Chapter 4

Protection Schemes for a DC

Microgrid

4.1 Introduction

Over the past few decades, more power utilities have led to an increasing dependence on
the grid, which has impacted the grid’s efficiency. Microgrids are a way to improve the
electric grid’s efficiency by utilizing distributed renewable energy generation in a wide
range of locations [153]-[155]. Microgrids can be classified into three types based on
busbar type: AC, DC, and Hybrid AC/DC microgrids. DC microgrids are more efficient
than AC systems due to their lower ”corona losses”, low ”conductor stress”, and lack
of ”skin effect”; this makes DC network easy to control. DC commercial loads can
be directly connected to the bus of the microgrid [156]-[159], which not only improves
efficiency but also decreases reliance on the grid. Whereas the fault current in a DC
power network is different from the fault current in an AC power network, making the
DC power network less resilient in the event of a fault, especially in islanded mode.

The authors [160] has built a model for a photovoltaic (PV)-based DC microgrid and
investigate fault behaviour in grid-connected mode. Conversely, in AC systems, the
fault current value may naturally exceed the zero point during a fault, causing the
circuit breaker to isolate the fault section. Whereas the lack of zero-crossing point of
 72

fault current in DC microgrids is not easy to implement conventional AC protection

systems. The varying nature of DC fault current requires a fast and efficient breaker
to protect DC systems, which makes such protection schemes complex and expensive to
operate [161]. During these DC faults, the sudden change in current [162], [163], makes
relay coordination very difficult.

Most protection systems identify fault scenarios based on local parameter information
in the DC microgrid system. This type of protection system is only guaranteed for
medium DC voltages with specified short circuit faults [164], [165]. When a fault occurs
in the grid-connected mode of the DC microgrid, protection techniques based on local
parameter estimation can be used. Whereas it is a challenging task to identify and isolate
the faulty line of island mode DC microgrid network. In islanded mode DC microgrid,
the power electronic converter has greater penetration, reducing the magnitude of the
fault current to about half of the rated current [166].

Thus, the conventional overcurrent protection scheme may not prove suitable for the
protection of DC microgrids. Therefore, to overcome this problem, FFT (Fast Fourier
Transform) based protection scheme is proposed, a robust and suitable technique for
fault detection in the island mode of DC microgrids. This proposed protection scheme
is designed for a DC microgrid, consisting of a distributed energy resource (DER), and a
local load. The proposed detection technique is implemented under pole-ground faults.

Under this scenario, a pole-ground fault is created on a six-bus DC microgrid network.

In addition, a tripping signal is provided based on the threshold limit to detect the fault
current by the IED (intelligent electronic devices), and the rest of the DC microgrid
equipment is operated safely.

The first study explores the proposed protection scheme for this line. It focuses on
system description, describing and detecting different faults, and proposing a protection
scheme based on total harmonic distortion (THD) of voltage and current signals. The
conclusion and the merits of the proposed protection strategy are presented.
 73

4.2 Proposed %THD based protection scheme

In a DC microgrid, the pole-ground acts as the high current magnitude during a fault.
This high fault current magnitude can cause significant damage to power electronic
equipment. The safe operation of this equipment requires high-speed protection tech-
nology. Therefore, this section presents a total harmonic distortion (THD) based fault
detection technique through bus voltage and line current to protect DC microgrid net-
works.

4.2.1 Fault Analysis in Ring Configured DC Microgrid

The 6-bus ring-type configuration of the DC microgrid is developed in the PSS@SINCAL

software, as shown in Figure 4.1. The 400 V DC microgrid is selected in compliance with
the European Union LVD20016/95/EC guidelines [167]. A generator, renewable energy
resources (i.e. PV, wind, diesel generators), and energy storage devices are used to de-
sign this system. Various maximum power point tracking (MPPT) techniques for PV
and wind systems have been introduced in [168]-[170]. In this chapter, the traditional
incremental conductance MPPT technique for PV has been adopted. A battery is inte-
grated into this microgrid, which stores energy and maintains the power demand-supply
balance in island mode. The over-penetration of the power electronic converter in this
island mode makes protecting the DC microgrid challenging. Therefore, 12 protective
devices are employed in the ring configuration network of a DC microgrid, with the
presence of IEDs, instrument transformers, and SSCBs (solid-state circuit breakers).

