when they tell the fortune of one who has given
them a large reward.

Source: The Philippine Island, Vol. XL

Excerpts from First Voyage around the World

by Antonio Pigafetta
 Ferdinand Magellan was a Portuguese sailor who defected to Spain after his
services to the Portuguese crown were not properly recognized. He had seen action in
the Far East when he participated in the capture of Malacca by the Portuguese forces in
1511. Turning to Spain, he managed to persuade King Charles V to furnish him with men
and ships for an expedition that would discover a Western route to the East, a fear he
would successfully accomplish. This would pave the way for Spanish intrusion into East
Asia (primarily China) and the Pacific and the colonization of the archipelago.
The chronicle of the famed expedition was aptly entitled First Voyage Around the
World; its author was the Italian Antonio Pigafetta who took part in the said expedition.
The ambitious expedition led by Magellan composed of a fleet of five ships and around
250 men who were mostly Castillians. They started off from San Lucar, Spain, navigated
through a straight located at the tip of the South American continent, and crossed the vast
expanse of the Pacific Ocean. On March 16, 1521, after almost two years of hardship at
sea, they saw the Island of Samar in the eastern part of the country. They named the
newly discovered territory Archipelago de San Lazaro because it was the feast day of the
saint.
Magellan observed that the ocean was calm and tranquil and called it Mar Pacifico;
the name stuck in Italian, Spanish and Portuguese usage – giving the Pacific Ocean its
current name.

Primary Source
At dawn on Saturday, March sixteen, 1521, we came upon a high land at a distance
of three hundred leagues from the island of Ladroni-an island named Zamal [i.e..Samar]…
On Monday afternoon we saw a boat coming toward us with nine men in it. Therefore, the
captain –general ordered that no one should move or say a word without his permission.
When those men reached the shore, their chief went immediately to the captain-general
giving signs of joy because of our arrival. Five of the most ornately adorned of them
remained with us, while the rest went to get some others who were fishing, and so they
all came. The captain-general, seeing that they were reasonable men, ordered food to be
set forth before them, and gave them red caps, mirrors, combs, bells, ivory, bocasine,
and other things. When they saw the captain’s courtesy, they presented fish, a jar of palm
wine which they call uraca [i.e., attack], figs more than one palm long [i.e., bananas], and
others which were smaller and more delicate, and two cocoanuts….
Those people became very familiar with us. They told us many things, their names
and those of some of the islands that could be seen from that place. Their own island was
called Zuluan and it is not very large. We took great pleasure with them, for they were
very pleasant and conversable. In order to show them greater honor, the captain-general
took them to his ship and showed them all his merchandise-cloves, cinnamon, pepper,
ginger, nutmeg, mace, gold and all things in the ship. He had some mortars fired for them,
whereat they exhibited great fear, and tried to jump out of the ship. They made signs to
us that the above said articles grew in that place where we were going… The island where
we were called Humunu; (now Homonhon) but in as much as we found two springs there
of the clearest water, we called it Acquada da li buoni Segnialli [i.e., “the watering-place
of good Signs”] for there were the first signs of gold which we found in those districts…
There are many island in that district, and therefore we called them the archipelago of
San Lazaro, as they were discovered on the Sabbath of St. Lazarus.

Magellan also met some local chiefs with whom he had a cordial relationship.
Afterwards, on Easter Sunday, the first recorded mass in the Philippine history, was held
in a small island called “Mazaua.” Interpretations of Pigafetta’s account have differed as
to the place of the first mass; whether it was the small island of Limasawa, south of Leyte
or Butuan in northern Mindanao. However, scholars have presented evidences which
tended to favor Limasawa over Butuan.

