MITCSE MCES(18CS44) MODULE 3
Module 3 - chapter 01
Embedded System Components
Embedded System Components: Embedded Vs General computing system, History of Embedded systems,
Classification of Embedded systems, Major applications areas ofEmbedded systems, purpose of embedded
systems.
Text book 2: Chapter 1(Sections 1.2 to 1.6)
1. INTRODUCTION:
Our day-to-day life is becoming-more and more dependent on “embedded systems” and
digital techniques. Embedded technologies are bonding into our daily activities even without our
knowledge.
2. WHAT IS AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM?
An embedded system is an electronic/electro-mechanical system designed to perform a
specific function and is a combination of both hardware and firmware (software).
Every embedded system is unique, and the hardware as well as the firmware is highly
specialized to the application domain.
Embedded systems are becoming an inevitable part of any product or equipment in all fields
including household appliances, telecommunications, medical equipment, industrial control,
consumer
products, etc.
DVD Players
Industrial Robots GPS Receivers Digital Cameras
c
Embedded Systems
IT II .
Wireless Routers
Settop Boxes Gaming Consoles Photocopiers Microwave Ovens
3. EMBEDDED SYSTEMS vs. GENERAL COMPUTING SYSTEMS
• The computing revolution began with the general purpose computing requirements. Later it
was realized that the general computing requirements are not sufficient for the embedded
computing requirements.
• The embedded computing requirements demand 'something special' in terms of response to
stimuli, meeting the computational deadlines, power efficiency, memory availability, etc.
• The comparison of embedded system and general purpose computing system is described with
the help of a table shown.
• However, the demarcation between desktop systems and embedded systems in certain areas of
embedded applications are shrinking in certain contexts.Smart phones are typical examples of
this.
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• Nowadays smart phones are available with RAM up to 256 MB and users can extend most of
their desktop applications to the smart phones and it waives the clause “Embedded systems are
designed for a specific application” from the characteristics of the embedded system for the
mobile embedded device category.
• However, smart phones come with a built-in operating system and it is not modifiable by the
end user. It makes the clause: “The firmware of the embedded system is unalterable by the end
user”，still a valid clause in the mobile embedded device category.
4. HISTORY OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
• Embedded systems were in existence even before the IT revolution.
• In the olden days embedded systems were built around the old vacuum tube and transistor
technologies and the embedded algorithm was developed in low level languages.
• Advances in semiconductor and Nano-technology and IT revolution gave way to the
development of miniature embedded systems.
• The first recognized modem embedded system is the Apollo Guidance Computer (AGC)
developed by the MIT Instrumentation Laboratory for the lunar expedition. They ran the
inertial guidance systems of both the Command Module (CM) and. the Lunar Excursion
Module (LEM).
• The Command Module was designed to encircle the moon while the Lunar Module and its
crew were designed to go down to the moon surface and land there safely.
• The Lunar Module featured in total 18 engines. There were 16 reaction control thrusters, a
descent engine and an ascent engine. The descent engine was 'designed to' provide thrust to the
lunar module out of the lunar orbit and land it safely on the moon.
• MIT's original design was based on 4K words of fixed me mory (Read Only Memory) and 256
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words of erasable memory (Random Access Memory).
• By June 1963, the figures reached 10K of fixed and IK of erasable memory. The final
configuration was 36K words of fixed memory and 2K words of erasable memory.
• The clock frequency of the first microchip proto model used in AGC was 1.024 MHz and it
was derived from a 2.048 MHz crystal clock.
• The computing unit of AGC consisted of approximately 11 instructions and 16 bit word logic.
Around 5000 ICs (3-input NOR gates, RTL logic) supplied by Fairchild Semiconductor were
used in this design.
• The user interface unit of AGC is known as DSKY (display/keyboard).
• DSKY looked like a calculator type keypad with an array of numerals. It was used for
inputting the commands to the module numerically.
• The first mass-produced embedded system was the guidance computer for the Minuteman-I
missile in 1961.
• It was the ‘Autonetics D-l7 "guidance computer, built using discrete transistor logic and a
hard-disk for main memory.
