Pneumatic Systems

1 Pneumatic systems
A pneumatic system is a system that uses compressed air to transmit and control
energy. Pneumatic systems are used in controlling train doors, automatic production lines,
mechanical clamps, etc (Fig. 1).

(a) Automobile production lines (b) Pneumatic system of an automatic

machine Fig. 1 Common pneumatic systems used in the industrial sector

(a) The advantages of pneumatic systems

Pneumatic control systems are widely used in our society, especially in the industrial
sectors for the driving of automatic machines. Pneumatic systems have a lot of
advantages.

(i) High effectiveness

Many factories have equipped their production lines with compressed air supplies and
movable compressors. There is an unlimited supply of air in our atmosphere to produce
compressed air. Moreover, the use of compressed air is not restricted by distance, as it can
easily be transported through pipes. After use, compressed air can be released directly into
the atmosphere without the need of processing.

(ii) High durability and reliability

Pneumatic components are extremely durable and can not be damaged easily.
Compared to electromotive components, pneumatic components are more durable and
reliable.
(iii) Simple design
The designs of pneumatic components are relatively simple. They are thus more
suitable for use in simple automatic control systems.
(iv) High adaptability to harsh environment
Compared to the elements of other systems, compressed air is less affected by high
temperature, dust, corrosion, etc.

(v) Safety
Pneumatic systems are safer than electromotive systems because they can work in
inflammable environment without causing fire or explosion. Apart from that, overloading in
pneumatic system will only lead to sliding or cessation of operation. Unlike electromotive
components, pneumatic components do not burn or get overheated when overloaded.

(vi) Easy selection of speed and pressure

The speeds of rectilinear and oscillating movement of pneumatic systems are easy to
adjust and subject to few limitations. The pressure and the volume of air can easily be
adjusted by a pressure regulator.

(vii) Environmental friendly

The operation of pneumatic systems do not produce pollutants. The air released is
also processed in special ways. Therefore, pneumatic systems can work in environments
that demand high level of cleanliness. One example is the production lines of integrated
circuits.

(viii)Economical
As pneumatic components are not expensive, the costs of pneumatic systems are
quite low. Moreover, as pneumatic systems are very durable, the cost of repair is
significantly lower than that of other systems.

(b) Limitations of pneumatic systems

Although pneumatic systems possess a lot of advantages, they are also subject to
many limitations.

(i) Relatively low accuracy

As pneumatic systems are powered by the force provided by compressed air, their
operation is subject to the volume of the compressed air. As the volume of air may change
when compressed or heated, the supply of air to the system may not be accurate, causing
a decrease in the overall accuracy of the system.
(ii) Low loading
As the cylinders of pneumatic components are not very large, a pneumatic system
cannot drive loads that are too heavy.

(iii) Processing required before use

Compressed air must be processed before use to ensure the absence of water vapour or
dust.
Otherwise, the moving parts of the pneumatic components may wear out quickly due to
friction.

(iv) Uneven moving speed

As air can easily be compressed, the moving speeds of the pistons are relatively uneven.

(v) Noise
Noise will be produced when compressed air is released from the pneumatic
components.

(c) Main pneumatic components

Pneumatic components can be divided into two categories:
1. Components that produce and transport compressed air.
2. Components that consume compressed air.

All main pneumatic components can be represented by simple pneumatic symbols.

Each symbol shows only the function of the component it represents, but not its structure.
Pneumatic symbols can be combined to form pneumatic diagrams. A pneumatic diagram
describes the relations between each pneumatic component, that is, the design of the
system.

2 The production and transportation of compressed air

Examples of components that produce and transport compressed air include
compressors and pressure regulating components.

(a) Compressor
A compressor can compress air to the required pressures. It can convert the
mechanical energy from motors and engines into the potential energy in compressed air
(Fig. 2). A single central compressor can supply various pneumatic components with
compressed air, which is transported through pipes from the cylinder to the pneumatic
components. Compressors can be divided into two classes: reciprocatory and rotary.
 (a) Compressor used in schools (b) Compressor used in(c) Pneumatic symbol of
laboratories
a compressor
Fig. 2

(b) Pressure regulating component

Pressure regulating components are formed by various components, each of which has
its own pneumatic symbol:
(i) Filter – can remove impurities from compressed air before it is fed to the pneumatic
components.
(ii)Pressure regulator – to stabilise the pressure and regulate the operation of pneumatic
components
(iii) Lubricator – To provide lubrication for pneumatic components

Fig. 3
(b)
Pressure regulating component (b) Pneumatic symbols of the pneumatic
components within a pressure
regulating component
3 The consumption of compressed air
Examples of components that consume compressed air include execution
components (cylinders), directional control valves and assistant valves.