Pieces of gold, of the size of walnuts and eggs are found by sitting the earth in the
island of that king who came to our ships. All the dishes of that king are of gold and also
some portion of his house, as we were told by that king himself. According to their
customs he was very grandly decked out [molto in ordine], and the finest looking man that
we saw among those people. His hair was exceeding black, and hung to his shoulders.
He had a covering of silk on his head, and wore two large golden earrings fastened in his
ears. He wore a cotton cloth all embroidered with silk, which covered him from waist to
knees. At his side hung a dagger, the half of which was somewhat long and all of gold,
and its scabbard of carved wood. He had three spots of gold on every tooth, and his teeth
appeared as if bound with gold. He was perfumed with storax and benzoin. He was tawny
and painted [i.e., tattooed] all over. That island of his was called Butuan and Calagan.
When those kings wished to see one another, they both went to hunt in that island where
we were. The name of the first king is Raia Colambu, and the second Raia Siaui.
Early in the morning of Sunday, the last of March and Easter-day, the captain-
general sent the priest with some men to prepare the place where mass was to be said;
together with the interpreter to tell the king we were not going to land in order to dine with
him, but to say mass. Therefore the king sent us two swine that he had killed. When the
hour for mass arrived, we landed with about fifty men, without body armour, but carrying
our other arms, and dressed in our best clothes. Before we reached the shore with our
boat, six pieces were discharged as a sign of piece. We landed; the two kings embraced
the captain-general, and placed him between them. We went in marching order to the
place consecrated, which was not far from the shore. Before the commencement of mass,
the captain sprinkled the entire bodies of the two kings with musk water. During the mass
we made our offerings. The kings went forward to kiss the cross as we did, but they did
not offer the sacrifice. When the body of our Lord was elevated, they remained on their
knees and worshipped Him with clasped hands. The ships fired all their artillery at once
when the body of Christ was elevated, the signal having been given from the shore with
muskets. After the conclusion of mass, some of our men took communion.

The expedition then proceeded to the port of Cebu. There they met Cebu’s ruler,
Raja Humabon, whom Magellan was able to convince to become a vassal of the King
and a servant of Christ. Magellan, however, gets embroiled in a conflict between the two
chiefs of Mactan, Zula and Lapu-lapu—which was eventually followed by a battle.

On Friday, April twenty-six, Zula, a Chief of the island of Matan, sent one of his
sons to present two goats to the captain-general, and to say that he would send him all
that he had promised, but that he had not been able to send it to him because of the other
chief, Cilapulapu, who refused to obey the king of Spain. He requested the captain to
send him only one boatload of men on the next night so that they might help him fight
against the other chief. The captain-general decided to go thither with three boatloads we
begged him repeatedly not to go, but he like a good shepherd refused to abandon his
flock. At midnight, sixty of us set out armed with corselets and helmets, together with the
Christian king, the prince, some of the chief men, and twenty or thirty balanguais. We
reached Matan three hours before dawn. The captain did not wish to fight them, but sent
a message to the natives by the Muslim to the effect that if they would obey the king of
Spagnia, recognize the Christian king as their sovereign, and pay us our tribute, he would
be their friend; but that it they wished otherwise, they should wait to see how our lances
wounded. They replied that if we had lances they had pieces of bamboo and stakes
hardened with fire. [They asked us] not to proceed to attack them at once, but to wait until
morning, so that they might have more men. They said that in order to induce us to go in
search of them; for they had dug certain pit holes between the houses in order that we
might fall into them. When morning came, forty-nine of us leaped into the water up to our
thighs, and walked through water for more than two crossbow flights before we could
reach the shore. The boats could not approach nearer because of certain rocks in the
water. The other eleven men remained behind to guard the boats. When we reached
land, those men had formed in three divisions to the number of more than one thousand
five hundred persons. When they saw us, they charged down upon us with exceeding
loud cries, two divisions on our flanks and the other on our front. When the captain saw
that, he formed us into two divisions, and thus did we begin to fight. The musketeers and
crossbowmen shot from a distance for about half an hour, but uselessly; for the shots
only passes through the shields which were made of thin wood, and the arms [of the
bearers]. The captain cried to them, “Cease tiring! Cease firing!” but his order was not
heeded at all. When the natives saw that we were shooting our muskets to no purpose,
crying out them [were] determined to stand firm, and redoubled their shouts. When our
muskets were discharged, the natives would never stand stilt, but leaped hither and
thither, covering themselves with their shields. They shot so many arrows at us and hurled
so many bamboo spears (some of them tipped with iron) at the captain-general, besides
pointed stakes hardened with fire, stones, and mud, that we could scarcely defend
ourselves. Seeing that, the captain-general sent some men to burn their houses in order
to terrify them. When they saw their houses burning, they were roused to greater fury.
Two of our men were killed near the houses while we burned twenty or thirty houses; so
many of them charged down upon us that they shot the captain through the right leg with
a poisoned arrow. On that account, he ordered us to retire slowly, but the men took to
flight, except six or eight of us who remained with the captain. The natives shot only at
our legs, for the latter were bare; and so many were the spears and stones that they
hurled at us that we could offer no resistance. The mortars in the boats could not aid us
as they were too far away. So we continued to retire for more than a good crossbow flight
from the shore, always fighting up to our knees in the water. The natives continued to
pursue us and picking up the same spear tour or six times, hurled it at us again and again.
Recognizing the captain, so many turned upon him that they knocked his helmet off his
head twice, but he always stood firm like a good knight, together with some others.
The map shows the route taken by the Magellan expedition (1519-1522) in what is
considered the first circumnavigation of the world. The three-year journey started in the
southern port of San Lucar, Spain in 1519 with five ships commanded by Ferdinand
Magellan.They crossed the Atlantic Ocean and followed the coast of South America in
order to locate a passage way through the continent a narrow strait which was eventually
named after Magellan. The expedition then crossed the unexpectedly vast expanse of the
Pacific Ocean and encountered land first at Ladroni Island and from there to Samar Island
and in central Philippines. Magellan was killed by the natives in the Battle of Mactan near
Cebu and so the expedition was continued under the leadership of Sebastian del Cano
who skilfully guided the party through the Moluccas or Spice Islands the Indian Ocean the
Cape of Good Hope at the tip of Africa, the Atlantic Ocean and finally back to Spain in
1522.