• The first integrated circuit was produced in September 1958 but computers using them didn't
begin to appear until 1963.
• Some of their early uses were in embedded systems, notably used by NASA for the Apollo
Guidance Computer and by the US military in the Minuteman-II intercontinental ballistic
missile.
5. CLASSIFICATION OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
Embedded systems are classified based on different criteria. Some of the criteria used in the
classification of embedded systems are:
1. Based on generation
2. Complexity and performance requirements
3. Based on deterministic behavior
4. Based on triggering.
• The classification based on deterministic system behavior is applicable for "Real Time'
systems.
• The application/task execution behaviour for an embedded system can be either deterministic
or non-deterministic.
• Based on the execution behavior, Real Time embedded systems are classified into Hard and
Soft.
• Embedded Systems which are ‘Reactive' in nature (Like process control systems in industrial
control applications) can be classified based on the trigger.
• Reactive systems can be either event triggered or time triggered.
A. Classification Based on Generation.
This classification is based on the order in which the embedded processing systems evolved
from the first version to where they are today. As per this criterion, embedded systems can be
classified into:
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1. First Generation
• The early embedded systems were built around 8bit microprocessors like 8085 and Z80,
and 4bit microcontrollers.
• Simple in hardware circuits with firmware developed in Assembly code.
• Digital telephone keypads, stepper motor control units etc. are examples of this.
2. Second Generation
• These are embedded systems built around 16bit microprocessors and 8 or 16 bit
microcontrollers, following the first generation embedded systems.
• The instruction set for the second generation processors/controllers were much more
complex and powerful than the first generation processors/controllers.
• Some of the second generation embedded systems contained embedded operating
systems for their operation.
• Data Acquisition Systems, SCADA systems, etc. are examples of second generation
embedded systems.
3. Third Generation
• With advances in processor technology, embedded system developers started making use
of powerful 32bit processors and 16bit microcontrollers for their design.
• A new concept of application and domain specific processors/controllers like Digital
Signal Processors (DSP) and Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs) came into
the picture.
• The instruction set of processors became more complex and powerful and the concept of
instruction pipelining also evolved.
• The processor market was flooded with different types of processors from different
vendors.
• Processors like Intel Pentium, Motorola 68K, etc. gained attention in high performance
embedded requirements.
• Dedicated embedded real time and general purpose operating systems entered into the
embedded market. Embedded systems spread its ground to areas like robotics, media,
industrial process control, networking, etc.
4. Fourth Generation
• The advent of System on Chips (SoC), reconfigurable processors and multicore
processors are bringing high performance, tight integration and miniaturization into the
embedded device market.
• The SoC technique implements a total system on a chip by integrating different
functionalities with a processor core on an integrated circuit.
• The fourth generation embedded systems are making use of high performance real time
embedded operating systems for their functioning.
• Smart phone devices, mobile internet devices (MIDs), etc. are examples of fourth
generation embedded systems.
B. Classification Based on Complexity and Performance
This classification is based on the complexity and system performance requirements. According
to this classification, embedded systems can be grouped into:
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1. Small-Scale Embedded Systems
• Embedded systems which are simple in application needs and where the performance
requirements are not time critical fall under this category.
• An electronic toy is a typical example of a small-scale embedded system.
• Small-scale embedded systems are usually built around low performance and low
cost 8 or 16 bit microprocessors/microcontrollers.
• A small-scale embedded system may or may not contain an operating system for its
functioning.
2. Medium-Scale Embedded Systems
• Embedded systems which are slightly complex in hardware and firmware (software)
requirements fall under this category.
• Medium-scale embedded systems are usually built around medium performance, low
cost 16 or 32 bit microprocessors/microcontrollers or digital signal processors.
• They usually contain an embedded operating system (either generalpurpose or real
time operating system) for functioning.
3. Large-Scale Embedded Systems/Complex Systems
• Embedded systems which involve highly complex hardware and firmware
requirements fall under this category.
• They are employed in mission critical applications demanding high performance.
Such systems are commonly built around high performance 32 or 64 bit RISC
processors/controllers or Reconfigurable System on Chip (RSoC) or multi-core
processors and programmable logic devices.