(a) Execution component

Pneumatic execution components provide rectilinear or rotary movement. Examples of
pneumatic execution components include cylinder pistons, pneumatic motors, etc.
Rectilinear motion is produced by cylinder pistons, while pneumatic motors provide
continuous rotations. There are many kinds of cylinders, such as single acting cylinders
and double acting cylinders.

(i) Single acting cylinder

A single acting cylinder has only one entrance that allows compressed air to flow
through. Therefore, it can only produce thrust in one direction (Fig. 4). The piston rod is
propelled in the opposite direction by an internal spring, or by the external force provided by
mechanical movement or weight of a load (Fig. 5).

Fig. 4 Cross section of a single acting cylinder

Fig. 5 (a) Single acting cylinder (b) Pneumatic symbol

of a single acting
cylinder
The thrust from the piston rod is greatly lowered because it has to overcome the force
from the spring. Therefore, in order to provide the driving force for machines, the diameter
of the cylinder should be increased. In order to match the length of the spring, the length of
the cylinder should also be increased, thus limiting the length of the path. Single acting
cylinders are used in stamping, printing, moving materials, etc.
(ii) Double acting cylinder
In a double acting cylinder, air pressure is applied alternately to the relative surface of
the piston, producing a propelling force and a retracting force (Fig. 6). As the effective area
of the piston is small, the thrust produced during retraction is relatively weak. The
impeccable tubes of double acting cylinders are usually made of steel. The working
surfaces are also polished and coated with chromium to reduce friction.

Fig. 6 Cross section of a double acting cylinder

(b) Pneumatic symbol of a double

Fig. 7 (a) Double acting cylinder acting cylinder

(b) Directional control valve

Directional control valves ensure the flow of air between air ports by opening, closing
and switching their internal connections. Their classification is determined by the number
of ports, the number of switching positions, the normal position of the valve and its
method of operation. Common types of directional control valves include 2/2, 3/2, 5/2, etc.
The first number represents the number of ports; the second number represents the number
of positions. A directional control valve that has two ports and five positions can be
represented by the drawing in Fig. 8, as well as its own unique pneumatic symbol.

Fig. 8 Describing a 5/2 directional control valve

(i) 2/2 Directional control valve
The structure of a 2/2 directional control valve is very simple. It uses the thrust from
the spring to open and close the valve, stopping compressed air from flowing towards
working tube ‘A’ from air inlet ‘P’. When a force is applied to the control axis, the valve will
be pushed open, connecting ‘P’ with ‘A’ (Fig. 9). The force applied to the control axis has to
overcome both air pressure and the repulsive force of the spring. The control valve can be
driven manually or mechanically, and restored to its original position by the spring.

Fig. 9 (a) 2/2 directional control valve (b) Cross section (c) Pneumatic symbol of a
2/2 directional control
valve
(ii) 3/2 Directional control valve
A 3/2 directional control valve can be used to control a single acting cylinder (Fig. 10).
The open valves in the middle will close until ‘P’ and ‘A’ are connected together. Then
another valve will open the sealed base between ‘A’ and ‘R’ (exhaust). The valves can be
driven manually, mechanically, electrically or pneumatically. 3/2 directional control valves
can further be divided into two classes: Normally open type (N.O.) and normally closed
type (N.C.) (Fig. 11).

Fig. 10 (a) 3/2 directional control valve (b) Cross section

(a) Normally closed type (b) Normally open type Fig.

11 Pneumatic symbols
(iii) 5/2 Directional control valve
When a pressure pulse is input into the pressure control port ‘P’, the spool will move to
the left, connecting inlet ‘P’ and work passage ‘B’. Work passage ‘A’ will then make a release
of air through ‘R1’ and ‘R2’. The directional valves will remain in this operational position
until signals of the contrary are received. Therefore, this type of directional control valves is
said to have the function of ‘memory’.