Thus did we fight for more than one hour, refusing to retire farther. An Indian hurled
a bamboo spear into the captain’s face, but the latter immediately killed him with his lance
which he left in the Indian’s body. Then, trying to lay hand on sword he could draw it out
but halfway because he had been wounded in the arm with a bamboo spear. When the
natives saw that they all hurled themselves upon him one of them wounded him on the
left leg with a large cutlass, which resembled a scimitar, only being larger. That caused
the captain to tail face downward, when immediately they rushed upon him with iron and
bamboo spears and with their cutlasses, until they killed our mirror, our light, our comfort,
and our true guide. When they wounded him, he turned back many times to see whether
we were all in the boats. There upon beholding him dead, we wounded retreated as best
we could to the boats which were already pulling off.
Source: The Philippine Islands 1493-1898 Vol. XXXIII (1591- 1522)
 After Magellan’s demise; the remaining members of the expedition tried to make
their way back to Spain but only the little ship Victoria commanded by Sebastian del Cano
was able to return safely. The eighteen survivors arrived in Seville in 1522, completing
the first continuous circumnavigation of the World. Several expeditions were sent by
Spain in the next four decades in order to establish their claims over the Moluccas and
each one of them made a stop in the Philippine Islands. One expedition led by Ruy de
Villalobos gave the islands the name Les Phelipinas in honor of the Spanish crown prince
Philip II.

Excerpt from Relacion de Ias Islas Filipinas

by Miguel de Loarca

As discussed in the previous chapter. Miguel de Loarca was one of the first
conquistadores to arrive in the Philippines wherein he observed the traditions of the
natives before they were converted to Catholic faith. As a loyal Spanish military officer,
Loarca also became one of the earliest encomenderos in the country when Miguel Lopez
de Legazpi granted him lands in Panay Island particularly in Oton. During his Stay in the
Visayas, Loarca widely observed and studied the Visayan customs, traditions, and
languages. Thus, it is not surprising when Governor-General Ronquillo requested him to
write an account of the colony to be sent to King Philip II. This led to the birth of Relation
de Las Islas Filipinas (1582). '

In his Relation, Loarca documented the native cultural traditions of the early Filipinos. As
one of the earlies accounts of the islands, Relacion became the foundation and basis of
some succeeding accounts in the early colonial period. His work might be similar to other
accounts of the late 16th century but the advantage of this pioneering narrative is its non-
religious perspective which was quite different from its contemporaries. This excerpt from
Relacion’s ninth chapter would talk about the ‘laws of slavery’ in the Visayas.