• They may contain multiple processors/controllers and co-units/hardware accelerators
for offloading the processing requirements from the main processor of the system.
• Decoding/encoding of media, cryptographic function implementation, etc. are
examples for processing requirements which can be implemented using a co-
processor/hard- ware accelerator.
• Complex embedded systems usually contain a-high performance Real Time
Operating System (RTOS) for task scheduling, prioritization and management:
6. MAJOR APPLICATION AREAS OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
The application areas and the products in the embedded domain are countless. A few of the
important domains and products are listed below:
• Consumer electronics: Camcorders, cameras, etc.
• Household appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine, fridge, microwave oven,
etc.
• Home automation and security systems: Air conditioners, sprinklers, intruder detection
alarms, closed circuit television cameras, fire alarms, etc.
• Automotive industry: Anti-lock breaking systems (ABS), engine control, ignition systems,
automatic navigation systems, etc.
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• Telecom: Cellular telephones, telephone switches, handset multimedia applications, etc.
• Computer peripherals: Printers, scanners, fax machines, etc.
• Computer networking systems: Network routers, switches, hubs, firewalls, etc.
• Healthcare: Different kinds of scanners, EEG, ECG machines etc.
• Measurement & Instrumentation: Digital multi meters, digital CROs, logic analyzers PLC
systems, etc.
• Banking & Retail: Automatic teller machines (ATM) and currency counters, point of sales
(POS)
• Card Readers: Barcode, smart card readers, hand held devices, etc.
• Wearable Devices: Health and fitness trackers, smartphone screen extension for notification.
• Cloud computing and Internet of things (IOT).
7. PURPOSE OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS
• Embedded systems are used in various domains like consumer electronics, home automation,
telecommunications, automotive industry, healthcare, control & instrumentation, retail and
banking applications, etc.
• Within the domain itself, according to the application usage context, they may have different
functionalities.
• Each embedded system is designed to serve the purpose of any one or a combination of the
following tasks.
1. Data collection/Storage/Representation
2. Data communication
3. Data (signal) processing
4. Monitoring
5. Control
6. Application specific user interface
A. Data collection/Storage/Representation
• An embedded system designed for the purpose of data collection performs acquisition of data
from the external world.
• Data collection is usually done for storage, analysis, manipulation and transmission.
• The term “data” refers all kinds of information, viz. text, voice, image, video, electrical
signals and any other measurable quantities.
• Data can be either analog (continuous) or digital (discrete).
• Embedded systems with analog data capturing techniques collect data directly in the form of
analog signals.
• Embedded systems with digital data collection mechanism converts the analog signal to
corresponding digital signal using analog to digital (A/D) converters and then collects the
binary equivalent of the analog data. If the data is digital, it can be directly captured without
any additional interface by digital embedded systems.
• The collected data may be stored directly in the system or maybe transmitted to some other
systems or it may be processed by the system or it may be deleted instantly after giving a
meaningful representation.
• These actions are purely dependent on the purpose for which the embedded system is
designed.
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• Embedded systems designed for pure measurement applications without storage, used in
control and instrumentation domain collects data and gives a meaningful representation of the
collected data by means of graphical representation or quantity value and deletes the collected
data when new data arrives at the data collection terminal.
• Analog and digital CROs without storage memory are typical examples of this. Any
measuring equipment used in the medical domain for monitoring without storage
functionality also comes under this category.
• Some embedded systems store the collected data for processing and analysis. Such systems
incorporate a built-in/plug-in storage memory for storing the captured data.
• Some of them give the user a meaningful representation of the collected data by visual
(graphical/quantitative) or audible means using display units [Liquid Crystal Display (LCD),
Light Emitting Diode (LED), etc.] buzzers, alarms, etc.
• Examples are: measuring instruments with storage memory and monitoring instruments with
storage memory used in medical applications. Certain embedded systems store the data and
will not give a representation of the same to the user, whereas the data is used for internal
processing.
Fig: digital camera for image capture/storage/display.
• A digital camera is a typical example of an embedded system with data collection/storage/
representation of data. Images are captured and the captured image may be stored within the
memory of the camera. The captured image can also be presented to the user through a
graphic LCD unit.