(a) 5/2 directional control valve (b) Cross section (c) Pneumatic
symbol Fig. 12 5/2 directional control valve

(c) Control valve

A control valve is a valve that controls the flow of air. Examples include non-return
valves, flow control valves, shuttle valves, etc.

(i) Non-return valve

A non-return valve allows air to flow in one direction only. When air flows in the
opposite direction, the valve will close. Another name for non-return valve is poppet valve
(Fig. 13).

Fig. 13 (a) Non-return valve (b) Cross section (c) Pneumatic symbol
(ii) Flow control valve
A flow control valve is formed by a non-return valve and a variable throttle (Fig. 14).

Fig. 14 (a) Flow control valve(b) Cross section (c) Pneumatic symbol

(iii) Shuttle valve

Shuttle valves are also known as double control or single control non-return valves. A
shuttle valve has two air inlets ‘P1’ and ‘P2’ and one air outlet ‘A’. When compressed air enters through ‘P1’, the sphere will seal and block the other
inlet ‘P2’. Air can then flow from ‘P1’ to ‘A’. When the contrary happens, the sphere will block inlet ‘P1’, allowing air to flow from ‘P2’ to ‘A’ only.

Fig. 15 (a) Shuttle valve (b) Cross section (c) Pneumatic symbol
4 Principles of pneumatic control
(a) Pneumatic circuit
Pneumatic control systems can be designed in the form of pneumatic circuits. A
pneumatic circuit is formed by various pneumatic components, such as cylinders,
directional control valves, flow control valves, etc. Pneumatic circuits have the following
functions:

1. To control the injection and release of compressed air in the cylinders.

2. To use one valve to control another valve.

(b) Pneumatic circuit diagram

A pneumatic circuit diagram uses pneumatic symbols to describe its design. Some
basic rules must be followed when drawing pneumatic diagrams.

(i) Basic rules

1. A pneumatic circuit diagram represents the circuit in static form and assumes there
is no supply of pressure. The placement of the pneumatic components on the circuit
also follows this assumption.
2. The pneumatic symbol of a directional control valve is formed by one or more
squares. The inlet and exhaust are drawn underneath the square, while the outlet is
drawn on the top. Each function of the valve (the position of the valve) shall be
represented by a square. If there are two or more functions, the squares should be
arranged horizontally (Fig. 16).

Fig. 16 3/2 directional control valve Fig 17 3/2 directional control

valve (normally closed type) (normally
closed type)

3. Arrows " " are used to indicate the flow direction of air current. If the external port
is not connected to the internal parts, the symbol “ ” is used. The symbol “ ”
underneath the square represents the air input, while the symbol “ ” represents the
exhaust. Fig. 17 shows an example of a typical pneumatic valve.
4. The pneumatic symbols of operational components should be drawn on the outside
of the squares. They can be divided into two classes: mechanical and manual (Fig.
18 and 19).
(a) Vertical piston lever (b) Pulley lever (c) Unilateral pulley
lever Fig. 18 Mechanically operated pneumatic components

(a) Standard (b) Lever (c) Button (d) Pull &

push Fig. 19 Manually operated pneumatic components
5. Pneumatic operation signal pressure lines should be drawn on one side of the
squares, while triangles are used to represent the direction of air flow (Fig. 20).

Fig. 20 Pneumatic operation signal pressure line

(ii) Basic principles

Fig. 21 shows some of the basic principles of drawing pneumatic circuit diagrams, the
numbers in the diagram correspond to the following points:

Fig. 21 Basic principles of drawing pneumatic circuit diagrams

1. When the manual switch is not operated, the spring will restore the valve to its
original position.
2. From the position of the spring, one can deduce that the block is operating. The other
block will not operate until the switch is pushed.
3. Air pressure exists along this line because it is connected to the source of
compressed air.
4. As this cylinder cavity and piston rod are under the influence of pressure, the piston
rod is in its restored position.
5. The rear cylinder cavity and this line are connected to the exhaust, where air is
released.
(iii) The setting of circuit diagrams
When drawing a complete circuit diagram, one should place the pneumatic
components on different levels and positions, so the relations between the components
can be expressed clearly. This is called the setting of circuit diagrams. A circuit diagram is
usually divided into three levels: power level, logic level and signal input level (Fig. 22).