Primary Source

Laws of slavery. No Indian in this country is made a slave or is put to death for any crime
which he commits, even if it be theft, adultery, or murder-except that for each crime there
is an established fine, which they have to pay in jewels or gold, and it the culprit is unable
to pay the fine he will borrow the money, and pledge himself to the man from whom he
borrows. As a result he becomes a slave, until he shall repay what was lent to him; after
that, he is free again. Therefore, according to the crime committed, they are slaves; and
there are three classes of slaves in these islands The first, and the most thoroughly
enslaved, is the bondman of him who is served in his own dwelling; such a slave they call
ayuey. These slaves work three days for the master, and one for themselves.

Another class of slaves are those called tumaranpoc. They live in their own houses, and
are obliged to go to work for their master one day out of four, having the three days for
themselves. If they tell to work for their master, in order to cultivate their own fields, they
give the master each year ten chicubites of rice, each chicubite being equal to one fanega.

There are other slaves, whom these people hold in most respect, who are called
tomatabans: these work in the house of the master only when there is some banquet or
revel. On such occasions they bring small gifts, and share in the drinking. But when one
of these slaves dies, the property left by the slave is shared with his children by the
master. During their lifetime, these slaves are bound to work for their master five days in
a month: or, if they do not work, they annually give the master five chicubites of rice.

Value of the slave: The ayueys are worth among these people two gold taes of Labin
sian, the equivalent of twelve pesos. The tumaranpoques are worth the same sum. The
tumatabans are worth one tae or six pesos

The ayuey women, like their husbands, work in the houses of chiefs. The tumaranpoque
women, if they have children, serve half of the month in spinning and weaving cotton,
which their masters supply and during the other half of the month they work for
themselves. The tumataban women spin only one hank of cotton each month tor their
masters, who furnish to them the cotton in the bolt. Only the ayuey receive food and
clothing from their masters; to the others the masters give nothing. When these slaves
die, the masters take away all their property, except from the tomatabans, as we have
said above. Those whom these natives have sold as slaves to the Spaniards are mostly
the ayueys.

The rules which they observe for punishing any one so severely as to enslave him are as
follows: for murder, adultery and then; and tor insulting any woman of rank, or taking away
her robe in public and leaving her naked, or causing her to flee or defend herself so that
it falls off, which is considered a great offense.

Thieves: If a thief commits a great robbery, he and all his relatives (or at least his nearest
kin) are fined. If they are unable to pay the fine, they are made slaves. This law applies
to all classes and even to the chiefs themselves: accordingly, if a chief commit any crime,
even against one of his own slaves or timauas, he is fined in the same manner. But they
are not reduced to slavery for lack of means to pay the fine: as, if they were not chiefs
they would be slaves. In case at a small theft, the punishment falls upon the thief alone,
and not on his relatives.

In time of famine: When there is famine, the poor who have not the means of sustenance,
in order to perish, go the rich – and almost always they seek their relatives and surrender
themselves to them as slaves – in order to be fed

Source: The Philippine Islands, Volume V

“The Creation of the World,” a Bicol Origin Myth

 As an oral tradition, the last reading of the chapter is different from the first four
because it is a myth from the natives themselves. As stated by Damiana Eugenio in the
first book of the voluminous Philippine Folk Literature Series (1981), “myths are the
prose narratives which in the society which they are told, are considered to be truthful
accounts of what happened in the remote past. She added that these myths are the story
of mankind and other creatures and their relationship with nature and the deities. Thus, it
is significant to include such literature in this textbook to grasp other foms of sources as
well as points of view.
The following account is the creation myth of the Bicolanos as told by Rosario
Bonto, documented in the book Ethnography of the Bicol People.