Generally, a DC microgrid exhibits a high magnitude of fault current in grid-connected

mode. In contrast, the power electronic switch limits the short-circuit fault current
during island mode. The converter integrates a voltage source converter from bus F of
the DC microgrid via a step-down transformer. The boost converter of a photovoltaic
source is connected to bus A via an MPPT control. A wind power source is connected
to bus C, with the output of the rectifier connected to the DC grid. Bus D of this
DC microgrid is connected to the diesel generation system only through an AC-DC
converter. In this network, the battery storage is connected to a DC-DC converter with
a bus, allowing bidirectional power flow. A 5.5 kW steady-state load is added on bus
E of the DC-DC converters. A DC bus voltage and line current data are obtained via
 74

Figure 4.1: Schematic ring configuration proposed protection scheme of DC microgrid

sensors (ACPL-C79A and ACPL-C87A) to the IED’s and high-safety decision accuracy
is provided with the help of breakers. To prove the protection of this system, a pole-
ground fault is created in separate lines for 100 ms, and the microgrid specifications are
summarized in Table 4.1.

4.2.1.1 Wind turbine modeling

Mechanical power captured by permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) wind

turbine

3
Pm = 0.5Cp′′ πR2 ρVω′′ (4.1)

Where Vw′′ denotes the wind speed, ρ is the air density of the wind turbine, and R is
the wind turbine radius. Cp′′ is the coefficient of performance of wind turbine. The Real
power stored by wind turbines is

3
Pactual = 1/2Cp′′ (λ′′ .β ′′ )ρAVω′′ (4.2)
 75

Torque developed by wind turbine

τ = 0.5Ct′′ (λ′′ .β ′′ )ρAVω′′ 2 (4.3)

Where, Ct′′ = 0.66 is torque coefficient of the wind turbine with 20 blades. The power
coefficient of the turbine is

′′
Cp′′ (λ′′ .β ′′ ) = 73/100(151/λ′′i − (0.002β ′′2.144 − 13.2)e−(184/λi ) (4.4)

R.ω
W here, 1/λ′′i = 1/(λ′′ + 0.08β ′′ ) − 0.035/(β ′′3 + 1) and λ′′i =
V ′′

λ′′ = 8 is the tip ratio, β ′′ = 5◦ is the blade pitch angle of the turbine, ω is the blades
angular velocity and R is the rotor radius.

The wind power system is tracked at maximum power according to wind velocity. The
wind power system is connected to a controlled voltage source rectifier, which maintains
a constant DC bus voltage. The entire MPPT algorithm is presented in detail in [171],
and the MPPT control scheme tracks the optimal value for the converter. This scheme
uses the quadratic current (Iq−Ref ) reference to derive the maximum power based on
measured and optimum speed. It is obtained according to the generated reference power
variations. The direct axis current (Id−Ref ) is set to zero to improve the torque.

4.2.1.2 Battery system modeling

The battery acts as an energy buffer, which means that the electric current through
the battery is charged or discharged to balance it. When the battery is charged, the
topology operates in buck mode, and when the battery is discharged, the topology
operates in boost mode. Therefore, bidirectional current can flow through batteries
with charging/discharging management. A bidirectional DC/DC converter operates as a
boost/buck mode. The duty ratio is applied to control buck and boost mode operation.
Here duty ratio control is implemented to achieve a bidirectional switching function
instead of pulse width, which is presented as follows.
(a) operation in buck mode
 76

′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
LB p(IB ) = DB VDC − V B − IB RB (4.5)

′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
IB DC
= CDC pVDC = DB IB (4.6)

(b) operation in boost mode

′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
LB p(IB ) = VB − (1 − DB )VDC − VB − IB RB (4.7)

′′ ′′ ′′ ′′
IB DC
= CDC pVDC = 1 − DB IB (4.8)

′′ , C ′′
Where the DB DC represents the DC microgrid’s duty ratio and equivalent capaci-
′′ have an external inductance, and a battery internal resistance,
tance. The LB and RB
′′ is the
respectively and p denotes the derivative. VB is the voltage across the battery, IB
′′
currents at the low-voltage side, and IB is the current on the low-voltage side of the
DC

converter.