Fig. 22 Power level, logic level and signal input level

The basic rules of circuit diagram setting are as follows:
1. 2.

In a pneumatic circuit, the flow of energy is from The work cycle should be drawn from left to right.
the bottom to the top. Therefore, the air supply unit The first operating cylinder should be placed at
should be put at the bottom left corner. the upper left corner.
3. 4.

Power control valves should be drawn directly under Control cylinders and operational valves (signal
the cylinder controlled by them, forming a power unit. components) driven by power control valves
should be placed at the lower levels of the
5. 6.

Assistance valves, such as those with logic Use the line which represents the connecting pipe
functions (for example, memory, ‘AND’, ‘OR’, ‘NOT’, to connect all the air supply unit and the
delay, etc), can be put between the pneumatic pneumatic components to complete the
components and the power control valves. pneumatic circuit. Check carefully the circuit and
the logic of the operation before use to avoid any
5 Different kinds of basic circuits
A basic circuit is a pneumatic circuit designed to perform basic tasks, such as flow
amplification, signal inversion, memory, delay, single acting cylinder control, double acting
cylinder control, etc.

(a) Flow amplification

Cylinders with a large capacity require a larger flow of air, which can be hazardous to
users. It is unsafe to manually operate pneumatic directional control valves with large flow
capacity. Instead we should first operate manually a small control valve and use it to
operate the pneumatic control system with large flow capacity. This is called flow
amplification, which can greatly ensure the safety of the operators. During operation,
valves with large flow capacity should be placed near the cylinder, while valves with
smaller flow capacity should be placed on control boards some distances away. Fig. 23
shows a basic flow amplification circuit. Notice how different components are placed on
different levels.

Fig. 23 Flow amplification system

(b) Signal inversion

The pneumatic diagram in Fig. 24 shows how directional control valves can be
switched. When operating control valve , control valve will stop producing pressure
output. When control valve ceases operation and is restored to its original position,
control valve will resume its output. Therefore, at any given time, the pressure output of
control valve is the exact opposite of that of control valve .

Fig. 24 Signal inversion system

(c) Memory Function
Memory is a common basic function. It can keep a component at a certain state
permanently until there is a change of signals. Fig. 25 shows a memory function circuit.
When control valve is operated momentarily (that is, pressed for a short time), the
output signal of the 5/2 directional control valve will be set to ON. The signal will stay
that way until control valve
is operated momentarily and generates another signal to replace it, causing it to stay
permanently at OFF.

Fig. 25 Memory function circuit

(d) Delay function

A pneumatic delay circuit can delay the operating time of the next control valve. Its
principle of operation involves the use of an orifice to slow down the flow of air and control
the time of pneumatic operation. Delay functions can be divided into two classes: ON-
signal delay and OFF- signal delay.

(i) ON-signal delay

Fig. 26 shows the circuit diagram of an ON-signal delay circuit, which delays the
output of the next control valve. When control valve is operated, the one way flow
control valve will slow down the flow of air, thus delaying the signal output of the outlet of
control valve (A), resulting in a persistent ON-signal. The time when control valve
will be restored to its original position is not affected.

Fig. 26 Circuit diagram of an ON-signal delay circuit

(ii) OFF-signal Delay
Fig. 27 shows the circuit diagram of an OFF-signal delay circuit, which delays the
output of the next control valve. This circuit is similar to an ON-signal delay circuit. The
only difference is that the one way flow control valve is connected in the opposite direction.
Therefore, when control valve is operated, the outlet of control valve (A) will
continue to output signals. However, when control valve is restored to its original
position, the release of air is slowed down by the one way flow control valve, resulting in a
persistent OFF-signal.

Fig. 27 Circuit diagram of an OFF-signal delay circuit

(e) Single acting cylinder control

Single acting cylinders can be controlled manually. However, they can also be
controlled by two or more valves. This is called logic control. Examples of logic control
include ‘OR’ function, ‘AND’ function, ‘NOT’ function, etc.