Primary Source
Thousands and thousands of years ago, there was a time when the space
occupied by the universe was vacant. The moon, the sun, the stars, and the earth were
conspicuous by their absence. Only the vast expanse of water and the sky above it could
be seen. The kingdom of the sky was under the rule of the great god Languit, while the
water was under the sovereignty of the god Tubigan. Languit had a daughter called
Dagat, the sea who became the wife of Paros, the wind who was the son of Tubigan.
Four children were born to Dagat and Paras, three of whom were boys called Daga,
Aldao and Bulan and one girl called Bitoon. Daga a strong man possessed a body of
rock: Aldao a jolly fellow had a body of gold: Bulan, a copper-made man was a weakling;
while the beautiful Bitoon was made at pure silver. After the death of their father Paros
Daga, being the eldest son succeeded in control of the winds. Soon after, Dagat, the
mother died, leaving her children under the care of the grandparents Languit and Tubigan.
After assuming control of the winds, Daga became arrogant and ambitious,
desiring to gain more power, so he induced his younger brothers to attack the kingdom
of Languit. At first they refused: at Daga's anger, Bulan and Aldao were constrained to
join him in his plot. Preparations were made and when everything was ready, they set out
on their expedition and began to attack the gates of the sky. Failing to open the gates,
Daga let loose the winds in all directions so that the gate was destroyed and the brothers
succeeded in gaining entrance. But they were met by the enraged Languit who set out
three bolts of lightning after them. All of them were struck by lightning. The copper body
of Bulan melted into a ball; so also was the golden body of Aldao. Daga's body fell into
the sea and became what is now the earth.
Their sister Bitoon, on discovering the absence of her brothers, went out to look
for them. But upon meeting the enraged god Languit, Bitoon was also struck by another
bolt of lightning which broke her body into many pieces. Then Languit descended from
the sky and called Tubigan and accused him of helping their grandsons in their attack on
his kingdom. But Tubigan defended himself saying he had no knowledge about the attack
for he was asleep far down into the sea. Tubigan succeeded in pacifying Languit and the
two regretted and wept over the loss of their grandchildren. Since they could not revive
them, they gave each body a light.
Tubigan then planted a seed which grew into a bamboo tree. From one of its
branches came a man and a woman, who became the first parents of the human race.
Three children were born to them. One called Maisog invented a fish trap. One day he
caught such a very big and grotesque looking whale that he thought it was a god, so he
ordered his people to worship it. The people gathered around and began to pray, but no
sooner they had begun when gods from the sky appeared and commanded Maisog to
throw the whale to the water and worship no one but the gods. But Maisog was not afraid
and defied the gods. Languit, the king of the sky, struck Maisog with lightning and stunned
him. Then he scattered the people over the earth as a punishment. In this way the earth
was peopled.
Maisog's body was blackened by the lightning and all his descendants are black.
But Maisog’s son was carried to the north and became the parent of the white people. His
other children were brought to the south where the sun was hot and it scorched their
bodies so that all their people were of brown color. The other people were carried to the
east where they had to feed on clay due to scarcity of food. Because of this diet, their
descendants were of yellow color. In this way the earth came into being.

Source: Ethnography of the Bicol People, Vol II

“The Creation of the World,” a Bicol Origin Myth

As an oral tradition, the last reading of the chapter is different from the first four
because it is a myth from the natives themselves. As stated by Damiana Eugenio in the
first book of the voluminous Philippine Folk Literature Series (1981), “myths are the
prose narratives which in the society which they are told, are considered to be truthful
accounts of what happened in the remote past. She added that these myths are the story
of mankind and other creatures and their relationship with nature and the deities. Thus, it
is significant to include such literature in this textbook to grasp other foms of sources as
well as points of view.
The following account is the creation myth of the Bicolanos as told by Rosario
Bonto, documented in the book Ethnography of the Bicol People.