4.2.2 Fault detection based on bus voltage and line current THD

During a DC fault, the magnitude of the current can be high, in which the cable
impedance becomes low during the transient period. These transient fault current mea-
surements can be more damaging to power electronic equipment. In DC networks, the
fault current is detected and isolated within 100 ms. Hence, a fault protection algorithm
is developed based on the FFT of bus voltage and line current to overcome this fault.
In the proposed fault detection scheme, the following is considered taking 112 samples
of bus voltage and line current data, with the sampling rate taken as 5 kHz.
 77

Calculation of bus voltage and line current THD

q
V22 + V32 +V 42 + VN2
% voltage T HD = × 100 (4.9)
V1

q
2
I22 + I32 + I42 + IN
% current T HD = × 100 (4.10)
I1

where, V1 , V2 ,. . . .VN of the voltage and I1 , I2 , . . . IN of the current are represent the
fundamental, second, ..... N th the harmonics of the order, respectively.

4.2.3 Formulation of the Proposed Combined THD based Protection

Scheme

The combined effect of voltage and current THD is presented as

% CT HD = voltage T HD × current T HD (4.11)

The faulty line is identified and isolated according to the maximum % CTHD calculated
from six IEDs. The threshold value is obtained by selecting the highest of the % CTHD
values among the various IEDs of the DC microgrid.

4.2.4 Step for selection of threshold value for CTHD

1. Calculate the % CTHD for each IED of the DC microgrid when faults creates at
different locations.

2. Determine the greatest % CTHD of the IEDs.

3. Establish the threshold value as this highest % CTHD.

4. Compare the % CTHD of each IED to the threshold value.

5. If the % CTHD of an IED is higher than the threshold value, then it is considered
as the faulty line.

6. Isolate the defective line from the DC microgrid.

 78

Table 4.1: Rating of DC microgrid components

System Rating
DC grid voltage 400 V
Battery 300 V, 1.2 kAh, Nickel Cadmium
Solar panel V mp = 62.5 V, Imp = 5.58 A
Grid voltage source convereter 150 kW
Wind turbine 150 kW, P M SG
Diesel generator 240 V AC
DC link capacitor 20 µF
Load 5.5 kW
Cable parameters R = 0.0139 Ω/km, L = 0.159 mH/km

4.3 Results and discussion

A PV, wind, and battery-based DC microgrid is simulated on the PSS®SINCAL plat-

form, as shown in Figure 4.1. The 400 V bus voltage for the DC microgrid is designed
to demonstrate the protection scheme. In this microgrid system, the proposed fault pro-
tection method is applied in the island mode of the DC microgrid. Six-line sections are
considered under pole-ground faults to protect this DC microgrid. For the case study, a
pole-ground fault is created at a distance of 50% from bus A, B, and E for 100 s. Two
IEDs are placed on each line segment, one measuring the forward current direction while
the other estimating the current in the reverse direction. Thus, the 6-IEDs monitors the
forward line current and bus voltage, and the other 6-IED’s is applied in the opposite
direction of the current. 2 Ω low fault resistors are taken on each fault line.