(i) Direct control and speed control

If a single acting cylinder is connected to a manual 3/2 directional control valve, when
the control valve is operated, it will cause the cylinder to work (Fig. 28). Therefore, the
circuit allows the cylinder to be controlled manually.

Fig. 28 Direct control of a single acting cylinder

The only way to change the extension speed of the piston of a single acting cylinder is
to restrict the flow of air at the inlet and use the spring to determine the speed of retraction.
Therefore, a one way flow control valve is placed in the circuit to control the speed.
(ii) OR Function
The single acting cylinder in Fig. 29 can be operated by two different circuits.
Examples include manual operation and relying on automatic circuit signals, that is, when
either control valve
or control valve is operated, the cylinder will work. Therefore, the circuit in Fig. 29
possesses the OR function. However, if the output of two 3/2 directional control valves are
connected through the port of a triode, the air current from control valve will be released
through the exhaust of control valve , and so the cylinder will not work. This problem
can be solved by connecting a shuttle valve to the port of the triode.

Fig. 29 Circuit diagram of an OR function circuit

(iii) AND Function

Another name for an AND function is interlock control. This means control is possible
only when two conditions are satisfied. A classic example is a pneumatic system that
works only when its safety door is closed and its manual control valve is operated. The
flow passage will open only when both control valves are operated. Fig. 30 shows the
circuit diagram of an AND function circuit. The cylinder will work only when both valve
and are operated.

Fig. 30 Circuit diagram of an AND function circuit

(iv) NOT Function
Another name for a NOT function is inverse control. In order to hold or lock an
operating conveyor or a similar machine, the cylinder must be locked until a signal for
cancelling the lock is received. Therefore, the signal for cancelling the lock should be
operated by a normally open type control valve. However, to cancel the lock, the same
signal must also cancel the locks on other devices, like the indication signal in Fig. 31.
Fig. 31 shows how the normally closed type control valve can be used to cut off the
normally open type control valve and achieve the goal of changing the signal.

Fig. 31 Circuit diagram for a NOT function circuit

(f) Double acting cylinder

(i) Direct control
The only difference between a single acting cylinder and a double acting cylinder is
that a double acting cylinder uses a 5/2 directional control valve instead of a 3/2
directional control valve (Fig. 32). Usually, when a double acting cylinder is not operated,
outlet ‘B’ and inlet ‘P’ will be connected. In this circuit, whenever the operation button is
pushed manually, the double acting cylinder will move back and forth once.

Fig. 32 Circuit diagram of a double acting cylinder direct control circuit

 In order to control the speed in both directions, flow control valves are connected to the
inlets on both sides of the cylinder. The direction of the flow control valve is opposite to
that of the release of air by the flow control valve of the single acting cylinder. Compared to
the throttle inlet, the flow control valve is tougher and more stable. Connecting the circuit in
this way allows the input of sufficient air pressure and energy to drive the piston.

(ii) Single control

A cylinder always has to maintain its position in a lot of situations, even after the
operational signal has disappeared. This can be achieved by the use of a circuit that
possesses the memory function. As shown in Fig. 33, the extension path of a double acting
cylinder is activated by control valve , while retraction is governed by control valve .
Control valve , on the other hand, maintains the position of the cylinder by maintaining
its own position. Control valve will be changed only when one of the manual control
valves is pushed. If both control valves and are operated at the same time, control
valve will be subject to the same pressure and will remain in its original position.

Fig. 33 Circuit that maintains the position of a double acting cylinder

6 The application of pneumatic systems

The application of pneumatic systems is very extensive. The following are some
examples.

(a) Transport system

Fig. 34a shows a simplified industrial transport system. When the button switch is
pushed, the cylinder will push one of the goods from the shelf onto the transfer belt. When
the button switch is released, the cylinder will retract automatically. Fig. 34b shows the
circuit diagram of the transport system.
(a) Operation of a pneumatic transport system (b) Pneumatic circuit diagram
of a pneumatic transport system
Fig. 34

(b) Vehicle door operation system

Pneumatic systems can be used to operate the doors of public vehicles (Fig. 35a).
Assuming that the opening and closing of the doors are controlled by two button switches
ON and OFF. When the button switch ON is pressed, the doors will open. When the button
switch OFF is pushed, the doors will close. Fig. 35b shows a pneumatic system that can be
used to operate the doors of vehicles.