Primary Source
Thousands and thousands of years ago, there was a time when the space
occupied by the universe was vacant. The moon, the sun, the stars, and the earth were
conspicuous by their absence. Only the vast expanse of water and the sky above it could
be seen. The kingdom of the sky was under the rule of the great god Languit, while the
water was under the sovereignty of the god Tubigan. Languit had a daughter called
Dagat, the sea who became the wife of Paros, the wind who was the son of Tubigan.
Four children were born to Dagat and Paras, three of whom were boys called Daga,
Aldao and Bulan and one girl called Bitoon. Daga a strong man possessed a body of
rock: Aldao a jolly fellow had a body of gold: Bulan, a copper-made man was a weakling;
while the beautiful Bitoon was made at pure silver. After the death of their father Paros
Daga, being the eldest son succeeded in control of the winds. Soon after, Dagat, the
mother died, leaving her children under the care of the grandparents Languit and Tubigan.
After assuming control of the winds, Daga became arrogant and ambitious,
desiring to gain more power, so he induced his younger brothers to attack the kingdom
of Languit. At first they refused: at Daga's anger, Bulan and Aldao were constrained to
join him in his plot. Preparations were made and when everything was ready, they set out
on their expedition and began to attack the gates of the sky. Failing to open the gates,
Daga let loose the winds in all directions so that the gate was destroyed and the brothers
succeeded in gaining entrance. But they were met by the enraged Languit who set out
three bolts of lightning after them. All of them were struck by lightning. The copper body
of Bulan melted into a ball; so also was the golden body of Aldao. Daga's body fell into
the sea and became what is now the earth.
Their sister Bitoon, on discovering the absence of her brothers, went out to look
for them. But upon meeting the enraged god Languit, Bitoon was also struck by another
bolt of lightning which broke her body into many pieces. Then Languit descended from
the sky and called Tubigan and accused him of helping their grandsons in their attack on
his kingdom. But Tubigan defended himself saying he had no knowledge about the attack
for he was asleep far down into the sea. Tubigan succeeded in pacifying Languit and the
two regretted and wept over the loss of their grandchildren. Since they could not revive
them, they gave each body a light.
Tubigan then planted a seed which grew into a bamboo tree. From one of its
branches came a man and a woman, who became the first parents of the human race.
Three children were born to them. One called Maisog invented a fish trap. One day he
caught such a very big and grotesque looking whale that he thought it was a god, so he
ordered his people to worship it. The people gathered around and began to pray, but no
sooner they had begun when gods from the sky appeared and commanded Maisog to
throw the whale to the water and worship no one but the gods. But Maisog was not afraid
and defied the gods. Languit, the king of the sky, struck Maisog with lightning and stunned
him. Then he scattered the people over the earth as a punishment. In this way the earth
was peopled.
Maisog's body was blackened by the lightning and all his descendants are black.
But Maisog’s son was carried to the north and became the parent of the white people. His
other children were brought to the south where the sun was hot and it scorched their
bodies so that all their people were of brown color. The other people were carried to the
east where they had to feed on clay due to scarcity of food. Because of this diet, their
descendants were of yellow color. In this way the earth came into being.

Source: Ethnography of the Bicol People, Vol II

 SPIRITUAL BELIEFS OF THE EARLY FILIPINOS

DEFINITION OF TERMS

BARANGAY
- localized settlements
- can be composed of 30-100 families

BABAYLAN (VISAYAS) / CATALONAN (LUZON)

- Local spiritual leader in the barangay
- Usually obtained by a female but a male could also serve as one; however, he
must act and dress as a female. The position could be passed from one generation
to the next, but being a child or relative of the babaylan is not enough to become
 the next spiritual leader, since one must also acquire all the skills and abilities
needed to fulfill the position.
- Led the barangay in all rituals, particularly those involving sacrifices for the local
deities and spirits to gain favor.

DOCTRINA CHRISTIANA
- First book printed in the Philippines written in 1593 by Fray Juan de Plasencia
- Was used by the Spaniards to aid them in the Christianization of the Philippines

DIWATA (VISAYAN)/ ANITO (TAGALOG)

- Deities

Costumbres de los Tagalos (1589)

- Plasencia’s account for the traditions, society, marriage, laws, dowries, and
spiritual beliefs of Tagalogs
- Second part of Costumbres is Relation of the Worship of the Tagalog, Their Gods
and Their Burials and Superstitions which was a report to a Spanish noble after
receiving His Lordship’s letter requesting information about the natives.