4.3.1 Case-1: Performance analysis of a DC microgrid in islanded

mode operation during AB line fault

In this scenario, a pole-ground fault is created for t = 0.5 s on line AB. The bus voltage
and line current by each IEDs are shown in Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3, respectively. It is
observed that the bus voltage and line current by each IED under pole-ground fault have
been found to be similar. In addition, it was found that the bus voltage seen by each
IED decreases at the time of the fault and further increases the intensity of the fault
current. The %total harmonic distortion (THD) of the proposed voltage and current
are shown in Figure 4.4 and Figure 4.5, respectively, and it is found that the response of
many IEDs to %THD is almost the same. Therefore, the proposed calculated %combined
 79

(A*−B) (B*−C) (C*−D)

400 400 400

Voltage(V)
200 200 200

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(D*−E) (E*−F) (F*−A)

400 400 400

Voltage(V)

200 200 200

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Time(s) Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 4.2: Voltage response observed by various IEDs during a pole-ground fault on
the AB line in islanded mode of a DC microgrid

(A*−B) (B*−C) (C*−D)

100 100 100
Current (A)

50 50 50

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(D*−E) (E*−F) (F*−A)
100 100 100
Current (A)

50 50 50

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 4.3: Current response observed by various IEDs during a pole-ground fault on
the AB line in islanded mode of a DC microgrid

total harmonic distortion (CTHD) based protection technique is applied, which is shown
in Figure 4.6, and it is found that only the AB line has a CTHD value that exceeds the
threshold limit (i.e. 10). Conversely, the value of %CTHD of the non-faulted line is
observed to be below the threshold limit. From this result, it can be observed that only
the AB line has faults, and the pole-ground fault can be detected.
 80

(A*−B) (B*−C) (C*−D)

3 2 1.5

1.5
2 1

VTHD
1
1 0.5
0.5

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(D*−E) (E*−F) (F*−A)
1.5 2 1

1.5
VTHD

1
1 0.5
0.5
0.5

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Time(s) Time(s) Time(s)

Figure 4.4: Response of voltage THD fault at AB line

(A*−B) (B*−C) (C*−D)

6 3
6

4 2
4
ITHD

2 2 1

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(D*−E) (E*−F) (F*−A)
3 2 6

1.5
2 4
ITHD

1
1 2
0.5

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Time(s) Time(s) Time(s)

Figure 4.5: Response of current THD fault at AB line

4.3.2 Case-2: Performance analysis of a DC microgrid in islanded

mode operation during BC line fault:

In this scenario, a line-ground fault is created for t = 0.5 s on the BC line. The forward
bus voltage is detected by each IEDs, as shown in Figure 4.7. The clockwise direction
value of the fault current is presented in Figure 4.8, and in this result, it is found that
the fault current becomes high at t = 0.5 s. The value of the six-bus voltage decreases
by each IED. The voltage and current THD of each line is calculated by equations 4.9
& 4.10.
 81

(A*−B) (B*−C) (C*−D)

10 4
15
3

CTHD
10
5 2
5 1

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(D*−E) (E*−F) (F*−A)
4 4 4

3 3 3
CTHD

2 2 2

1 1 1

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Time(s) Time(s) Time(s)

Figure 4.6: Response of CTHD (Combined THD) fault at AB line

Even in this condition, the value of the current is found to be almost the same, so even
in this condition, the faulted line cannot be detected. The %CTHD in a DC microgrid
is calculated based on bus voltage and line current THD, as shown in Figure 4.9. In
this study, it has been found that the value of %CTHD of IED of a faulted line is found
to be greater than 10.8, while value of the other line has been found to be less than a
threshold (i.e. 10). Hence, it can be said the proposed protection scheme is proved to
be a robust fault detection scheme of the DC microgrid operation, which can provide a
flexible behavior for its operation.

(A*−B) (B*−C) (C*−D)

400 400 400
Voltage (V)

300 300 300

200 200 200
100 100 100
0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(D*−E) (E*−F) (E*−F)
400 400 400
Voltage (V)

300 300 300

200 200 200
100 100 100
0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 4.7: Response of voltage seen by various IED’s under islanded mode during
pole-ground fault at BC line
 82

(A*−B) (B*−C) (C*−D)

80 80 80

Current (A)
60 60 60
40 40 40
20 20 20
0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(D*−E) (E*−F) (F*−A)
80 80 80
Current (A)