Fig. 35 (a) Operation of a pneumatic system that (b) Pneumatic circuit

diagram controls the movement of vehicle doors
7 Safety measures when using pneumatic control
systems
(a) Compressed air can cause serious damage to the human body if they enter the body
through ducts like the oral cavity or ears.

(b) Never spray compressed air onto anyone.

(c) Under high temperature, compressed air can pass through human skin.

(d) Compressed air released from the exhaust contains particles and oil droplets, which
can cause damage to eyes.

(e) Even though the pressure of compressed air in pipes and reservoirs is relatively low,
when the container loses its entirety, fierce explosions may still occur.

(f) Before switching on a compressed air supply unit, one should thoroughly inspect the
whole circuit to see if there are any loose parts, abnormal pressure or damaged pipes.

(g) A loose pipe may shake violently due to the high pressure built up inside it.
Therefore, each time before the system pressure is increased, thorough inspection of
the entire circuit is required to prevent accidents.

(h) As the force produced by pneumatic cylinders is relatively large, and the action is
usually very fast, you may suffer serious injuries if you get hit by a cylinder.

(i) Switches should be installed on the compressed air supply unit to allow easy and
speedy control of air flow.

(j) In case of a leakage, the compressed air supply unit should be turned off immediately.

(k) The compressed air supply unit must be turned off before changes can be made to
the system.

(l) Stay clear of the moving parts of the system. Never try to move the driving parts in
the mechanical operation valve with your hand.
Appendix: Pneumatic components
There may exist differences in appearance and sizes of pneumatic components
produced by different manufacturers. However, the functions and operating methods
among these components are similar. The following are the pictures and cross section
diagrams of the pneumatic components made by another manufacturer for your reference.

1. Pneumatic components for the production and transportation of compressed air

(a) Compressor

Fig. 36 (a) Compressor (b) Pneumatic symbol

(b) Pressure regulating component

Fig. 37 (a) Pressure regulating component (b) Cross section of pressure

regulating
component

(c) Pneumatic symbol

2. Pneumatic components for consumption of compressed air
(a) Single acting cylinder

Fig. 38 (a) Single acting cylinder (b) Cross section of a single acting cylinder

(c) Pneumatic symbol

(b) Double acting cylinder

Fig. 39 (a) Double acting cylinder (b) Cross section of a double acting cylinder

(c)Pneumatic symbol
(c) 3/2 Directional control valve

Fig. 40 (a) 3/2 Directional control valve (b) Cross section of a 3/2 directional
control valve

(c) Pneumatic symbols (a) Normally closed type (b) Normally open type

(d) 5/2 Directional control valve

Fig. 41 (a) 5/2 Directional control valve (b) Cross section (c) Pneumatic symbol

(e) Flow control valve

Fig. 42 (a) Flow control valve (b) Cross section (c) Pneumatic symbol
(f)Shuttle valve

Fig. 43 (a) Shuttle valve (b) Cross section (c) Pneumatic symbol

3. Other component
(a) Connecting pipe

Fig. 44 Connecting pipes

 Exercise

1. List six advantages of using pneumatic systems.

2. State the limitations of using pneumatic systems.

3. What are the components that regulate the pressure?

4. State the difference(s) between a single acting cylinder and a double acting cylinder.

5. State the functions and classification of directional control valves.

6. What are the basic functions of a pneumatic control system?

7. Draw the following symbols of the pneumatic components:

Type Symbol Type Symbol

(a) Compressor (h) Manual
control valve

(b) Cylinder (i) Push button

control valve

(c) Filter (j) Vertical piston

lever control
valve
(d) Single acting (k) Pulley lever
cylinder control valve

(e) Double acting (l) Non-return

cylinder valve

(f) 3/2 directional (m) Flow control

control valve valve

(g) 5/2 directional

control valve

8. Draw a signal inversion circuit.

9. Draw a pneumatic circuit with memory function.

10. Draw a pneumatic circuit of a double cylinder with its piston staying at the end of the
cylinder.