BATHALA (BATALA OR BADHALA)

- Most powerful deity of the early Tagalog pantheon
- Considered to be the supreme being and the creator of universe
- The name Bathala came from the Sanskrit term Bhattara which means noble lord

LACAPATI
- deity of fertility and agriculture among the early Tagalogs
- Represents life and regeneration through sexual union

BAYBAYIN
- Is the ancient Philippine script used by the early Filipinos
- The script was well-documented by the friars and it was even used in the Doctrina
Christiana
LAON (OR KANLAON/MANLAON)
- the supreme deity among the early Visayans
- Counterpart in Tagalog is Bathala, Kabunian in Ilocos and Cordillera, and
Gugurang among Bicolanos

PINTADOS
- term used by the Spaniards to refer to the tattooed settlers of the Visayan region
- The tattoos symbolize bravery and experience in war among men

Photo courtesy
of Wikimedia Commons

PITARILLAS
- is an earthen jar used to store food for consumption
- Was also used by the early Visayans as sacrificial vessels

MANUNGGUL JAR
- Neolithic jar found in Manunggul Cave, Lipuun Point, Palawan in the early 1960’s
- This is an example of secondary burial wherein the bones of the corpse are place
inside. The top portion of the jar contains scroll designs and a boat with two human
figures; one guiding the boat while the other is going to the afterlife.
- One of the most important archaeological artifacts in the Philippines as it signifies
not only prehistoric indigenous burial practices but also the belief in a soul and life
after death of early Filipinos

Gold Death Mask of Oton

(1300-1400 CE). This death mask was discovered by archaeologists Alfredo
Evangelista and F. Landa Jocano in Oton, Iloilo in 1960s consisted of gold eye-mask and
nose-disk, the death mask was believed to repel evil spirits from entering the body. The
practice of putting death mask was adopted from the Chinese which also signifies cultural
and economic relations with them. The death mask is a testament to a rich burial tradition
of early Filipinos and their belief in the afterlife. Aside from its religious importance, the
death mask is a manifestation of early Filipinos goldsmiths as a profession in the pre-
colonial society.

Different personalities that will help us understand the spiritual beliefs of the early
Filipinos

1. FRAY JUAN DE PLASENCIA

- One of the first Franciscan missionaries in the Philippines
- Responsible for the foundation of various towns in Luzons particularly in Laguna
and Tayabas areas and the conversion of their inhabitants as Catholicism
- He suggested the reduction policy in the synod

2. ANTONIO DE MORGA
- a Spanish high-ranking official in the Philippines from 1593 to 1603
- Holds the position of oidor or judge of the Real Audencia
- Best known author of Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas (Events in the Philippine
Islands)
- Sucesos de las islas Filipinas was published in 1609 when Morga was already in
Mexico City. The book covers the political, economic, social and cultural life of the
Filipinos and Spaniards from 1493 to 1603.

3. MIGUEL DE LOARCA
- One of the first Spanish conquistadores to arrive in the Philippine archipelago
- The first Spaniard to conduct the colony’s earliest census
- He also became one of the earliest encomenderos in the country.

4. PEDRO CHIRINO
- One of the most well-known and devoted Jesuit missionaries of the early colonial
period
- Founder of various towns and parishes across the archipelago; as well as his
crucial role in recording the ancient Tagalog script Baybayin to Latin alphabet.
- He was also responsible for the elevation of the Jesuit mission in the Philippines
as a vice province, thereby becoming independent from the Mexican mission.
- Chirino died in Manila on September 16, 1635.
Summary
- Contrary to colonial perception, early Filipinos already had their own rich and
complex spiritual traditions before the Spanish colonization. These spiritual
traditions and forms of worship varied throughout the archipelago due to cultural
social, economic, geographical and linguistic differences
- In the precolonial period, women were empowered members of the community.
These were manifested in the existence of highly revered positions held by women
as the local priestesses of the barangay.