60 60 60
40 40 40
20 20
20
0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 Time (s)
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 4.8: Response of current seen by various IED’s under islanded mode during
pole-ground fault at BC line

(A*−B) (B*−C) (C*−D)

6 12 10
10 8
4 8
CTHD

6
6
2 4
4
2 2
0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(D*−E) (E*−F) (F*−A)
5 5
4
4 4
3
3 3
CTHD

2 2
2

1 1 1

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Time(s) Time(s) Time(s)

Figure 4.9: Response of CTHD (Combined THD) fault at BC line

4.3.3 Case-3: Performance of the system in islanded mode operation

with faulted in EF line:

At t = 0.5 s, a pole-ground fault is simulated in EF. The voltage profile read by each
of the IED’s is shown in Figure 4.10. The current profile is read by various IED’s as
demonstrated in Figure 4.11. From current and voltage THD, it is a tedious task to
determine which line has a fault. Therefore, based on CTHD, during a pole-ground
fault, only the %CTHD of the EF line has been found to be more than 12.02, indicating
that the fault occurred in the specified line. Other bus voltages and line currents are
 83

within the threshold value of %CTHD (i.e. 10), as shown in Figure 4.12. By checking
the CTHD, based on the threshold value, it is easy to verify that a fault occurred on
line EF. The detailed in Table 4.2, CTHD observed by different IED’s is constructed in
a separate fault line.

(A*−B) (B*−C) (C*−D)

400 400 400

Voltage (V)

200 200 200

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(D*−E) (E*−F) (F*−A)

400 400 400

Voltage (V)

200 200 200

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 4.10: Response of forward voltage seen by various IED’s under islanded mode
during pole-ground fault at EF line

(A*−B) (B*−C) (C*−D)

40 40 40
Current (A)

20 20 20

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(D*−E) (E*−F) (F*−A)

40 40 40
Current (A)

20 20 20

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Time (s) Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 4.11: Response of forward current seen by various IED’s under islanded mode
during pole-ground fault at EF line
 84

(A*−B) (B*−C) (C*−D)

2 4 6

1.5 3
4

CTHD
1 2
2
0.5 1

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
(D*−E) (E*−F) (F*−A)
4 6

3 10
4
CTHD

2
5
2
1

0 0 0
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Time(s) Time(s) Time(s)

Figure 4.12: Response of CTHD (Combined THD) fault at EF line

Table 4.2: Response seen by Various IED’s based on Voltage and Current THD under
Pole-Ground Fault

% Combined THD
Faulted line
AB BC CD DE EF FA
(A∗ − B) 15.20 8.00 3.90 3.50 3.50 4.00
(B∗ − C) 4.50 10.80 6.20 4.20 4.10 3.90
(C∗ − D) 5.00 5.90 15.30 5.20 6.01 4.50
(D∗ − E) 4.20 5.50 3.90 15.01 6.10 3.89
(E∗ − F ) 2.00 3.50 4.50 3.90 12.02 5.50
(F∗ − A) 5.90 4.20 4.35 4.10 6.20 12.50

4.4 Conclusion

The design of a DC microgrid system enables it to provide cheap power to loads located
in remote areas, relieving the additional burden on the utility grid. DC microgrids
are capable of operating in both grid-connected and island modes of operation. In
this study, a % THD-based protection method is developed during pole-ground fault
evaluation of the DC microgrid, which is helpful for islanded mode operation of the
microgrid. To address this issue, a novel approach for fault detection in the island mode
of DC microgrids is presented, which adopts a fault detection scheme based on total
harmonic distortion (THD) of bus voltage and line current sampling. This algorithm
presents a new approach for fault detection in island mode DC microgrids by employing
CTHD (i.e. voltage and current THD) technique. The CTHD under a pole-ground
fault on six lines of this DC microgrid is calculated, and the result concludes that this
 85

algorithm is capable of detecting fault lines. Finally, Table 4.2 shows the efficacy of the
proposed protection mechanism by displaying the CTHD measured by the IED based
on the bus voltage and line current THD of the faulted lines.