B. Data communication
• Embedded data communication systems are deployed in applications ranging from complex
satellite communication systems to simple home networking systems.
• As mentioned earlier the data collected by an embedded terminal may require transferring of
the same to some other system located remotely. The transmission is achieved either by a
wire-line medium or by a wireless medium.
• Wire-line medium was the most common choice in all olden days embedded systems. As
technology is changing, wireless medium is becoming the de-facto standard for data
communication in embedded systems.
• A wireless medium offers cheaper connectivity solutions and make the communication link
free from the hassle of wire bundles.
• Data can either be transmitted by analog means or by digital means. Modem industry trends
are settling towards digital communication.
• The data collecting embedded terminal itself can incorporate data communication units like
wireless modules (Bluetooth, ZigBee, Wi-Fi, EDGE, GPRS, etc.) or wire-line modules (RS-
232C, USB, TCP/IP, PS2, etc.).
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• Certain embedded systems act as a dedicated transmission unit between the sending and
receiving terminals, offering sophisticated functionalities like data packetizing, encrypting
and decrypting.
• Network hubs, routers, switches, etc. are typical examples of dedicated data transmission
embedded systems. They act as mediators in data communication and provide various
features like data security, monitoring etc.
Fig: Router, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi
C. Data (Signal) Processing
• The data (voice, image, video, electrical signals and other measurable quantities) collected by
embedded systems may be used for various kinds of data processing.
• Embedded systems with signal processing functionalities are employed in applications
demanding signal processing like speech coding, synthesis, audio video codec, transmission
applications, etc.
• A digital hearing aid is a typical example of an embedded system employing data processing.
• Digital hearing aid improves the hearing capacity of hearing impaired persons.
Fig: A digital hearing aid having signal processing.
D. Monitoring
•Embedded systems falling under this category are specifically designed for monitoring
purpose.
• Almost all embedded products coming under the medical domain are with monitoring
functions only. They are used for determining the state of some variables using input sensors.
• They cannot impose control over variables.
• A very good example is the electro cardiogram (ECG) machine for monitoring the heartbeat
of a patient. The machine is intended to do the monitoring of the heartbeat. It cannot impose
control over the heartbeat. The sensors used in ECG are the different electrodes connected to
the patient's body.
• Some other examples are digital CRO, digital multimeters, logic analyzers, etc. used in
Control & Instrumentation applications.
• They are used for knowing (monitoring) the status of some variables like current, voltage, etc.
They cannot control the variables in turn.
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Fig: Monitoring devices
E. Control
• Embedded systems with control functionalities impose control over some variables according
to the changes in input variables.A system with control functionality contains both sensors
and actuators.
• Sensors are connected to the input port for capturingthe changes in environmental variable or
measuring variable. The actuators connected to the output port are controlled according to the
changes in input variable to put an impact on the controlling variable to bring the controlled
variable to the specified range.
• Air conditioner system used in our home to control the room temperature to a specified limit
is a typical example for embedded system for control purpose.
• An air conditioner contains a room temperature sensing element (sensor) which may be a
thermistor and a handheld unit for setting up (feeding) the desired temperature.
• The handheld unit may be connected to the central embedded unit residing inside the air
conditioner through a wireless link or through a wired link.
• The air compressor unit acts as the actuator. The compressor is controlled according to the
current room temperature and the desired temperature set by the end user.
• Here the input variable is the current room temperature and the controlled variable is also the
room temperature.
• The controlling variable is cool air flow by the compressor unit. If the controlled variable and
input variable are not at the same value, the controlling variable tries to equalize them
through taking actions on the cool air flow.
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Fig: An Air conditioner for controlling room temperature. Embedded System with Control
Functionality.
F. Application Specific User Interface
• These are embedded systems with application-specific user interfaces like buttons, switches,
keypad, lights, bells, display units, etc.
• Mobile phone is an example for this. In mobile phone the user interface is provided through
the keypad, graphic LCD module, system speaker, vibration alert, etc.
Fig: An embedded system with an application-specific user interface
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